1 /o/ ~ /oh/ Skewed opposition depending on length Low back merger Increase phonetic distance Northe rn Cities Shift Pittsbu rgh chain shift Canadia n Shift Back vowel shift Back upglid e chain shift Inland North: front /o/ Eastern seaboard: raise /oh/ South: add upglide The Life History of Linguistic Change William Labov, University of Pennsylvania ICHL Montreal August 2007
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1 /o/ ~ /oh/ Skewed opposition depending on length Low back mergerIncrease phonetic distance Northern Cities Shift Pittsburgh chain shift Canadian Shift.
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1
/o/ ~ /oh/Skewed opposition depending on length
Low back merger Increase phonetic distance
Northern Cities Shift
Pittsburgh chain shift
Canadian Shift
Back vowel shift
Back upglide chain shift
Inland North: front /o/
Eastern seaboard: raise /oh/
South: add upglide
The Life History of Linguistic Change
William Labov, University of Pennsylvania
ICHL Montreal August 2007
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www.ling.upenn.edu/~labov
3
A sequence of linguistic changes
Unstable condition
A B
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
A’ B’
Causally linked
Contingent alternatives
Triggering event
4
Components of a sequence of linguistic changes
1. Triggering events: the first in the chain of causally connected events
2. Governing principles: constraints that determine the unidirectional character of changes
3. Forks in the road: alternate pathways of change that differentiate sister dialects
4. Driving forces: factors that lead to the continued incrementation of the changes
5. Re-analysis: the process that leads to the uniform distribution of the changes across the speech community.
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Two ways of looking at the problems of language change
1. The actuation problem
2. Constraints problem
3. The transition problem
4. The embedding problem
5. The evaluation problem
Triggering events
Governing principles
Forks in the road
Driving forces
Re-analysis
Weinreich, Labov & Herzog 1968
Accounting for changes
This presentation
Accounting for sequences of changes
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ANAE notation for the word classes of North American English
LONG
Upgliding
SHORT
Front upgliding Back upgliding
Ingliding
V Vy Vw Vh
nucleus front back front back front back unrounded rounded
high i u iy iw uw
mid e √ ey oy ow oh
low Q o ay aw ah
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ANAE notation aligned with JC Wells’ word classes for American English
LONG
Upgliding
SHORT
Front upgliding Back upgliding
Ingliding
V Vy Vw Vh
nucleus front back front back front back unrounded rounded
high i KIT
u FOOT
iy FLEECE
uw GOOSE
mid e
DRESS √
STRUT ey
FACE oy
CHOICE ow
GOAT ´ h
NURSE oh
THOUGHT low æ
TRAP O
LOT ay
PRICE aw
MOUTH ah
PA LM
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Triggering events
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The Canadian Shift in the vowel system of Marsha M., 24 [1997], Montreal, TS659
backing of /æ/
lowering of /e/
merger of /o/ and /oh
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The Canadian Shift in the vowel system of Hubert B., 17, Toronto, TS798
backing of /æ/
lowering of /e/
merger of /o/ and /oh
11
500
550
600
650
700
750
800
850
1000120014001600180020002200
F2
F1Canadian
All others
/i/
/e/
/æ/ /o/
Source: The Atlas of North American English
The Canadian Shift: mean values of Canadian Telsur subjects [N=25] compared to all others [N=414].
12
The Canadian Shift nested in the Low Back Merger area (ANAE Map 11.7)
Low back merger isogloss
13
The Canadian Shift
12
3
14
The low back merger of /o/ and /oh/ in cot and caught, etc. (ANAE Map 9.1)
Phonemes co-existing in a language tend naturally to optimize
the possibilities that are available from the speech organs; they
tend to be as distant from their neighbors as possible while
remaining easy to articulate and easy to perceive. . .
Martinet 1955:62 (tr. WL), attributed to de Groot TCLP 1931:121
Martinet on maximal dispersion
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/æ/ /o/ /oh/
A stable distribution of English low vowels: an outlier not recognized as a member of the /æ/ distribution
mean F2 1700 Hz
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/æ/ /o/ /oh/
A stable distribution of English low vowels: an outlier not recognized as a member of the /æ/ distribution
mean F2 1700 Hz
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An unstable distribution of English low vowels: /o/ merged with /oh/ so that the /æ/ outlier affects the central tendency of /æ/,
/æ/ /o=oh/
mean F2 1650 Hz
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The Canadian Shift across subsystems
/e/
/æ/ /o/
/oh/
Short vowels
Long and ingliding vowels
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A linguistic sequence 1
/oh/ ~ /o/
Merge /o/ --> /oh/
Canadian Shift
e
æoh
o
Unidirectional
Unidirectional
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Forks in the road
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Forks in the road of the Canadian Shift
/e/
/æ/ /o/
/oh// /
/i/ /u/
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The Pittsburgh Shift in the vowel system of Ken K., 35, TS 258
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The Pittsburgh Shift in a Plotnik display of means of 21 dialectsPI = Pittsburgh; WPA = Western Pennsylvania; CA = Canada; IN = Inland North; M =
Midland; MA = Mid-Atlantic; PR = Providence; IS = Inland South
low back merger
lowering of /^/
no backing of /æ/
backing of /æ/
no lowering of /^/
,CA
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A linguistic sequence 2
/oh/ ~ /o/
Merge /o/ --> /oh/
Pittsburgh Shift
Canadian Shift
e
æoh
o
oho
Unidirectional
Unidirectional
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
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A linguistic sequence 3
/oh/ ~ /o/
Merge /o/ --> /oh/
Pittsburgh Shift
Canadian Shift
e
æoh
o
oho
unround-ing /o/
Unidirectional
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
37
Unrounding of /o/ in Western New England
Boston
Burlington
Rutland Manchester
F2(o) < 1300 Hz
F2(o) >= 1300 Hz
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The merger of /o/ and /ah/
/oh/
OE aw
OE au OE ah
OE eahOF au a+u
OF an
ME avOE oht
ME a:u
EME ç:
ME ç:u
off cloth loss lost strong song ….
father
pa ma spa bra hah
calm palm
llama pasta taco Scarlatti Rama pajama Obama Bach Iraq …..
half bath past aunt dance …..
/ah/
EME A:
ME
çXtsalve halve
/o/ [A]
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A linguistic sequence 3
/oh/ ~ /o/ ~ /ah/
Merge /o/ --> /oh/
Merge /o/ --> /ah/
Pittsburgh Shift
Canadian Shift
e
æoh
o
oho
unround-ing /o/
Unidirectional
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
UnidirectionalUnidirectional
Bidirectional
balm = bomb father = bother
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A linguistic sequence 3
/oh/ ~ /o/ ~ /ah/
Merge /o/ --> /oh/
Merge /o/ --> /ah/
Pittsburgh Shift
Canadian Shift
e
æoh
o
oho
unround-ing /o/
Unidirectional
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
UnidirectionalUnidirectional
Bidirectional
Inland North: fronting of /o, ah/
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Fronting of /o,ah/ in the Inland North (ANAE Map 14.5).
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Ked
cud
ahcodcad
cawed
The Northern Cities Shift
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The Northern Cities Shift
head
desk
bosses
busses
block
socks
mat
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A linguistic sequence
/oh/ ~ /o/ ~ /ah/
Merge /o/ --> /oh/
Merge /o/ --> /ah/
Northern Cities Shift
Pittsburgh Shift
Canadian Shift Inland
North: fronting of /o, ah/
e
æoh
o
oho
e
æh
oh
ah
unround-ing /o/
Unidirectional
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
UnidirectionalUnidirectional
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
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Raising of /oh/ in the Mid-Atlantic States: Providence to Baltimore
Magenta symbols: F1(oh) < 700 Hz
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A linguistic sequence 4
/oh/ ~ /o/ ~ /ah/
Merge /o/ --> /oh/
Merge /o/ --> /ah/
Northern Cities Shift
Pittsburgh Shift
Canadian Shift
Back vowel shift
Inland North: front /ah/
Eastern seaboard: raise /oh/
e
æoh
o
oho
e
æ
oh
ah
ah(r)
oh(r)
unround-ing /o/
Unidirectional
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
UnidirectionalUnidirectional
Unidirectional
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
Bidirectional
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Three areas of resistance to the low back merger (ANAE Map 11.2)
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A linguistic sequence 5
/oh/ ~ /o/ ~ /ah/
Merge /o/ --> /oh/
Merge /o/ --> /ah/
Northern Cities Shift
Pittsburgh Shift
Canadian Shift
Back vowel shift
Back upglide chain shift
Inland North: front /ah/
Eastern seaboard: raise /oh/
South: add upglide to /oh/
e
æoh
o
oho
e
æ
oh
ah
ah(r)
oh(r)
oh [ç:]
awæw
unround-ing /o/Unidirectional
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
UnidirectionalUnidirectional
Bidirectional
Unidirectional
Unidirectional
Unidirectional
Bidirectional
Bidirectional
round-ing /o/
[ço]
[Ao]
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Merger of /o/ and /oh/ in cot and caught, Don and dawn, hock and hawk
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NCS
Back Vowel Shift
Back Upglide Shift
NCS
Alternatives to the low back merger
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NCS
Back Vowel Shift
Back Upglide Shift
Pitts-burgh Shift
NCS
Low back merger and alternatives to the low back merger
Canadidn Shift
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Driving forces
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
œ o oh e U
Percent advanced tokens
Male Jocks
Male Burnouts
Female Jocks
Female Burnouts
Source: Eckert 2000
Gender and social category determination of five elements of the Northern City Shift in a Detroit suburban high school
æ
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Age * Female Years of 25 yrs Gender Education
Raising /æ/ 34* 8.6*
/e/-/æ/ reversal 34* 26*
/e/-/o/ alignment 112***
/^/-/o/ reversal 37 -16*
Social correlates of four measures of the Northern Cities Shift [N=71]
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Three areas of resistance to the low back merger
St. Louis corridor
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The St. Louis corridor along Interstate I-55
Fairbury
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Fronting of /o,ah/ in the Inland North (ANAE Map 14.5).
9 Telsur speakers from No. Illinois
9 Telsur speakers from the St. Louis corridor
*** ***** ***
*******
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Distribution of NCS measures in No. Illinois and the St. Louis corridor
Northern Illinois AE1 O2 EAQ EOD UD Age RankSterling IL 34 1Elgin IL SS 19 1Elign IL RS 42 1Joliet IL 30 1Rockford JG 37 2Belvidere IL 33 2
Hammond IN 45 3Rockford IL VS 65 4Lena IL 47 5St. Louis Corridor Corr 0.738St. Louis MH 48 1St. Louis JH2 57 2Fairbury IL 25 3Springfield AK 60 4Bloomington 27 5Springfield KR 32 6Springfield WK 67 6St. Louis JH 53 6St. Louis RM 38 6