1 CS/COE0447 Computer Organization & Assembly Language CHAPTER 1 Part 1.

1

CS/COE0447

Computer Organization & Assembly Language

CHAPTER 1 Part 1

2

Five Computer Components

3

Embedded Computers

• Not directly observable

• Very widely used in many applications

• Examples:

4

Today’s Topics• Layered approach to computer design• Machine code example• Components of ISA• Computer implementations

– Inside a PC– IC technology and its trends– Input/output devices – Main memory– Secondary storage– Network

• IC process overview

5

Transistors

Layered Approach in Computer Design

Computer Architecture orInstruction Set Architecture

Logic gates

Microarchitecture

Architecture

6

Machine Code Example

swap:muli $2, $5, 4add $2, $4, $2lw $15, 0($2)lw $16, 4($2)sw $16, 0($2)sw $15, 4($2)jr $31

void swap(int v[], int k){

int temp;temp = v[k];v[k] = v[k+1];v[k+1] = temp;

}

00000000101000010…00000000000110000…10001100011000100…10001100111100100…10101100111100100…10101100011000100…00000011111000000…

com

piler

assemble

r

7

Components of ISA

• In most cases, a “programmer’s reference manual” (PRM) will disclose the ISA of a processor

• To understand an ISA, find in PRM– Data types the processor supports– Supported instructions and their definitions– Registers (general-purpose & special purpose)– Processor modes– Exception mechanism

8

Inside a PC

• Integrated Circuits (ICs)– CPU (Central Processing Unit), companion chipset, memory,

peripheral I/O chip (e.g., USB, IDE, IEEE1394, …)• Printed Circuit (PC) boards

– Substrate for ICs and interconnection– Distribution of clock, power supply– Heat dissipation

• Hard disk, CD-RW (DVD-RW), (floppy disk)• Power supply

– Converts line AC voltage to regulated DC low voltage levels– GND, +/-12V, +/-5V, …

• Chassis– Holds boards, power supply, and provides physical interface for

user and other systems• Connectors and cables

9

Integrated Circuits• Primarily crystaline silicon• 1mm~25mm on a side• Feature size: 90nm ~ 130nm• 100 ~ 1000M transistors• 25 ~ 250M “logic gates”• 3 ~ 10 metal “conductive” layers• CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide

Semiconductor) technology

• Package spreads chip-level signal paths to board level

• Provides heat dissipation• Ceramic or plastic with gold wires• 8 ~ 1000 leads• Various form-factors and shapes

10

Printed Circuit (PC) Boards

• Fiberglass or ceramic• 1 ~ 20 conductive layers• 1 ~ 20 inch on a side• IC packages are mounted

and soldered on a board

11

Technology Trend (Processor Complexity)

2x transistors/chip every 1.5 years!

12

Memory Capacity Trend (DRAM)

1.4x/year or 2x every 2 years8000x since 1980!

size

Year

Bit

s

1000

10000

100000

1000000

10000000

100000000

1000000000

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

13

Processor Performance Trend

0100200300400500600700800900

87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97

DEC Alpha21264/600

DEC Alpha 5/500

DEC Alpha 5/300

DEC Alpha 4/266

IBM POWER 100

Intel P4 2000 MHz(Fall 2001)

1.54x/year

14

Technology Advances

• Memory– DRAM capacity: 2x / 2 years (since ’96)– 64x size improvement in last decade

• Processor– Speed (in terms of clock frequency): 2x / 1.5 years (since

’85)– 100x performance improvement in last decade

• Disk– Capacity: 2x / 1 year (since ’97)– 250x size improvement in last decade

15

Your PC After Graduation

• Processor speed– 6~8GHz

• Memory capacity– 4GB~8GB

• Disk capacity– 1000GB or 1TB

• New units: Mega to Giga, Giga to Tera, (Tera to Peta, Peta to Exa, Exa to Zetta, Zetta to Yotta)

• New, faster serial interfaces for various peripherals

16

My First PC (@college)• IBM PC AT

– Based on 80286 (80586 is Pentium-1)

• Processor speed– 20MHz (?) compared to 5,000MHz

• Memory capacity– 1MB compared to 4000MB

• Disk capacity– 40MB compared to 1000GB

• No CD-ROM!

• 14 inch monitor (not flat!), VGA (640x480)

• Wheel mouse– 2 buttons

17

Input Devices

• Accepts input from human (or from other machine)

• Desktop computers– Keyboard– Mouse (touchpad)– Joystick– …

• Servers– Terminals on network

• Cell phone – Embedded computers– Keypad

18

Input Devices, cont’d

• Mouse– Wheel mouse (hard to find nowadays)– Optical mouse

• Takes 1,500 “photo shots” of LED reflection to detect any movement

• Keyboard or keypad– Not many changes so far

• Web camera

• Voice recognition– Partly successful

• New input device?

19

Output Devices

• Passes information to human (or to other machine)

• Desktop computers– Display (CRT or LCD)– Sound– …

• Servers– Terminals on network

• Cell phone – Embedded computers– Screen– Sound– Vibration

20

Output Devices, cont’d

• Display– CRT to LCD– LCD size from 10 inch to 24 inch

• Resolution from 640x480 to 1600x1200

• Sound– Simple “tick” to theatre-like effects, 5.1

channel, etc.

21

Main memory

• PC/servers use “DRAM” (Dynamic RAM)– SDRAM– DDR SDRAM– RDRAM (RAMBUS DRAM)

A typical SDRAM “module”

22

Main memory, cont’d

• Embedded computers use DRAM or SRAM (or both) depending on applications– On-chip SRAM (embedded SRAM)– On-chip SDRAM (embedded SDRAM)– SDRAM– Mobile SDRAM (1.8V operation)

SRAM, SDRAM, FLASH allin a same chip!

23

Storage

• Secondary storage (cf. main memory)• Non-volatile• Stores programs, user-saved data, etc.

• In PC/server domain, magnetic disk (hard-disk) is usually used

• In embedded computers, “flash” memory or “ROM” is usually employed

24

Storage, cont’d

5.25-inch floppy disk1.2MB

3.5-inch floppy disk1.44MB

USB Flash card256MB

25

Storage, cont’d

26

Computer Networks

• Local Area Network (LAN)– Within limited distance (e.g., in a building)– Mostly based on Ethernet– 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps, …

• Wide Area Network– Connecting networks far apart

• At home,– Modem: 14.4Kbps, 28.8Kbps, 33.6Kbps, 56Kbps– Cable modem/DSL: several hundred Kbps ~ several Mbps– Higher-speed DSL technologies

• Proliferation of wireless LAN (IEEE802.11)– 1 ~ 100Mbps

27

(Simple) IC Process Overview

• Silicon ingot (silicon cylinder)• (Blank) Wafers• Various steps to build circuits on wafers

– Photomask process– Chemical process– Mechanical process

• “Wafer test” to sort out bad parts• Tested “die”• “Packaging” steps

– Wire bonding– Material filling– Marking

• “Chip test” to sort out bad parts• Products

28

Testing Your Chip

• Function– “The chip is working correctly” as intended

• Speed– “The chip is running at 4 GHz” as intended– “Speed binning”

• Power– “The chip consumes 50 Watt at 4 GHz” as intended

• Reliability– “The chip will be operational for 10 years” as written

on manual and box

29

Calculating Your Chip Cost

• Things to consider:– Mask cost: we need 20 ~ 40 masks used to form different

patterns used in different process steps a.k.a. Non-Recurring Engineering (NRE) cost

– Wafer cost– Cost put in process steps– Defect parts (we spend money producing defect parts!)– Any other overhead including marketing

• Can we calculate cost of each chip now?• What happens if we adopt a new technology that can

build smaller transistors?

30

(Simple) IC Process Overview

• Silicon ingot (silicon cylinder)• (Blank) Wafers• Various steps to build circuits on wafers

– Photomask process– Chemical process– Mechanical process

• “Wafer test” to sort out bad parts• Tested “die”• “Packaging” steps

– Wire bonding– Material filling– Marking

• “Chip test” to sort out bad parts• Products

31

Testing Your Chip

• Function– “The chip is working correctly” as intended

• Speed– “The chip is running at 4 GHz” as intended– “Speed binning”

• Power– “The chip consumes 50 Watt at 4 GHz” as intended

• Reliability– “The chip will be operational for 10 years” as written

on manual and box

32

Calculating Your Chip Cost

• Things to consider:– Mask cost: we need 20 ~ 40 masks used to form different

patterns used in different process steps a.k.a. Non-Recurring Engineering (NRE) cost

– Wafer cost– Cost put in process steps– Defect parts (we spend money producing chips with

defects!)– Any other overhead including marketing

• Can we calculate cost of each chip now?• What happens if we adopt a new technology that can

build smaller transistors?

33

Packaging

mounting

wire bonding

packaging material filling &marking

34