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1 Gene regulation 2nd Part 2004-12-21 Lim Soo
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1 Gene regulation 2nd Part 2004-12-21 Lim Soo. 2 Identification of Negative insulin response sequences The Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase-like Motif.

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Page 1: 1 Gene regulation 2nd Part 2004-12-21 Lim Soo. 2 Identification of Negative insulin response sequences The Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase-like Motif.

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Gene regulation 2nd Part

2004-12-21

Lim Soo

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Identification of Negative insulin response sequences

• The Phosphoenolpyruvate Carboxykinase-like Motif– Phosphoenolpyurvate Carboxykinase (PEPCK)– IGF binding protein-1 (IGFBP1)– Tyrosine Aminotransferase– Glucose-6-phosphatase catalytic subunit

• Apolipoprotein CIII• Candidates for the insulin response factor (IRF)

– Models of insulin response Factor Action – Mechanisms of insulin signaling through the insulin response Fa

ctor

• Miscellaneous• Conclusion

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Phosphoenolpyurvate Carboxykinase (PEPCK)

• 간과 신장에서의 gluconeogenesis 의 중요한 조절 point 인 oxaloacetate 의 phosphoenolpyruvate 로의 전환을 촉진

• 간에 위치하는 PEPCK gene 의 transcription 의 조절에 관여하는 인자 – cAMP, retinoic acid, thyroid hormone and glucocortico

ids 에 의해 자극– insulin, glucose, and phorbol esters 에 의해 억제

• 다른 glucose –regulated genes 과는 달리 , PEPCK gene transcription 에 미치는 glucose 의 영향은 insulin 의 작용에 의존적이지 않다 .

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• 이러한 호르몬들이 완전한 반응을 나타내기 위해서는 , multiple cis-acting elements 로 구성된 complex hormone response units 가 필요 – PEPCK gene 에는 complex glucocorticoid response

unit (GRU) 가 존재하여 이것이 glucocorticoid 의 stimulatory action 을 매개한다 .

– 이 GRU 는 3 개의 accessory factor binding sites 에 대한 tandem array (5’ to 3’) 와 2 개의 glucocorticoid receptor binding site (GR1, 2) 및 CRE 로 구성된다 .

• Hanson 등은 cAMP-stimulated PEPCK gene transcription 에 4 개의 cis-acting elements (CRE, P3[I], P3[II], P4) 가 필요함을 입증

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• 적어도 2 개의 cis-acting elements 가 PEPCK gene transcription 에 미치는 insulin 의 작용을 매개한다– One element: -437 ~ -402– The other: -271 ~ +69

• Distal IRS (-437 ~ -402) 는 AF2 와 비슷한 위치에 존재하고 , 이것은 glucocorticoid-stimulated gene transcription 을 억제하는 단백질에 결합하여 , 인슐린의 negative effect 를 매개하기에 좋은 위치에 존재하게 된다 .

• The core sequence of the distal IRS is TGTTTTG.• 이 sequence 는 인슐린 signaling 에 영향을 주지 않고

TATTTTG 로 변화될 수 있다 . • 이러한 사실은 비슷한 elements 가 IGFBP-1 과 G6Pas

e catalytic subunit gene 의 hepatic expression 에 대한 인슐린의 negative effect 를 매개할 수 있다는 것을 보여준다 .

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IGF binding protein-1

• IGFBP 는 IGF-1 과 IGF-2 에는 결합하면서 , insulin 에는 결합하지 않는 일련의 6 개의 단백질중의 하나를 지칭한다 .

• 여러 호르몬에 의한 PEPCK 와 IGFBP-1 genes 의 조절은 비슷 : – cAMP, thyroid hormone, glucocorticoid 는 이

두 gene 의 hepatic expression 을 촉진– 반면에 인슐린은 inhibitory effect 를 가짐 .

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• IGFBP-1 promoter 는 두 개의 PEPCK-like IRS motif 를 가짐 (IRE-A and B, TGTTTTG and TATTTTG)– IRE-A: PEPCK-like IRS 중의 하나– IRE-B: PEPCK-like IRS 중의 하나인지 아직 확실하지 않음

• Glucocorticoid 가 IGFBP-1 gene 의 transcription 을 활성화하기 위해서는 두 개의 glucocorticoid response element (GRE) 와 accessory factor binding site 가 필요

• Accessory binding site 는 IRE-A & B 와 colocalize 되며 , 3’ end of IRE-B 는 5’ end of GRE 와 overlap 됨 .

• 이러한 구조적 특징 때문에 , IGFBP-1 의 mutation 시 GRE가 intact 하더라도 glucocorticoid 에 의한 IGFBP-1 gene의 유도가 억제될 수 있다 .

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Tyrosine AminoTransferase (TAT)

• TAT 는 hepatic gene 의 hormonal regulation 과 tissue-specific expression 에 작용을 하는 것으로 알려져 있고 ,

• TAT gene regulation 를 매개하는 세개의 far upstream enhancer 가 밝혀졌는데 – -11kb 에 위치하는 enhancer 는 liver-specific TAT gene expres

sion 에 관여하고 ,– -3.6 & -2.5 kb 에 위치하는 enhancer 는 cAMP 와 glucocortic

oids 에 의한 TAT gene transcription 유도에 관여한다 . insulin 은 -3.6 & -2.5 kb enhancer 를 통하여 cAMP and glucocortic

oid-stimulated TAT gene transcription 에 negative effect 를 매개함 이러한 insulin 의 작용은

직접적으로는 PKB 활성화를 통한 CREB 의 인산화 과정을 통하여 다른 경로로는 cAMP PDE activity 의 활성화를 통하여 매개됨

* 또한 CCAAT box, CACCC box, HNF-3 binding site 가 glucocorticoid-stimulated TAT gene transcription 에 필요 .

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Glucose-6-phosphatase catalytic subunit

• Glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase)– G6P 의 glucose 로의 conversion 을 촉매함 (final step in the gl

uconeogenic and glycogenolytic pathways)– Expressed in liver and kidney >> intestine and islets – Composed of 4 different polypeptides: G6Pase, specific transpor

ters for glucose, G6P, inorganic phosphate– Mutations in the gene encoding G6Pase => reduced hepatic glucose production and are the cause of glyco

gen storage disease type 1a. – Overexpression of G6Pase results in increased hepatic glucose

production. – Overexpression of G6Pase in islets may contribute to impaired g

lucose-stimulated insulin secretion.

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• Insulin 은 부분적으로 간에서의 G6Pase activity 를 억제하고 , 이는 insulin 에 의한 PI3-kinase 의 endoplasmic reticulum 으로의 translocation 을 통해서 이루어진다 .

• 이렇게 , 인슐린은 간에서의 G6Pase gene expression 에 주된 그리고 장기적인 작용을 가진다 .

• 인슐린은 – G6Pase gene transcription 에 대한 glucocorticoids 와 cAMP 의

stimulatory effect 를 상쇄하고 – basal G6Pase gene expression 을 억제한다 .

• Mouse 실험에서 G6Pase promoter 의 두 부위 (region A,B) 가 인슐린에 의한 basal G6Pase gene transcription 의 억제에 필요 .

• 여기서 Region A 는 IRS 는 아니고 , accessory element 로 작용하여 region B 에 위치하고 있는 IRS 의 작용을 증강시킨다 .

=> 이러한 region A, B 를 Insulin response unit (IRU) 라 한다 .

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Apolipoprotein CIII

• lipoprotein particle 은 HDL, LDL, IDL, VLDL, chylomicrons 의 5 가지 타입이 존재하며 ,

• 각 particle 은 10 개의 각기 다른 apolipoprotien의 다양한 조합으로 코팅된다 (A-I, A-II, A-IV, B, CI, CII, CII, D, E, apo(a)).

• Insulin 은 이러한 apolipoprotein 들을 gene transcriptions, mRNA translation, and protein stability 등 다양한 수준에서 조절을 하는데 , Apo CIII에 있어서는 PEPCK-like IRS motif 를 통하여 억제하는 역할을 한다 .

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• Apo CIII 는 VLDL 과 chylomicrons 을 구성하는 주된 단백질이며 , 간과 소장에서 합성된다 .

• Relation between Apo CIII and Insulin – Streptozotocin model of diabetes 에서 hepatic Apo CI

II gene 의 transcription 이 증가되어있고 – 인슐린 치료는 Apo CIII gene transcription 을 basal le

vel 까지 감소시키며 , – 인슐린은 Apo CIII-luciferase fusion gene (containing

a promoter sequence from -854 to +22, in HepG2 cell) 의 발현을 감소시키는 것으로 보고됨

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• Apo CIII promoter 에서 5 polymorphism 이 존재함을 입증 ; 이 중에서 less common alleles 이 severe hypertriglycerid

emia (HTG) 와 연관이 있는 것으로 밝혀짐 . • 이러한 다섯 개의 variant site 중 두 개에서 single base pair

changes 가 올 경우 insulin 에 의한 Apo CIII fusion gene transcription 의 억제를 관찰할 수 없었고 , 결국에는 Apo CIII의 overexpression 을 초래함

• 최근의 연구에 의하면 , insulin 과 triglyceride-rich lipoprotein 과의 관계는 -482 와 -455 bp 사이의 polymorphism 에 영향을 받는다 .

• Promoter 의 이 부위는 (-482 to -455 region) TGTTTGG 를 포함하고 있으며 , 이는 PEPCK, IGFBP-1, and G6Pase promoters 의 IRS motifs 와 유사

이러한 사실은 이 element 가 IRS 임을 시사 (since it can confer an inhibitory effect of insulin on the expre

ssion of a heterologous fusion gene).

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Candidates for the Insulin Response Factor

• PEPCK, IGFBP-1, and TAT promoters 에서 , IRS 는 glucocorticoid 에 의한 gene transcription 의 유도를 위해 필요한 accessory element 와 일치한다 .

• PEPCK, IGFBP-1, and TAT genes 에 있어서 , 아직 확실한 실험 결과는 나오지 않았지만 , 이러한 accessory factor 는 HNF-3/Foxa 로 추정된다 .

• 그러한 현재까지 나온 자료에 의하면 , HNF-3 가 mutated IRS 에 결합하는 것이 insulin signal pathway 에 영향을 주지 않음을 고려할 때 , HNF-3 는 인슐린의 작용을 직접 매개하는 것으로 생각되지는 않는다 .

=> 결과적으로 아직 알려지지 않은 unknown factor 가 이러한 인슐린의 작용을 매개하는 것으로 보인다 .

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Potential candidates

• Several other proteins have been shown to bind the IGFBP-1 IRS.

: high mobility group (HMG) I/Y, DBP, and a C/EBP-related protein.

• However, the binding of these factors does not correlated with the insulin response.

• C/EBP-α also binds the PEPCK IRS, but this binding is unlikely to directly mediate the insulin response.

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Newly detected Insulin Response Factor (IRF)

• PEPCK IRS was identified in 1990, yet the IRF has not been easy to define.

• 1997 년 Caenorhabditis elegans 를 이용한 genetic experiments 을 통하여 획기적 전환점이 도래

=> forkhead transcription factor Daf-16 as a potential homologue of the mammalian IRF.

• Daf-16 과 매우 유사한 human homologues 들이 발견됨 – FKHRL1, FKHR, and AFX– FKHR does bind the IGFBP-1, PEPCK, TAT, and G6

Pase IRSs.

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• FKHR 과 그 유사체가 IRF 의 강력한 후보이지만 , FKHR 결합과 인슐린 반응과의 상관관계를 확인하기 위해서는 정밀한 실험이 필요하다 .

• Gou 등은 FKHR 의 mutated IGFBP-1 fusion gene 의 basal expression 을 촉진하는 능력이 insulin 의 basal reporter gene expression 의 억제 능력과 상관관계를 보임을 입증함

=> This result suggests that FKHR could be the endogenous IRF.

• 반면에 Hall 등은 FKHR1 binding 과 insulin 의 repress fusion gene expression 을 억제하는 능력이 관련성이 없다고 보고 함

=> endogenous IRF was distinct from FKHRL1

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• FKHR 과 FKHRL1 의 차이는 중요하지 않은데 , 이 두 factor 가 거의 동일한 binding specificities 를 가지고 있기 때문이다 .

• 단지 , 이 두 factor 의 차이는 FKHRL1 과 FKHR 이 mutated IRE 를 통한 발현을 유도하는데 차이가 있다는 점이다 .

• 하지만 이러한 mutational analysis 를 통해 얻어진 결과는 해석에 있어서 주의를 요하는데 , IRF 의 mutation 은 forkhead transcription factor family 의 다른 member 의 binding affinity 에도 영향을 줄 수 있기 때문이다 .

=> many of PEPCK-like IRS motif recognize similar DNA sequences.

• Recent genetic data do support a role for FKHR in the regulation of IGFBP-1 gene expression, although not PEPCK gene expression, in vivo.

• Heterozygous deletion of the FKHR gene => IGFBP-1 gene expression => heterozygous deletion of the insulin receptor gene.

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• Chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments demonstrated that FKHR binds the G6Pase promoter in HEpG2 hepatoma cells in situ in the basal state but that insulin simulates FKHR dissociation (F 25.3)

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• However, in vitro binding assays revealed that FKHR only binds – G6Pase IRS-1with high affinity; – G6Pase IRS-2 with much lower affinity– not bind G6Pase IRS-3 at all (F 25.4)

• Instead, G6Pase IRS-3 appears to bind a basal repressor

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Subgroup of G6Pase IRSs

• 비록 FKHR 의 G6Pase IRS-1 와 IRS-2 에 대한 binding affinities 가 다르지만 , 이 두 elements 의 mutation 은 인슐린 반응에 좋지 않은 영향을 준다 .

• 반면에 G6Pase IRS-3 의 mutation 은 insulin-regulated G6Pase fusion gene expression 에 영향을 주지 않는다 .

• 게다가 , G6Pase IRS-1 과 IRS-2 가 mutation 될 경우 , G6Pase IRS-3 는 insulin response 를 매개하는 역할을 하지 못한다 .

=> 이러한 결과들은 G6Pase promoter 에서 IRS-3 가 기능을 갖지 못함을 시사함

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IGFBP-1 IRS (IRE-A vs. IRE-B)

• 세 종류의 G6Pase IRS 는 기능적으로 다르나 , 두 개의 IGFBP-1 IRS 도 차이가 있는 지는 아직 명확하지 않다 .

• IGFBP-1 promoter 는 두 개의 PEPCK-like IRS motifs 인 IRE-A , B 를 가지고 있으며 , 이 elements 의 sequence 는 TGTTTTG 와 TATTTTG 로 하나의 nucleotide 차이가 남 .

• IGFBP-1 gene transcription 에 대한 인슐린의 역할에 있어서 , IRE-A 가 IRE-B 보다 중요한 것처럼 보이며 , IRE-A 가 FKHR에 높은 affinity 를 가지고 결합한다 .

• 또한 FKHR 는 IRE-A 를 통하여 IGFBP-1 promoter activity 를 좀 더 강하게 자극함 .

• FKHR 의 binding affinity 의 차이가 element level 에서의 차이인지 아니면 , 다른 IRF 가 결합하는 것인지는 아직 확실하지 않음 .

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Models of Insulin Response Factor Action

• Key question: How insulin suppresses gene expression through the PEPCK-like IRS motifs.

• 인슐린이 PKB 를 활성화하고 , 결과적으로 FKHR 의 phosphorylation 과 nuclear exclusion 을 가져온다는 사실에서 하나의 모델이 제시됨 .

• FKHR 이 transcription 의 activator 임을 고려할 때 , 이러한 모델은 인슐린의 basal gene transcription 에 미치는 영향을 쉽게 설명할 수 있음

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• Less clear: How this model can explain the inhibitory action of insulin on glucocorticoid-stimulated gene transcription.

• PEPCK, IGFBP-1, TAT gene promoters 내의 PEPCK-like IRS motifs 는 accessory elements 와 colocalization 되는데 이러한 accessory elements 는 glucocorticoids의 stimulatory effect 에 있어서 중요한 역할을 한다 . – Mutational analyses 는 PEPCK, IGFBP-1, TAT gene promoters

에 있는 이러한 accessory elements 에 binding 하는 accessory factor 가 HNF-3 라고 제시함 .

– PEPCK promoter 에 대한 biophysical analyses 에서는 HNF-3가 glucocorticoid receptor binding 을 stabilizing 함으로 accessory factor 로 작용함을 제시함 .

=> 결과적으로 인슐린이 FKHR 를 통하여 HNF-3 의 binding 을 방해하고 , glucocorticoid receptor binding 을 불안정화시키는 역할을 한다 .

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Model A• 3 alternate models of Insulin Response Factor Action (In F25.5)• In model A, the insulin acts through an IRF that is distinct from

FKHR. • Insulin signaling through this unidentified IRF causes a

displacement of HNF-3 binding, resulting in the destabilization of glucocorticoid receptor binding and hence a reduction in glucocorticoid-stimulated gene transcription.

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Model B

• In model B, insulin acts through FKHR and both FKHR and HNF-3 can bind the same promoter region in the basal state.

• The insulin-stimulated nuclear exclusion of FKHR => the conformational change of HNF-3 binding => it is no longer able to interact with, and stabilize the binding of, the glucocorticoid receptor.

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Model C

• FKHR rather than HNF-3 is the accessory factor for the glucocorticoid response.

• In this model, FKHR acts as both an accessory factor and IRF.

• The insulin-stimulated nuclear exclusion of FKHR => destabilization of glucocorticoid receptor binding => reduction in glucocorticoid-stimulated gene transcription.

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• 이러한 model 들이 PEPCK, IGFBP-1, G6Pase gene 에 대한 glucocorticoid-stimulated transcription 을 억제하는 인슐린의 작용을 설명할 수는 있지만 , cAMP-stimulated expression 에 대한 인슐린의 억제 작용은 설명하지 못한다 .

• 흥미롭게도 , PEPCK promoter 에서 PEPCK-like IRS motif 는 cAMP-stimulated gene transcription의 억제에 관여하지 않는 것처럼 보인다 .

• 오히려 , PEPCK promoter 는 좀더 가까운 쪽에 위치한 IRS (more proximal IRS) 를 포함하고 있는데 이것이 cAMP-stimulated gene transcription 에 대한 인슐린의 negative effect 를 매개한다 .

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Mechanisms of insulin signaling through the insulin response factor

• 지난 5 년 동안 insulin signaling pathway 의 연구에 있어서 의미 있는 발전이 있었지만 , insulin receptor 로 부터 transcription factor 에 까지 이르는 완전한 signaling pathway 를 완성하는 것은 매우 어렵다 .

• 현재까지 알려진 자료에 따르면 이러한 signaling pathway 를 완성하는 있어서 5 가지 basic challenges 가 존재 한다 .

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1. Insulin 은 여러가지 , 다양한 signaling pathways 를 통하여 각기 다른 genes 의 발현을 조절한다 .

• 따라서 , 특정 gene 의 조절에 있어서 어떠한 pathway 가 관여할 것인지를 예측하는 것은 불가능하다 .

2. 어떤 gene 은 여러가지 IRS 를 가진다 . • 인슐린은 특정 IRS 를 목표로 할 경우 특정 sign

aling pathways 를 사용할 것이라 추정된다 .

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3. 인슐린은 다양한 수준에서 gene 의 발현을 조절한다 . – 예를 들면 , 인슐린은 transcription rate 뿐만 아니라

mRNA stability 도 조절한다 .

4. 특정 gene 에 대한 basal and glucocorticoid- or cAMP-stimulated transcription 의 억제에 있어서 인슐린의 작용기전은 동일하지 않을 수 있다 .

5. 어떤 transcription factor 는 하나이상의 insulin-regulated signaling pathway 에 의해 영향을 받는다 .

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Miscellaneous

• Glucagon 은 pancreatic islets 의 α-cells 에서 발현되며 , 인슐린에 의해 transcription 이 억제된다 .

• Glucagon 의 pancreas-specific expression 에 있어서 glucagon promoter 의 ~300 bp segment 가 요구됨

• Within this sequence, three regions (G1, G2, G3) are of particular functional importance.

• Philippe 은 glucagon gene expression 에 있어서 insulin 효과는 G3 내에 존재하는 IRE 를 통해 이루어짐을 밝힘 .

• Core sequence of the glucagon IRE (TCACGCCTGA) – located between -261 and -252, – is similar to the GAPDH IRE-A motif.

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Conclusions and Future directions

• The distinct classes of IRSs that confer stimulatory effects of insulin are serum response element, Ets motif, AP-1 motif, Sp1 motif, sterol response element, and TTF-2 motif.

• The Ets, AP-1, and Sp1 motifs as well as the sterol response element can bind multiple transcription factors.

• 인슐린은 이러한 다양한 class 의 IRS motif 에 결합하는 인자들의 phosphorylation state 에 영향을 주는 것으로 생각된다 .

• Insulin 은 또한 다양한 AP-1 binding proteins, Sp1, SREBP-1c, TTF-2 의 발현을 촉진한다 .

• 인슐린에 의해 transcription 이 억제되는 gene (namely PEPCK, IGFBP-1, TAT, G6Pase, and Apo CIII) 들은 common IRS 를 공유하는 것으로 생각된다 .

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Summary

• Although much remains to be learned, the past 15 years have witnessed a tremendous leap in the understanding of insulin-regulated gene expression,

• 다음과 같은 최근의 연구 결과가 insulin 과 연관된 gene regulation 의 연구의 중요성을 시사한다 . – HNF-1, HNF-4, Pdx-1 를 encoding 하는 gene 의

mutation 이 특정 형태의 MODY 를 야기함 – 인슐린 저항성의 결과로 생긴 insulin-regulated gene

expression 의 변화가 제 2 형 당뇨병의 병태생리에 기여함 .

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• 보충 슬라이드

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• The glucagon IRE within the G3 region was initially thought to share some homology with the prolactin IRE, but subsequent studies found that the region of homology is outside the region known to be critical for the response of the glucagon gene to insulin.

• By contrast, the core sequence of the glucagon IRE (TCACGCCTGA), located between -261 and -252, is similar to the GAPDH IRE-A motif.

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• Quinn suggested that the specific combination of PEPCK CRE and TATA box mediated the inhibitory effect of insulin on cAMP-stimulated PEPCK gene transcription.

• Tebby showed that substitution of the PEPCK TATA box with a variety of TATA boxes from different genes did not affect the inhibitory action of insulin on cAMP-stimulated PEPCK gene transcription.

• Quinn proposed that the P3 element is required for the insulin response.

• Reusch suggested that a direct insulin-stimulated phosphorylation of CREB may be important.

• Du showed that CREB is a regulatory target of PKB, a kinase that may be important for the action of insulin on PEPCK gene transcription.

• Other studies suggested that NFkB, SREBP-1c, C/EBP-b might be important for this insulin action through the proximal promoter region.

• Finally, the inability to locate the proximal PEPCK IRS might indicate that such an element does not exist.

Debate

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Phosphoenolpyurvate Carboxykinase (PEPCK)

• Catalyzes the conversion of oxaloacetate to phosphoenolpyruvate, which is a major control point in hepatic and renal gluconeogenesis

• Transcription of the hepatic cytosolic PEPCK gene is – stimulated by cAMP, retinoic acid, thyroid hormone an

d glucocorticoids – inhibited by insulin, glucose, and phorbol esters.

• Unlike other glucose –regulated genes, the effect of glucose on PEPCK gene transcription is not dependent on the action of insulin

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• To manifest the full response to each of these hormones, complex hormone response units, composed of multiple cis-acting elements, are required– In the PEPCK gene, a complex glucocorticoid respon

se unit (GRU) mediates the stimulatory action of glucocorticoids.

– GRU consists of a tandem array (5’ to 3’) of three accessory factor binding sites, two glucocorticoid receptor binding site (GR1, 2) and the CRE.

• Hanson and colleagues have shown that four cis-acting elements (CRE, P3[1], P3[II], P4) are required for cAMP-stimulated PEPCK gene transcription in HepG2 cells.

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• At least two cis-acting elements mediate insulin’s action on PEPCK gene transcription. – One element: -437 ~ -402– The other: -271 ~ +69

• The distal IRS (-437 ~ -402) is co-localized with AF2, so it is ideally positioned to mediate the negative effect of insulin by binding a protein that acts to inhibit glucocorticoid-stimulated gene transcription (by disabling the accessory factor binding AF2).

• The core sequence of the distal IRS is TGTTTTG. • This sequence can be mutated to TATTTTG without affe

cting the magnitude of insulin signaling. => Similar elements also mediate the negative effect of in

sulin on the hepatic expression of IGFBP-1 and the G6Pase catalytic subunit genes

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Tyrosine AminoTransferase (TAT)

• Served for the hormonal regulation and tissue-specific expression of hepatic genes.

• 3 far-upstream enhancers mediating TAT regulation – Enhancer at -11kb: liver-specific TAT gene expression– Enhancers at -3.6 & -2.5 kb : induction of TAT gene transcription

by cAMP and glucocorticoids insulin 은 -3.6 & -2.5 kb enhancer 를 통하여 cAMP and

glucocorticoid-stimulated TAT gene transcription 에 negative effect 를 매개함

이러한 insulin 의 작용은 직접적으로는 PKB 활성화를 통한 CREB 의 인산화 과정을

통하여 다른 경로로는 cAMP PDE activity 의 활성화를 통하여 매개됨

* 또한 CCAAT box, CACCC box, HNF-3 binding site 가 glucocorticoid-stimulated TAT gene transcription 에 필요 .

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• Insulin partially inhibits G6Pase activity in liver, perhaps through the insulin-stimulated translocation of PI3-kinase to endoplasmic reticulum.

• Thus, insulin, other hormones and metabolites have a major, long-term effect on G6Pase gene expression in liver

• Insulin – counteracts both glucocorticoids and cAMP stimulatory effect to

G6Pase gene transcription – represses basal G6Pase gene expression.

• Mouse 에서 G6Pase promoter 의 두 부위 (region A,B)가 인슐린에 의한 basal G6Pase gene transcription 의 억제에 필요 .

• 여기서 Region A 는 IRS 는 아니고 , accessory element로 작용하여 region B 에 위치하고 있는 IRS 의 작용을 증강시킨다 .

=> 이러한 region A, B 를 Insulin response unit (IRU) 라 한다 .

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Apolipoprotein CIII

• 5 types of lipoprotein particle: HDL, LDL, IDL, VLDL, chylomicrons

• Each particle is coated with various combinations of 10 different apolipoproteins (A-I, A-II, A-IV, B, CI, CII, CII, D, E, apo(a)).

• Insulin 은 이러한 apolipoprotein 들을 gene transcriptions, mRNA translation, and protein stability 등 다양한 수준에서 조절을 하는데 , Apo CIII에 있어서는 PEPCK-like IRS motif 를 통하여 억제하는 역할을 한다 .

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Candidates for the Insulin Response Factor

• In the PEPCK, IGFBP-1, and TAT promoters, the IRS coincides with an accessory element required for the full induction of gene transcription by glucocorticoids.

• In the PEPCK, IGFBP-1, and TAT genes, this accessory factor for the glucocorticoid response is probably HNF-3/Foxa, although detailed mutagenesis to support this hypothesis has only been performed for the PEPCK gene.

• However, the available data suggest that HNF-3 does not directly mediate the action of insulin since the binding of HNF-3 to mutated IRSs does not correlate with the ability of insulin to signal through these elements.

=> A model was proposed in which an unknown factor (IRF) would mediate the action of insulin.

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Subgroup of G6Pase IRSs

• Despite the different affinities of G6Pase IRS-1 and IRS-2 for FKHR binding, mutation of both elements is equally deleterious to the insulin response.

• Most significantly, mutation of G6Pase IRS-3 has no effect on insulin-regulated G6Pase fusion gene expression.

• In addition, when G6Pase IRS-1 and IRS-2 are mutated, G6Pase IRS-3 is also not sufficient to mediate an insulin response.

These results suggest that IRS-3 is not functional in the context of the G6Pase promoter.