1 Process Description and Control Chapter 2
Mar 26, 2015
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Process Description and Control
Chapter 2
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Process A program in execution An instance of a program running on a
computer The entity that can be assigned to and
executed on a processor A unit of activity characterized by the
execution of a sequence of instructions, a current state, and an associated set of system instructions
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Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task CPU, memory, I/O, files Initialization data
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
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Process Management
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next instruction to execute Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a
time, until completion Multi-threaded process has one program
counter per thread Typically system has many processes, some
user, some operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the
processes / threads
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Process Elements Identifier State Priority Program counter Memory pointers Context data I/O status information Accounting information
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Process Control Block Contains the process elements Created and managed by the operating
system Allows support for multiple processes
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Process Control Block
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Trace of Process Sequence of instruction that execute for a
process Dispatcher switches the processor from
one process to another
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Example Execution
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Trace of Processes
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Assume OS only allows execution of 6 instructions before interrupt
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CPU Switch From Process to Process
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Context Switch
When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the state of the old process and load the saved state for the new process
Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful work while switching
Time dependent on hardware support
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Two-State Process Model
Process may be in one of two states Running Not-running
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Not-Running Process in a Queue
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Processes
Not-runningready to execute
Blockedwaiting for I/O
Dispatcher cannot just select the process that has been in the queue the longest because it may be blocked
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A Five-State Model
Running Ready Blocked New Exit
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Five-State Process Model
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Five State Model Transition
NULL----NEW: A new process is created due to any of the four reasons described in the creation of processes (New batch Job, Interactive logon, To provide service & Spawning).
NEW-----READY: Operating system moves a process from new state to ready state, when it is prepared to accept an additional process. There could be limit on number of processes to be admitted to the ready state.
READY---RUNNING: Any process can be moved from ready to running state when ever it is scheduled.
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Five State Model Transition
RUNNING----EXIT: The currently running process is terminated if it has signaled its completion or it is aborted.
RUNNING----READY:
The most commonly known situation is that currently running process has taken its share of time for execution (Time out). Also, in some events a process may have to be admitted from running to ready if a high priority process has occurred.
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Five State Model Transition
RUNNING----BLOCKED:
A process is moved to the blocked state, if it has requested some data for which it may have to wait. For example the process may have requested a resource such as data file or shared data from virtual memory, which is not ready at that time.
BLOCKED---READY:
A process is moved to the ready state, if the event for which it is waiting has occurred.
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Five State Model TransitionThere are two more transition but are not shown for clarity.
READY----EXIT:
This is the case for example a parent process has generated a single or multiple children processes & they are in the ready state. Now during the execution of the process it may terminate any child process, therefore, it will directly go to exit state.
BLOCKED----EXIT:
Similarly as above, during the execution of a parent process any child process waiting for an event to occur may directly go to exit if the parent itself terminates.
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Process States
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Using Two Queues
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Multiple Blocked Queues
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Ready Queue And Various I/O Device Queues
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Suspended Processes
Processor is faster than I/O so all processes could be waiting for I/O
Swap these processes to disk to free up more memory
Blocked state becomes suspend state when swapped to disk
Two new states Blocked/Suspend Ready/Suspend
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One Suspend State
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Reasons for Process Suspension
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Processes and Resources
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Process Image (in Memory)Contains temporary data (function var, return address, local var)
(optional) Memory dynamically allocated during process runtime
Contains global var
Program code
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Process Image
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Process Creation Assign a unique process identifier Allocate space for the process Initialize process control block Set up appropriate linkages
Ex: add new process to linked list used for scheduling queue
Create of expand other data structuresEx: maintain an accounting file
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Process Creation
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Process Creation Parent process create children processes,
which, in turn create other processes, forming a tree of processes
Resource sharing Parent and children share all resources Children share subset of parent’s resources Parent and child share no resources
Execution Parent and children execute concurrently Parent waits until children terminate
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Process Termination Process executes last statement and asks the operating
system to delete it (exit) Output data from child to parent (via wait) Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system
Parent may terminate execution of children processes (abort) Child has exceeded allocated resources Task assigned to child is no longer required If parent is exiting
Some operating system do not allow child to continue if its parent terminates
All children terminated - cascading termination
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Process Termination
Reasons for process termination
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Process Termination
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Modes of Execution User mode
Less-privileged modeUser programs typically execute in this mode
System mode, control mode, or kernel modeMore-privileged modeKernel of the operating system
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When to Switch a Process
Clock interruptprocess has executed for the maximum
allowable time slice I/O interrupt Memory fault
memory address is in virtual memory so it must be brought into main memory
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When to Switch a Process
Traperror or exception occurredmay cause process to be moved to Exit state
Supervisor callsuch as file open
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Change of Process State Save context of processor including program
counter and other registers Update the process control block of the
process that is currently in the Running state Move process control block to appropriate
queue – ready; blocked; ready/suspend Select another process for execution Update the process control block of the
process selected Update memory-management data structures Restore context of the selected process
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Cooperating Processes
Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of another process
Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of another process
Advantages of process cooperation Information sharing Computation speed-up Modularity Convenience
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Interprocess Communication (IPC)
Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their actions
Message system – processes communicate with each other without resorting to shared variables
IPC facility provides two operations: send(message) – message size fixed or variable receive(message)
If P and Q wish to communicate, they need to: establish a communication link between them exchange messages via send/receive
Implementation of communication link physical (e.g., shared memory, hardware bus) logical (e.g., logical properties)
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Direct Communication Processes must name each other explicitly:
send (P, message) – send a message to process P
receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q
Properties of communication link Links are established automatically A link is associated with exactly one pair of
communicating processes Between each pair there exists exactly one link The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-
directional
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Indirect Communication Messages are directed and received from
mailboxes (also referred to as ports) Each mailbox has a unique id Processes can communicate only if they share a
mailbox
Properties of communication link Link established only if processes share a common
mailbox A link may be associated with many processes Each pair of processes may share several comm. links Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional
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Indirect Communication Operations
create a new mailbox send and receive messages through mailbox destroy a mailbox
Primitives are defined as:
send(A, message) – send a message to mailbox A
receive(A, message) – receive a message from mailbox A
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Indirect Communication Mailbox sharing
P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A
P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive
Who gets the message?
Solutions Allow a link to be associated with at most two
processes Allow only one process at a time to execute a
receive operation Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver.
Sender is notified who the receiver was.
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Synchronization Message passing may be either blocking or
non-blocking Blocking is considered synchronous
Blocking send has the sender block until the message is received
Blocking receive has the receiver block until a message is available
Non-blocking is considered asynchronous Non-blocking send has the sender send the
message and continue Non-blocking receive has the receiver receive a
valid message or null
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Threads Resource ownership - process includes a virtual
address space to hold the process image Scheduling/execution- follows an execution path
that may be interleaved with other processes These two characteristics are treated
independently by the operating system Dispatching is referred to as a thread or
lightweight process Resource of ownership is referred to as a
process or task
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Multithreading Operating system supports multiple threads of
execution within a single process MS-DOS supports a single thread UNIX supports multiple user processes but only
supports one thread per process Windows, Solaris, Linux, Mach, and OS/2
support multiple threads
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Process
Have a virtual address space which holds the process image
Protected access to processors, other processes, files, and I/O resources
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Thread An execution state (running, ready, etc.) Saved thread context when not running Has an execution stack Some per-thread static storage for local
variables Access to the memory and resources of its
process all threads of a process share this
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Benefits of Threads
Takes less time to create a new thread than a process
Less time to terminate a thread than a process Less time to switch between two threads within
the same process Since threads within the same process share
memory and files, they can communicate with each other without invoking the kernel
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Uses of Threads in a Single-User Multiprocessing System
Foreground to background work Asynchronous processing Speed of execution Modular program structure
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Threads
Suspending a process involves suspending all threads of the process since all threads share the same address space
Termination of a process, terminates all threads within the process
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Thread States
States associated with a change in thread stateSpawn
Spawn another thread
BlockUnblockFinish
Deallocate register context and stacks
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Remote Procedure Call Using Single Thread
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Remote Procedure Call Using Threads
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Multithreading
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User-Level Threads All thread management is done by the application The kernel is not aware of the existence of threads
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Kernel-Level Threads
Windows is an example of this approach Kernel maintains context information for the
process and the threads Scheduling is done on a thread basis
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Kernel-Level ThreadsThis approach overcome the two principal
drawbacks of ULT approach The kernel can simultaneously schedule
threads on different processors If one thread of a process is blocked it can
schedule another thread of the same process
The disadvantage is Transfer of control from one thread to
another thread within the same process requires mode switching
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Combined Approaches Example is Solaris Thread creation done in the user space Bulk of scheduling and synchronization of threads
within application
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Combined Approaches -Adv
Multiple threads within the same application can run concurrently on a number of processors.
Blocking system calls need not block theentire process.