1 Psychology 320: Psychology of Gender and Sex Differences February 7 Lecture 46.

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Psychology 320: Psychology of Gender and Sex Differences

February 7

Lecture 46

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Office Hour InvitationsFebruary 7, 11:30-2:30, Kenny 3102

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A little R&R ….(Review and Reflect)

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Education, Careers and Work

3. Do females and males value similar job characteristics?

2. How do females and males divide occupational and domestic labour?

1. What sex differences in education have been found in other countries? (continued)

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By the end of today’s class, you should be able to:

1. discuss cultural variation in access to education for females and males.

2. discuss the social benefits associated with educating females in developing countries.

3. review recommendations to increase educational opportunities for females in developing countries.

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5. explain the phenomenon of “deviance neutralization.”

6. discuss sex similarities and differences in preferred job characteristics.

4. describe contemporary employment rates and domestic labour contributions among females and males.

7. review Major and Konar’s model of sex differences in salary expectations.

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What sex differences in education have been found in other countries? (continued)

Country Ratio of Girls to Boys

Afghanistan 45.6

Bangladesh 104.7

Bulgaria 97.5

Cambodia 83.9

Canada 99.8

Ethiopia 69.0

Ghana 88.6

India 78.6

Iraq 76.3

Morocco 85.1

Nicaragua 105.3

Nigeria 80.0

United States 100.4

Yemen 55.6

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Ratio of Girls to Boys Enrolled in Primary and Secondary Education Around the World (World Bank, 2002)

Country Percent Female

Argentina 59

Australia 54

Canada 56

Ethiopia 26

India 39

Iran 49

Israel 56

Japan 45

Kenya 34

Morocco 44

Russia 57

Saudi Arabia 58

Turkey 41

United States 56

Vietnam 429

Percentage of All College and University Students Who are Female Across the World (United Nations, 2005)

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• Many societal benefits arise from the education of females (e.g., healthier offspring, reduced gender inequality).

• The UN Children’s Fund (2007) suggests the following strategies to enhance educational access for females in developing countries:

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1. Build more schools, especially in rural areas.

2. Lower costs of educating children.

3. Teach parents about the importance of educating girls.

4. Provide programs to prevent teenage pregnancy.

5. Encourage teen mothers to stay in school.

6. Attach day-care centres to schools.

7. Recruit more female teachers.

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How do females and males divide occupational and domestic labour?

• Over the past several decades, women’s participation in the paid labour force has increased steadily.

• Today, women comprise 48% of the Canadian labour force (Statistics Canada, 2010).

• 66% of these women have children under the age of 3.

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10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1979 1989 1999 2009

Female

Male

Women and Men as a Percentage of Total Employment (Almey, 2006; Statistics Canada, 2010)

Per

cent

age

of T

otal

Em

ploy

men

t

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0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1976 1986 1996 2006

Percentage of Women with Children Under the Age of Three Who Are Employed (Almey, 2006; Ferrao, 2010)

Per

cent

age

Em

ploy

ed

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• Nevertheless:

females are more likely than males to be employed in part-time positions: 70% of part-time workers are female (Almey, 2006; Ferrao, 2010).

females are less likely than males to be employed: 58% of Canadian women vs. 65% of Canadian men are employed (Ferrao, 2010).

few males—7%—assume the role of “househusband” (Smith, 2007).

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occupations are segregated on the basis of sex.

females are more likely than males to perform domestic activities (e.g., housework), irrespective of

their employment status.

Occupation Percent Female

Accountants, auditors 62

Nurses 92

Teachers (non-college, non-university) 73

Social workers 82

Health Technicians 76

Secretaries 97

Household service 89

Engineers 14

Mathematicians, computer scientists 27

Chemists, material scientists 41

Mechanics 9

Construction 9

Firefighter 5

Police, detectives 23

Percent Women in Various Occupations (US Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2008)

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0.2

0.3

0.4

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-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1

Wives

Husbands

Pro

port

ion

of H

ouse

hold

Lab

our

Wife’s Economic Dependence (-1=High, 1=Low)

Proportion of Household Labour Performed as a Function of Sex and Economic Dependence

(Greenstein, 2000)

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“Breadwinner” wives do more domestic work than wives who earn salaries similar to their husbands.

Economically-dependent husbands do less domestic work than husbands who earn salaries similar to their wives.

Explanation: Deviance neutralization (Greenstein, 2000; also see Ortega & Tanaka, 2004).

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Do females and males value similar job characteristics?

• A meta-analytic study (Konrad et al., 2000; also see Hofstede, 2001, 2010) has investigated the job

characteristics valued by females and males:

Sex Differences in Preferences for Job Characteristics (Konrad et al., 2000)

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• Consistent with the sex difference for the value placed on “earnings,” research has shown that females have lower salary expectations than males:

Females Males

Business administration Entry pay Peak pay

36,60073,000

45,600129,400

Biology Entry pay Peak pay

49,90082,600

77,000179,000

English Entry pay Peak pay

24,80045,300

25,80088,400

Psychology Entry pay Peak pay

32,10060,400

32,60060,700

Overall Entry pay Peak pay

34,60064,600

42,900108,600

Expected Salary by Sex (Heckert et al., 2002)

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• Major and Konar (1984) suggest that four factors account for the lower salary expectations of females

in relation to males:

Sex

Importance of Earnings

Pay Expectations

Major and Konar’s (1984) Model of Sex Differences in Salary Expectations

Career Path Factors

Job Input Factors

Social Comparison Standards

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By the end of today’s class, you should be able to:

1. discuss cultural variation in access to education for females and males.

2. discuss the social benefits associated with educating females in developing countries.

3. review recommendations to increase educational opportunities for females in developing countries.

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5. explain the phenomenon of “deviance neutralization.”

6. discuss sex similarities and differences in preferred job characteristics.

4. describe contemporary employment rates and domestic labour contributions among females and males.

7. review Major and Konar’s model of sex differences in salary expectations.