1 Gender, Education and Labor Market PERSA FOKIALI UNIVERSITY OF THE AEGEAN PROGRAMME FOR MULTIGRADE EDUCATION SUMMER SCHOOL.

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Gender, Education and Labor Gender, Education and Labor MarketMarket

PERSA FOKIALI PERSA FOKIALI

UNIVERSITY OF THE AEGEAN PROGRAMME FOR MULTIGRADE EDUCATION SUMMER SCHOOL

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CONTENTS

1. GENERAL

2. FACTORS AFFECTING WOMEN’S EDUCATIONAL AND PROFESSIONAL CHOICES

3. FEMALE PRESENCE IN THE LABOUR MARKET

4. CONCLUSIONS

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1. INTRODUCTION

SOME GENERAL ISSUES

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In the past ……

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Female presence in the society –even in the labour market, was not negligible …..

66During the centuries, either directly or indirectly, women have supported the economy at a local, national and international level.

77

88

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Nevertheless, until recently, women lagged behind men in the labour market both quantitatively and qualitatively:

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So far as quantity is concerned,

Working women were much less in number compared to men.

The rate of female working force was much lower than the corresponding male one.

So far as quality is concerned, female position in the economy was mainly:

Marginal,

Secondary,

Dependent ,

Often offered for free, at best badly paid….

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Nowadays ……

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Women increase their share in the labour Women increase their share in the labour marketmarket … …

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So far as numbers are So far as numbers are concerned, year concerned, year after year after year

More and more More and more women workwomen work

howeverhowever::

The number of The number of working women still working women still remains lower that remains lower that that of menthat of men. .

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So far as quality is concerned

In spite of improvements

Female presence is still worse than male in many aspects …..

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2. WOMEN TOWADS THE LABOUR MARKET

FACTORS AFFECTING FEMALE ENTRANCE IN THE LABOUR MARKET

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Women’s wn;s

Women’s wn;s Η πορεία της γυναίκας προς την

Η πορεία της γυναίκας προς την

αγορά εργασίας είναι μια πορεία

αγορά εργασίας είναι μια πορεία

(α) ανοδική, αλλά και

(α) ανοδική, αλλά και

(β) ανηφορική

(β) ανηφορική

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Simulation: Female itinerary to the labour market seems like an itinerary on a bicycle

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Front wheel

Factors of

socialization

Rear wheel: Culture

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3. Mass

media etc.

2. Educatio

n

1. Family

Front wheel: Factors of socialization

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4. Institutions, legislation

5. Norms

Stereotypes

Rear wheel: cultural environment

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((aa) ) Average marriage age increases for both men and women. Average marriage age increases for both men and women. The difference in age between a man and a woman is The difference in age between a man and a woman is nowadays smaller than in the past. nowadays smaller than in the past.

((bb) ) Birth rate in developed countries is small. In Europe Birth rate in developed countries is small. In Europe correspond to a family less than two children. correspond to a family less than two children.

((cc) ) Families are nuclear (not extended).Families are nuclear (not extended).

((dd) ) There are many well accepted family models apart from There are many well accepted family models apart from the classical one.the classical one.

((ee) ) Divorces have increased substantially; children of non Divorces have increased substantially; children of non married couples have also increased. married couples have also increased.

FAMILYFAMILY

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Children outside marriage

1960 6,682

1970 9,524

1980 13,593

1989 15,152

1990 13,731

2000 14,381

2005 15,300

Divorces

1960 5,953

1970 7,811

1980 19,004

1990 29,435

2000 29,902

2005 29,364

1960 35,897

1970 36,376

1980 26,448

1990 31,513 

2000 38,388

2005 36,148

Marriagesι

1960 70,124

1970 62,991

1980 38,289

1990 33,998

2000 37,179

Children inside marriage

Indicativelyin Denmark

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(ε) Οι διακριτοί ρόλοι της γυναίκας αλλάζουν (ε) Οι διακριτοί ρόλοι της γυναίκας αλλάζουν αλλά με αργούς ρυθμούς. αλλά με αργούς ρυθμούς. Οι κλασικοί ρόλοι της γυναίκας στην οικογένεια Οι κλασικοί ρόλοι της γυναίκας στην οικογένεια εξακολουθούν να αποτελούν πραγματικότητα.εξακολουθούν να αποτελούν πραγματικότητα. Οι γυναίκες που εργάζονται εξακολουθούν να Οι γυναίκες που εργάζονται εξακολουθούν να διατηρούν το ρόλο της μητέρας, της συζύγου διατηρούν το ρόλο της μητέρας, της συζύγου και της κόρης. και της κόρης.

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The new The new model for a model for a modern modern woman is to woman is to have a career have a career and a family. and a family.

Women try Women try hard to hard to reconcile reconcile family and family and professional professional life, since life, since they have they have caring duties caring duties in respect to in respect to children and children and parents. parents.

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Career

Family

The pendulum of female working roles

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Summarising for the familySummarising for the family The family affects the decisions of women The family affects the decisions of women concerning work. concerning work.

Traditionally the family may encourage and Traditionally the family may encourage and empower women in their working life but also empower women in their working life but also creates a burden of duties that limits women’s creates a burden of duties that limits women’s professional development. professional development.

Modern family styles are adjusted to the new Modern family styles are adjusted to the new female responsibilities in the labour market; female responsibilities in the labour market; however a perfect reconciliation between family however a perfect reconciliation between family and professional life has not reached yet. and professional life has not reached yet.

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EDUCATIONEDUCATION

((aa) ) illiteracy rate in developed countries tends to zero. illiteracy rate in developed countries tends to zero. However illiterate women are more than men.However illiterate women are more than men.

((bb) ) In the past in the secondary level of education the In the past in the secondary level of education the number of male pupils exceeded the relevant number of number of male pupils exceeded the relevant number of females. This is no longer the case. females. This is no longer the case.

((cc) ) The rate of pupils that continue their studies after school The rate of pupils that continue their studies after school in tertiary education increases all over the world. The in tertiary education increases all over the world. The number of girls entering universities rises in a spectacular number of girls entering universities rises in a spectacular way. In some countries female university students is higher way. In some countries female university students is higher than male. than male.

((dd) ) Postgraduate students increse in numbers year after Postgraduate students increse in numbers year after year. The number of male postgraduate students and the year. The number of male postgraduate students and the number of male PhD students is higher than the relevant number of male PhD students is higher than the relevant female numbers. female numbers.

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((ee) ) There are still significant There are still significant gender differences in gender differences in modules preferences and modules preferences and performances performances

Male pupils/students prefer Male pupils/students prefer and have better and have better performances in performances in ::

• MathsMaths , , • ScienceScience, , • Technology and information Technology and information

technologytechnology

Female Female pupils/students prefer pupils/students prefer and have better and have better performances in performances in ::

• Languages Languages , , • History History • HumanitiesHumanities..

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Summarising in respect to education:

Education helps women to develop professionally.

Some other educational choices could serve better gender equality.

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MASS MEDIA

The role of Mass Media in respect to gender equality is dubious.

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“Serious” mass media deal more with men.

“Light” mass media deal more with women.

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In the media women is promoted mainly as a consumer, much less as a producer or investor.

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The female body is heavily promoted.

Young women are promoted more while aged women are mostly absent.

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LEGISLATION

Indicatively:

Almost all countries have adopted the International Act for elimination of discrimination against women (1979). 26 countries have not signed yet.

So far as the rate of acceptance is concerned, this act is second in order.

Legislation concerning women’s rights has been adjusted to the modern female profile.

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NORMS AND STEREOTYPES

These are against women and almost everywhere affect negatively the modern female profile.

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Stereotypes lead to gender discrimination against women from the side of employers, employees and clients.

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In a summary

Women are prepared for the labour market heavily Η γυναίκα προετοιμάζεται για την αγορά εργασίας μέσα από

Την οικογένεια (+ και -)

Την εκπαίδευση (+)

Τα ΜΜΕ και άλλους φορείς κοινωνικοποίησης (+ και -)

Τους νόμους (+)

Τις νοοτροπίες και τα στερεότυπα (-)