1 Language and Culture in Taiwan Written by Tien, Ching-Yi Sep 15, 2008.

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Language and Culture in Language and Culture in TaiwanTaiwan

Written by Tien, Ching-YiWritten by Tien, Ching-YiSep 15, 2008Sep 15, 2008

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OverviewOverview

• Socio-historical ContextSocio-historical Context

• Ethnic Groups, Population and Ethnic Groups, Population and Language UseLanguage Use

• Taiwan’s Colonial HistoryTaiwan’s Colonial History

• The KMT GovernmentThe KMT Government

• Language PolicyLanguage Policy

• Chapter Summary Chapter Summary

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SOCIO-HISTORICAL SOCIO-HISTORICAL CONTEXTCONTEXT Archaeologists have found evidence that Archaeologists have found evidence that

the earliest inhabitants of Taiwan date back the earliest inhabitants of Taiwan date back 12,000 or 15,000 years. The descendants of 12,000 or 15,000 years. The descendants of these early settlers now comprise less than these early settlers now comprise less than two percent of the total population. Since two percent of the total population. Since the 17th century, the Portuguese, Dutch, the 17th century, the Portuguese, Dutch, Spanish, Japanese and Mainland Chinese Spanish, Japanese and Mainland Chinese have arrived in Taiwan and brought their have arrived in Taiwan and brought their cultures and languages to the island. cultures and languages to the island.

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Ethnic Groups, Population and Ethnic Groups, Population and Language UseLanguage Use

• The earliest census for Taiwan, in The earliest census for Taiwan, in 1905, put the population at 3.12 1905, put the population at 3.12 million (Yearbook 2003). Nearly a million (Yearbook 2003). Nearly a century later, Taiwan has one of the century later, Taiwan has one of the highest population total in southern highest population total in southern Asia with a population of nearly 23 Asia with a population of nearly 23 million people, comprised of four million people, comprised of four major ethnolinguistic groups.major ethnolinguistic groups.

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• The first group is the early settlers, The first group is the early settlers, which make up less than two percent of which make up less than two percent of the population. Nowadays these people the population. Nowadays these people are known as aborigines. The evidence are known as aborigines. The evidence of earliest habitants in Taiwan dates of earliest habitants in Taiwan dates back to between 12,000 and 15,000 back to between 12,000 and 15,000 years. The settlers arriving from at years. The settlers arriving from at least two places: southern China and least two places: southern China and Austronesia. Austronesia.

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• There are currently eleven major surviving There are currently eleven major surviving indigenous groups and their languages indigenous groups and their languages and cultures are recognized as Malay-and cultures are recognized as Malay-Polynesian (Austronesian): the Amis, Polynesian (Austronesian): the Amis, Atayal, Bunun, Kavalan, Paiwan, Atayal, Bunun, Kavalan, Paiwan, PinuyumaPinuyumayanyan, Rukai, Saisiyat, Thao, , Rukai, Saisiyat, Thao, Truku, Tsou, YamTruku, Tsou, Yami i and and SakizayaSakizaya. . In 2006, the total indigenoIn 2006, the total indigenous population was nearly 475,000. us population was nearly 475,000. Of this Of this number, around 40,000 have not identified thenumber, around 40,000 have not identified themselves as belonging to a particular group. mselves as belonging to a particular group.

• 賽德克族正式成為台灣原住民族第賽德克族正式成為台灣原住民族第 1414 族 族 (5/8/20(5/8/2008).08).

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阿美

泰雅

布農

噶瑪蘭

排灣

卑南

魯凱

賽夏

鄒語

雅美

邵語

太魯閣

賽德克

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• The second ethnolingistic group, The second ethnolingistic group, comprising approximately 70 percent comprising approximately 70 percent of Taiwan’s population, is Hoklo (also of Taiwan’s population, is Hoklo (also called southern Min or Taiwanese) who called southern Min or Taiwanese) who emigrated from China’s coastal emigrated from China’s coastal provinces of Fujian in the 16th century. provinces of Fujian in the 16th century. The southern Min language is also The southern Min language is also known as Hokkien, Tai-yu or known as Hokkien, Tai-yu or Taiwanese. Taiwanese.

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• The third ethnolinguistic group is The third ethnolinguistic group is Hakka, whose ancestors emigrated Hakka, whose ancestors emigrated from China’s coastal provinces of from China’s coastal provinces of Guandong in the 16th century. It Guandong in the 16th century. It comprises approximately 15 percent comprises approximately 15 percent of Taiwan’s population.of Taiwan’s population.

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• The last ethnolinguistic group are The last ethnolinguistic group are known as ‘mainlanders’: those known as ‘mainlanders’: those people who emigrated from Mainland people who emigrated from Mainland China in or around 1949, now China in or around 1949, now comprising approximately 13 percent comprising approximately 13 percent of the country’s population. of the country’s population.

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• The Ministry of Education (MOE) is The Ministry of Education (MOE) is outlining a language equality law that outlining a language equality law that aims to preserve the fourteen major aims to preserve the fourteen major languages and dialects spoken in languages and dialects spoken in Taiwan: Mandarin, Taiwanese, Hakka, Taiwan: Mandarin, Taiwanese, Hakka, and fourteen indigenous languages, and fourteen indigenous languages, which are collectively classified as which are collectively classified as ‘Formosan’ (Yearbook, 2008) (cf. ‘Formosan’ (Yearbook, 2008) (cf. Ethnologue, 2001). Ethnologue, 2001).

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Taiwan’s Colonial HistoryTaiwan’s Colonial History

• Contact with colonial powers can be Contact with colonial powers can be broken down into four phases. Each of broken down into four phases. Each of these phases left some influence on the these phases left some influence on the economic and linguistic climate in economic and linguistic climate in Taiwan. Taiwan.

• The first phase is the Portuguese, the The first phase is the Portuguese, the second phase is the Dutch, the third second phase is the Dutch, the third phase is the Spanish, and the fourth phase is the Spanish, and the fourth phase is the Japanese. phase is the Japanese.

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Phase OnePhase One

• The natural beauty of the island attracted The natural beauty of the island attracted the first European arrivals, the Portuguese, the first European arrivals, the Portuguese, and the first sailor exclaimed and the first sailor exclaimed Ilha FormosaIlha Formosa (‘the beautiful island’) (Yearbook, 2003; (‘the beautiful island’) (Yearbook, 2003; Dreyer, 2003, p.390). Since then, Taiwan Dreyer, 2003, p.390). Since then, Taiwan has gained worldwide attention for its has gained worldwide attention for its distinctive location and natural resources distinctive location and natural resources and has been known as ‘Formosa’ in several and has been known as ‘Formosa’ in several western countries (Yearbook, 2003).western countries (Yearbook, 2003).

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Phase TwoPhase Two

• The Dutch colonized southern Taiwan in The Dutch colonized southern Taiwan in 1624 and commenced international trade 1624 and commenced international trade with China, Japan and Southeast Asia. In with China, Japan and Southeast Asia. In addition to economic development, Dutch addition to economic development, Dutch missionaries were sent to Taiwan in an missionaries were sent to Taiwan in an attempt to convert Taiwan’s inhabitants to attempt to convert Taiwan’s inhabitants to Christianity. In 1636, the first Dutch school Christianity. In 1636, the first Dutch school was built in Sinkang and literacy skills were was built in Sinkang and literacy skills were taught to local inhabitants (Heylen, 1998). taught to local inhabitants (Heylen, 1998).

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Phase ThreePhase Three

• In 1626 the Spanish came to Taiwan In 1626 the Spanish came to Taiwan and established a colonial capital in and established a colonial capital in the north of the island to compete the north of the island to compete against Dutch expansion. Keelung and against Dutch expansion. Keelung and Danshuei were built as their bases for Danshuei were built as their bases for trading and for spreading Christianity. trading and for spreading Christianity. In 1642 the Spanish were expelled In 1642 the Spanish were expelled from Taiwan by the Dutch.from Taiwan by the Dutch.

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Phase FourPhase Four

• In 1895, Cing’s administration in Taiwan In 1895, Cing’s administration in Taiwan was disrupted by the Sino-Japanese War. was disrupted by the Sino-Japanese War. Japan determinedly defeated its neighbours Japan determinedly defeated its neighbours in the war between 1894-95 and Taiwan in the war between 1894-95 and Taiwan was ceded to Japan under the Treaty of was ceded to Japan under the Treaty of Shimonoseki, signed in 1895. During 50 Shimonoseki, signed in 1895. During 50 years of Japanese colonization in Taiwan, years of Japanese colonization in Taiwan, Japan actively developed various Japan actively developed various programmes to pave the way for converting programmes to pave the way for converting the inhabitants of Taiwan into loyal subjects the inhabitants of Taiwan into loyal subjects of the Japanese emperor. of the Japanese emperor.

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• Japanese language and writing systems Japanese language and writing systems were implemented in elementary schools were implemented in elementary schools and onward, and the inhabitants were forced and onward, and the inhabitants were forced to wear Japanese clothing. Furthermore, the to wear Japanese clothing. Furthermore, the streets were renamed in Japanese. The streets were renamed in Japanese. The Japanese colonial government eventually Japanese colonial government eventually turned Taiwan into an industrialized country, turned Taiwan into an industrialized country, with extensive agricultural plans and with extensive agricultural plans and hydroelectric power. Under the Japanese hydroelectric power. Under the Japanese transformation plans, Taiwan developed a transformation plans, Taiwan developed a rapidly growing economy. rapidly growing economy.

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• Yet the strong desire to retain Taiwanese Yet the strong desire to retain Taiwanese culture and identity and overt resistance culture and identity and overt resistance to Japan’s assimilative policies had stirred to Japan’s assimilative policies had stirred up severe confrontations between the up severe confrontations between the Japanese colonial government and the Japanese colonial government and the Taiwanese. In 1945, World War II ended Taiwanese. In 1945, World War II ended with Japan’s surrender to the Allies. with Japan’s surrender to the Allies. Taiwan was handed over to China, Taiwan was handed over to China, governed by Chiang Kai-Shek’s governed by Chiang Kai-Shek’s Kuomintang (KMT), after 50 years of Kuomintang (KMT), after 50 years of Japanese occupation. Japanese occupation.

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The KMT GovernmentThe KMT Government

• On October 25 1945, Taiwan On October 25 1945, Taiwan retroceded to the KMT Government. retroceded to the KMT Government. People on the island were delighted People on the island were delighted and thought that peace had eventually and thought that peace had eventually come. Unfortunately, the first KMT come. Unfortunately, the first KMT troops sent to take over Taiwan were troops sent to take over Taiwan were poorly trained, insensitive and poorly trained, insensitive and undisciplined, and they soon destroyed undisciplined, and they soon destroyed the island’s infrastructure and the island’s infrastructure and economy. economy.

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• The KMT Government eventually moved to The KMT Government eventually moved to Taipei in 1949 due to defeat on the Taipei in 1949 due to defeat on the mainland and brought a great number of mainland and brought a great number of immigrants to Taiwan, including Chiang immigrants to Taiwan, including Chiang Kai-Shek himself. Nearly two million people Kai-Shek himself. Nearly two million people from various mainland regions immigrated from various mainland regions immigrated to Taiwan and also brought in many to Taiwan and also brought in many different languages and dialects. Chiang different languages and dialects. Chiang embarked on an ambitious programme of embarked on an ambitious programme of nation-building on the island and was nation-building on the island and was planning a counter-attack to regain the planning a counter-attack to regain the administrative power in the mainland.administrative power in the mainland.

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• From 1951 to 1965, under the KMT’s From 1951 to 1965, under the KMT’s nation-building programme with enormous nation-building programme with enormous economic and military assistance from the economic and military assistance from the United States, Taiwan’s infrastructure and United States, Taiwan’s infrastructure and agriculture developed and improved agriculture developed and improved dramatically. Some Taiwanese people dramatically. Some Taiwanese people were sent to be educated abroad. Farmers were sent to be educated abroad. Farmers were able to purchase land from landlords. were able to purchase land from landlords. The economic structure of the island The economic structure of the island gradually shifted from agricultural exports gradually shifted from agricultural exports in the 1950s to industrial manufacturing in in the 1950s to industrial manufacturing in the 1960s and 70s. By the 1980s and 90s, the 1960s and 70s. By the 1980s and 90s, Taiwan had become a leading country for Taiwan had become a leading country for technological and chemical products. technological and chemical products.

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LANGUAGE POLICYLANGUAGE POLICY

• Figueroa (1988) stated “[l]anguage Figueroa (1988) stated “[l]anguage policy is political rather than policy is political rather than linguistic in nature. … [L]anguage linguistic in nature. … [L]anguage policy can only be made and policy can only be made and enforced by those with political enforced by those with political power” (p.296). Evidence of political power” (p.296). Evidence of political influences on language policy can be influences on language policy can be found throughout Taiwanese history. found throughout Taiwanese history.

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Language Policy in the Language Policy in the Japanese Colonial PeriodJapanese Colonial Period

• In 1896, the languages spoken in Taiwan In 1896, the languages spoken in Taiwan were approximately 83% southern Min, 15 were approximately 83% southern Min, 15 % Hakka, and 2% aboriginal or other % Hakka, and 2% aboriginal or other languages (Tsao, 2000). With the ambition languages (Tsao, 2000). With the ambition of completing the ‘Japanisation’ on Taiwan, of completing the ‘Japanisation’ on Taiwan, the Japanese rulers were pragmatic, the Japanese rulers were pragmatic, realising that it would be impossible to realising that it would be impossible to complete the mission without implementing complete the mission without implementing the Japanese language in the educational the Japanese language in the educational system and making people speak Japanese.system and making people speak Japanese.

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Eliminating Taiwanese languages and Eliminating Taiwanese languages and to replacing them with the Japanese to replacing them with the Japanese

languagelanguage • The first stage (1895-1919) was the The first stage (1895-1919) was the

conciliation of the educational system. conciliation of the educational system.

• During the second stage, called the During the second stage, called the ‘assimilation’ stage (1919-1937), all ‘assimilation’ stage (1919-1937), all private Shu-Fangs were banned and private Shu-Fangs were banned and Chinese was made an optional Chinese was made an optional subject; Japanese was still the main subject; Japanese was still the main instrument in education. instrument in education.

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• The last stage (1937-1945) was the stage The last stage (1937-1945) was the stage of complete Japanisation. The Chinese of complete Japanisation. The Chinese language was banned not only in all language was banned not only in all private and public schools, but also in all private and public schools, but also in all public domains, and in the media. The public domains, and in the media. The Japanese language was to be recognized Japanese language was to be recognized as the Taiwanese lingua franca; the as the Taiwanese lingua franca; the indigenous languages were oppressed, indigenous languages were oppressed, discriminated against and regarded as discriminated against and regarded as vulgar languages by the Japanese vulgar languages by the Japanese government.government.

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• After World War II, the Japanese After World War II, the Japanese government surrendered and Taiwan was government surrendered and Taiwan was returned to China, and the Japanese returned to China, and the Japanese language policy ended in 1945. Four years language policy ended in 1945. Four years later the National Government (KMT) lost later the National Government (KMT) lost the defeat with the Chinese Communists the defeat with the Chinese Communists and was forced to retreat from Mainland and was forced to retreat from Mainland China. After the KMT government relocated China. After the KMT government relocated in Taiwan, the new government in Taiwan, the new government implemented another language policy.implemented another language policy.

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Language Policy Under the Language Policy Under the KMT GovernmentKMT Government

• When Taiwan was returned to China, When Taiwan was returned to China, the people on the island were the people on the island were overjoyed that they could freely speak overjoyed that they could freely speak their own languages again. Shortly their own languages again. Shortly after KMT’s arrival along with a large after KMT’s arrival along with a large number of immigrants from Mainland number of immigrants from Mainland China, the KMT Government faced the China, the KMT Government faced the difficulty of communicating with local difficulty of communicating with local people.people.

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• people in the KMT Government only people in the KMT Government only spoke Mandarin. In order to spoke Mandarin. In order to demonstrate the KMT’s authority and to demonstrate the KMT’s authority and to make people obey the government, The make people obey the government, The KMT Government set out the new KMT Government set out the new language policy, which stipulated language policy, which stipulated Mandarin as the national language. Mandarin as the national language. Indeed, Mandarin was the lingua franca Indeed, Mandarin was the lingua franca when mainlanders arrived in Taiwan when mainlanders arrived in Taiwan with KMT troops (Li, 1983).with KMT troops (Li, 1983).

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• The language situation at that time was The language situation at that time was extremely complicated and needed to be extremely complicated and needed to be organized with a well-designed plan. With organized with a well-designed plan. With regard to the KMT Government’s new regard to the KMT Government’s new language policy, the government promoted language policy, the government promoted Mandarin and severely repressed all the local Mandarin and severely repressed all the local languages (Hsiau, 1997). Moreover, in order languages (Hsiau, 1997). Moreover, in order to eradicate the Japanese language in the to eradicate the Japanese language in the public domains, the KMT Government set up public domains, the KMT Government set up the National Language Movement to promote the National Language Movement to promote the standard of the Mandarin language in the standard of the Mandarin language in 1946 (Tse, 1981, 1986). 1946 (Tse, 1981, 1986).

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• In 1965, it was stipulated by the KMT In 1965, it was stipulated by the KMT Government that all civil servants Government that all civil servants must speak Mandarin during office must speak Mandarin during office hours to reinforce that Mandarin was hours to reinforce that Mandarin was the sole national language. the sole national language.

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• In 1962, when the first television In 1962, when the first television channel started, non-Mandarin channel started, non-Mandarin programmes were limited to less than programmes were limited to less than 16% of the total broadcast time. 16% of the total broadcast time. Taiwanese television programmes, Taiwanese television programmes, which were exceedingly popular in which were exceedingly popular in 1971, were suppressed under the KMT 1971, were suppressed under the KMT Government and rationed to less than Government and rationed to less than one hour per day on each channel. one hour per day on each channel.

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• After more than three decades of After more than three decades of suppression by KMT’s monolingual suppression by KMT’s monolingual policy, the local people came to realize policy, the local people came to realize the importance of preserving their own the importance of preserving their own language. The Taiwanese opposition language. The Taiwanese opposition movement then rapidly developed and movement then rapidly developed and the Tai-yu language (Taiwanese) the Tai-yu language (Taiwanese) movement emerged in the late 1980s.movement emerged in the late 1980s.

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• Although Taiwanese language advocators Although Taiwanese language advocators have made great efforts to arouse the have made great efforts to arouse the language equality, long under the language equality, long under the influence of KMT’s national language influence of KMT’s national language policies, Mandarin is always regarded as policies, Mandarin is always regarded as the distinctive and prestigious language, the distinctive and prestigious language, the high language (c.f. Berg, 1986, 1988; the high language (c.f. Berg, 1986, 1988; Tsao, 1999a). On the contrary, the local Tsao, 1999a). On the contrary, the local vernaculars, such as Taiwanese and vernaculars, such as Taiwanese and Hakka, are treated as an unfavourable or Hakka, are treated as an unfavourable or ‘low’ language, used by the uneducated. ‘low’ language, used by the uneducated.

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• Since Taiwan became politically Since Taiwan became politically democratic in 1986, restrictions on democratic in 1986, restrictions on languages used in the media were languages used in the media were gradually removed. Tai-yu programmes gradually removed. Tai-yu programmes on both television and radio increased on both television and radio increased greatly. The restriction on speaking greatly. The restriction on speaking local languages other than Mandarin in local languages other than Mandarin in all public domains was relaxed.all public domains was relaxed.

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• In December 1990, the Hakka Association In December 1990, the Hakka Association for Public Affairs was founded to promote for Public Affairs was founded to promote the Hakka language and to raise Hakka the Hakka language and to raise Hakka ethnic awareness. After the Tai-yu and ethnic awareness. After the Tai-yu and Hakka language movements, along with the Hakka language movements, along with the aboriginal language awareness, in April aboriginal language awareness, in April 1993, the Ministry of Education (henceforth 1993, the Ministry of Education (henceforth MOE) announced that Hakka, Tai-yu, and MOE) announced that Hakka, Tai-yu, and aboriginal languages were offered as aboriginal languages were offered as elective courses at elementary schools elective courses at elementary schools (Dreyer, 2003). (Dreyer, 2003).

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Language Policy in 2001Language Policy in 2001• In recent years, people in Taiwan have become In recent years, people in Taiwan have become

more aware of the cultural diversity and the more aware of the cultural diversity and the importance of preserving the languages and importance of preserving the languages and dialects (Chiung, 2001; Tiu, 1999). Due to the dialects (Chiung, 2001; Tiu, 1999). Due to the long neglect of the using of local languages, long neglect of the using of local languages, many young generations no longer speak their many young generations no longer speak their mother tongues, such as indigenous language mother tongues, such as indigenous language and Hakka. In order to maintain and promote and Hakka. In order to maintain and promote the local languages, the MOE announced that the local languages, the MOE announced that from September 2001, elementary school from September 2001, elementary school students are required to take at least one local students are required to take at least one local language course from the choices of Taiwanese language course from the choices of Taiwanese (Tai-yu), Hakka, or an aboriginal language. For (Tai-yu), Hakka, or an aboriginal language. For junior high school students, the local language junior high school students, the local language courses remained as an optional subject courses remained as an optional subject (Yearbook, 2003). (Yearbook, 2003).

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CHAPTER SUMMARYCHAPTER SUMMARY

• Having experienced several Having experienced several revaluations in the past, the revaluations in the past, the development of democracy has given development of democracy has given rise of Taiwan’s rapid economical rise of Taiwan’s rapid economical and technological growth. Along with and technological growth. Along with the political and economical changes, the political and economical changes, people in Taiwan increasingly paid people in Taiwan increasingly paid attention to ethnolinguistic attention to ethnolinguistic awareness and cultural identities.awareness and cultural identities.