1 Chapter 3 Culture. 2 The study of culture is basic to sociology. In this chapter we will examine the meaning of culture and society as well as the development.

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Chapter 3Chapter 3

CultureCulture

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The study of culture is basic to sociology. In this The study of culture is basic to sociology. In this

chapter we will examine the meaning of culture chapter we will examine the meaning of culture

and society as well as the development of culture and society as well as the development of culture

from its roots in the prehistoric human from its roots in the prehistoric human

experience to the technologic advances of today. experience to the technologic advances of today.

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Culture and SocietyCulture and Society CultureCulture is the totality of learned, socially is the totality of learned, socially

transmitted behavior. It includes the ideas, transmitted behavior. It includes the ideas, values, customs, and artifacts (for example, values, customs, and artifacts (for example, CDs, comic books, and birth control devices) of CDs, comic books, and birth control devices) of groups of people. groups of people.

A tribe that cultivates soil by hand has just as A tribe that cultivates soil by hand has just as much of a culture as a people that relies on much of a culture as a people that relies on computer-operated machinery. computer-operated machinery.

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Cont.Cont.

A fairly large number of people are said to A fairly large number of people are said to constitute a constitute a societysociety when they live in the same when they live in the same territory, are relatively independent of people territory, are relatively independent of people outside their area, and participate in a common outside their area, and participate in a common culture. Members of a society generally share culture. Members of a society generally share a common language, which facilitates day-to-a common language, which facilitates day-to-day exchanges with others.day exchanges with others.

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Development of Culture around the WorldDevelopment of Culture around the World

Despite their differences, all societies have Despite their differences, all societies have developed certain common practices and developed certain common practices and beliefs known as beliefs known as cultural universals cultural universals (( 文化文化普同性普同性 )).. Anthropologist George Murdock Anthropologist George Murdock compiled a list of cultural universals, including compiled a list of cultural universals, including athletic sports, marriage, cooking, funeral athletic sports, marriage, cooking, funeral ceremonies, medicine, and sexual restrictions. ceremonies, medicine, and sexual restrictions. The cultural practices listed by Murdock may The cultural practices listed by Murdock may be universal, but the manner in which they are be universal, but the manner in which they are expressed varies from culture to culture.expressed varies from culture to culture.

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Sumo Wrestling, Japan Camel Racing, Saudi Arabia

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Innovation Innovation The process of introducing an idea or object that The process of introducing an idea or object that is new to culture is known as is new to culture is known as innovationinnovation. There . There are two forms of innovation: are two forms of innovation: discoverydiscovery and and inventioninvention. .

A A discoverydiscovery involves making known or sharing involves making known or sharing the existence of an aspect of reality. the existence of an aspect of reality.

By contrast, an By contrast, an inventioninvention results when existing results when existing cultural items are combined into a form that did cultural items are combined into a form that did

not exist before.not exist before.

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Diffusion and TechnologyDiffusion and Technology

DiffusionDiffusion refers to the process by which a refers to the process by which a

cultural item is spread from group to group or cultural item is spread from group to group or

society to society. It can occur through a variety society to society. It can occur through a variety

of means, among them exploration, military of means, among them exploration, military

conquest, missionary work, the influence of the conquest, missionary work, the influence of the

mass media, tourism, and the Internet. mass media, tourism, and the Internet.

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Shanghai Forbidden City

Seattle

Examples of cultural diffusion

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Sociologists William F. Ogburn made a useful Sociologists William F. Ogburn made a useful distinction between the elements of material and distinction between the elements of material and nonmaterial culture. nonmaterial culture. Material cultureMaterial culture refers to the refers to the physical or technological aspects of our daily physical or technological aspects of our daily lives, including food items, houses, factories, and lives, including food items, houses, factories, and raw materials. raw materials. Nonmaterial cultureNonmaterial culture refers to ways refers to ways of using material objects and to customs, beliefs, of using material objects and to customs, beliefs, philosophies, governments, and patterns of philosophies, governments, and patterns of communication. Generally, the nonmaterial communication. Generally, the nonmaterial culture is more resistant to change than the culture is more resistant to change than the material culture is.material culture is.

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Elements of CultureElements of Culture LanguageLanguage is an abstract system of word is an abstract system of word

meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture. meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture. It includes speech, written characters, numerals, It includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols, and gestures and expressions of symbols, and gestures and expressions of nonverbal communication. Unlike some other nonverbal communication. Unlike some other elements of culture, language permeates all parts elements of culture, language permeates all parts of society. While language is a cultural universal, of society. While language is a cultural universal, striking differences in the use of language are striking differences in the use of language are evident around the world.evident around the world.

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Norms Norms （規範）（規範） are established standards of are established standards of behavior maintained by a society. behavior maintained by a society. Formal normsFormal norms have generally been written down and specify strict have generally been written down and specify strict rules for punishment of violators. By contrast, rules for punishment of violators. By contrast, informal normsinformal norms are generally understood but are not are generally understood but are not precisely recorded. precisely recorded. MoresMores （民德）（民德） are norms are norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society, deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society, often because they embody the most cherished often because they embody the most cherished principles of a people. principles of a people. FolkwaysFolkways （民俗）（民俗） are norms are norms governing everyday behavior. Society is less likely to governing everyday behavior. Society is less likely to formalize folkways than mores, and their violation formalize folkways than mores, and their violation raises comparatively little concern.raises comparatively little concern.

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SanctionsSanctions （制裁）（制裁） are penalties and rewards are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm. for conduct concerning a social norm. Conformity to a norm can lead to positive Conformity to a norm can lead to positive sanctions such as a pay raise, a medal, a word sanctions such as a pay raise, a medal, a word of gratitude, or a pat on the back. Negative of gratitude, or a pat on the back. Negative sanctions include fines, threats, imprisonment, sanctions include fines, threats, imprisonment, and stares of contempt.and stares of contempt.

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Norms and SanctionsNorms and Sanctions

Norms Sanctions

Formal

Informal

Positive Negative

Salary bonus Demotion

Testimonial Firing from a job

Medal Jail sentence

Diploma Expulsion

Smile Frown

Compliment Humiliation

Cheers Belittling

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ValuesValues are collective conceptions of what is are collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable, and proper —or considered good, desirable, and proper —or bad, undesirable, and improper—in a culture. bad, undesirable, and improper—in a culture. Values influence people’s behavior and serve Values influence people’s behavior and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others. as criteria for evaluating the actions of others. There is often a direct relationship among the There is often a direct relationship among the values, norms, and sanctions of a culture.values, norms, and sanctions of a culture.

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Culture and the Dominant IdeologyCulture and the Dominant Ideology

Dominant ideologyDominant ideology describes the set of cultural describes the set of cultural beliefs and practices that help to maintain beliefs and practices that help to maintain powerful social, economic, and political interests.powerful social, economic, and political interests.

[e.g., [e.g., dominant ideology and povertydominant ideology and poverty

individualistic and structural explanations, individualistic and structural explanations,

income lines among racial and ethnic income lines among racial and ethnic

minoritiesminorities]

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FunctionalistsFunctionalists maintain that stability requires a maintain that stability requires a consensus and the support of society’s members; consensus and the support of society’s members; consequently, there are strong central values and consequently, there are strong central values and common norms. common norms. Conflict theoristsConflict theorists agree that a common agree that a common culture may exist, but they argue that it serves to culture may exist, but they argue that it serves to maintain the privileges of some groups rather than maintain the privileges of some groups rather than others. From a conflict perspective, the dominant others. From a conflict perspective, the dominant ideology has major social significance. Not only do a ideology has major social significance. Not only do a society’s most powerful groups and institutions control society’s most powerful groups and institutions control wealth and property; even more important, they control wealth and property; even more important, they control the means of producing beliefs about reality through the means of producing beliefs about reality through religion, education, and the media.religion, education, and the media.

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Cultural Variation Cultural Variation Aspects of cultural variationAspects of cultural variation

A A subculturesubculture （次文化）（次文化） is a segment of society is a segment of society that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, that shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways, and values that differ from the patterns of the larger and values that differ from the patterns of the larger society. The existence of many subcultures is society. The existence of many subcultures is characteristic of complex societies such as the United characteristic of complex societies such as the United States. Members of a subculture participate in the States. Members of a subculture participate in the dominant culture, while at the same time engaging in dominant culture, while at the same time engaging in their unique and distinctive forms of behavior. their unique and distinctive forms of behavior. Frequently, a subculture will develop an Frequently, a subculture will develop an argot argot （（隱語） , or specialized language, which distinguishes it or specialized language, which distinguishes it from the wider society.from the wider society.

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Subcultures may be based on common Subcultures may be based on common ageage (teenagers or old people), (teenagers or old people), regionregion (Appalachians), (Appalachians), ethnic heritageethnic heritage (Cuban (Cuban Americans), Americans), occupationoccupation (fire-fighters), (fire-fighters), beliefsbeliefs (deaf activists working to preserve (deaf activists working to preserve deaf culture), or deaf culture), or shared interestshared interest or or hobbyhobby (computer hackers). (computer hackers).

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Cont.Cont.

When a subculture conspicuously and When a subculture conspicuously and deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger deliberately opposes certain aspects of the larger culture, it is known as aculture, it is known as a Countercultures Countercultures （反抗（反抗

文化）文化） typically thrive among the young, typically thrive among the young, who have the least investment in the who have the least investment in the existing culture. In most cases, a 20-year-existing culture. In most cases, a 20-year-old can adjust to new cultural standards old can adjust to new cultural standards more easily than someone who has spent more easily than someone who has spent 60 years following the patterns of the 60 years following the patterns of the dominant culture.dominant culture.

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Anyone who feels disoriented, out of place, Anyone who feels disoriented, out of place, even fearful, when immersed in an unfamiliar even fearful, when immersed in an unfamiliar culture may be experiencing culture may be experiencing culture shock culture shock （文化震撼）（文化震撼） . All of us, to some extent, take for . All of us, to some extent, take for granted the cultural practices of our society. granted the cultural practices of our society. As a result, it can be surprising and even As a result, it can be surprising and even disturbing to realize that other cultures do not disturbing to realize that other cultures do not follow our ‘way of life.’follow our ‘way of life.’

[e.g., US people see dog meat eaters in China; a strict [e.g., US people see dog meat eaters in China; a strict

Islamic woman is shocked by provocative dress on a Islamic woman is shocked by provocative dress on a US teen.]US teen.]

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VS.Islamic Women Dress

Proactive Dress of Western Women

2323Long-neck tribe of ThailandLong-neck tribe of Thailand

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Sociologists William Graham Sumner coined the term Sociologists William Graham Sumner coined the term ethnocentrism ethnocentrism (( 民族優越感民族優越感 )) to refer to the to refer to the tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of tendency to assume that one’s own culture and way of life constitute the norm or are superior to all others. life constitute the norm or are superior to all others. The ethnocentric person sees his or her own group as The ethnocentric person sees his or her own group as the center or defining point of culture and views all the center or defining point of culture and views all other cultures as deviations from what is “normal.” other cultures as deviations from what is “normal.” Conflict theorists point out that ethnocentric value Conflict theorists point out that ethnocentric value judgments serve to devalue groups and to deny equal judgments serve to devalue groups and to deny equal opportunities. Functionalists note that ethnocentrism opportunities. Functionalists note that ethnocentrism serves to maintain a sense of solidarity by promoting serves to maintain a sense of solidarity by promoting group pride.group pride.

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While ethnocentrism evaluates foreign cultures While ethnocentrism evaluates foreign cultures using the familiar culture of the observer as a using the familiar culture of the observer as a standard of correct behavior, standard of correct behavior, cultural cultural relativismrelativism (( 文化相對性文化相對性 )) views people’s views people’s behavior from the perspective of their own behavior from the perspective of their own culture. It places a priority on understanding culture. It places a priority on understanding other cultures, rather than dismissing them as other cultures, rather than dismissing them as ‘strange’ or ‘exotic.’ Unlike ethnocentrism, ‘strange’ or ‘exotic.’ Unlike ethnocentrism, cultural relativism employs the kind of cultural relativism employs the kind of valuevalue neutralityneutrality in scientific study that Max Weber in scientific study that Max Weber saw as so important.saw as so important.

[e.g., a story of Chinese immigrants in the NYC][e.g., a story of Chinese immigrants in the NYC]

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XenocentrismXenocentrism （反向的種族中心主義）（反向的種族中心主義） is the is the belief that the products, styles, or ideas of belief that the products, styles, or ideas of one’s society are inferior to those that one’s society are inferior to those that originate elsewhere. In a sense, it is a reverse originate elsewhere. In a sense, it is a reverse ethnocentrism. ethnocentrism.

[[HHääagen Dazsagen Dazs ice cream, made in New Jersey, ice cream, made in New Jersey, USA, is an example to make it sounded USA, is an example to make it sounded EuropeanEuropean]]

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BilingualismBilingualism refers to the use of two or more languages in a refers to the use of two or more languages in a particular setting, such as the workplace or educational particular setting, such as the workplace or educational facilities, treating each language as equally legitimate. Thus, a facilities, treating each language as equally legitimate. Thus, a program of bilingual education may instruct children in their program of bilingual education may instruct children in their native language while gradually introducing them to the native language while gradually introducing them to the language of the host society. For a long time people in the language of the host society. For a long time people in the United States demanded conformity to a single language. In a United States demanded conformity to a single language. In a sense, this demand coincides with the functionalist view that sense, this demand coincides with the functionalist view that language serves to unify members of a society. Beginning in language serves to unify members of a society. Beginning in the 1960s, active movements for Black pride and ethnic pride the 1960s, active movements for Black pride and ethnic pride insisted that people regard the traditions of all racial and ethnic insisted that people regard the traditions of all racial and ethnic subcultures as legitimate and important. Conflict theorists subcultures as legitimate and important. Conflict theorists explain this development as a case of subordinated language explain this development as a case of subordinated language minorities seeking opportunities of self-expression. The minorities seeking opportunities of self-expression. The perspective of conflict theory also helps us understand some of perspective of conflict theory also helps us understand some of the attacks on bilingual programs. Many of them stem from an the attacks on bilingual programs. Many of them stem from an ethnocentric point of view, which holds that any deviation ethnocentric point of view, which holds that any deviation from the majority is bad.from the majority is bad.