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TEMA 1 THE MEANING OF HISTORY AND CULTURE. SOME PRELIINAR Y IDEAS: “THE COMPLEX WHOLE”-, HISTORY AS PROCESS; CULTURE A N IDENTITY. WHAT IS CULTURE Harold Bloom > multiculturalism Gustavo Bueno> the myth of culture Philip Sidney > poet creates anew H.G. Gadamer > ludus ETIMOLOGY a.- Cultus > cultivate the earth b.- Civilis > belonging to the city ANTHROPOLOGY: (Taylor, Primitive Culture, 1871) “…is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society.” It is connected with the daily patterns of living, attitudes, habits, believes, values... It has a more ethnographic approach based on observation and data collection, so we observe the behaviour of people. KEY WORDS: COMPLEX WHOLE: Real and symbolic system > life ACQUIRED: Elaborated and transmitted by society NOTES: 1.- Traditional and historical process and value 2.- Culture is stronger than life and stronger than death WHAT IS THE MEANING AND FUNCTION OF CULTURE? 1.- The functional level 2.- The imaginary level

SO CULTURE = SOCIO-CULTURAL SYSTEM SOCIO-CULTURAL SYSTEM: 1.- All societies have a culture 2.- Continuus comunication 3.- Universal human values 4.- Modal personality 1.- All societies have a culture Toda sociedad posee una cultura = la cultura poseída por un grupo discernible y autónomo (una sociedad) de seres humanos. Conjunto de elementos, objetos, instituciones, conceptos, ideas, costumbres, creencias e Imágenes que distinguen a una sociedad de otra y las identifica en sí mismas.

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All societies have a culture = the culture owned by an autonomous and discernible group (a society) of human beings. Group of elements, objects, institutions, concepts, ideas, customs, beliefs, that make different a society from another and that identify themselves. 2.- Continuus comunication Todos los elementos de una cultura están en continua comunicación, en continua relación e interrelación con ellos mismos y con los de otras culturas. Los elementos culturales pueden pasar libremente de un sistema a otro (difusión cultural), pero hay un límite que nos señala la distinción entre un sistema y otro, y de un mismo sistema durante un período de tiempo. All the elements of a culture are in continuus comunication, in continuus relation between them and with another cultures. The cultural elements can pass from a system to another (cultural spreadin) but there is a limit that shows us the different between a system and another, and the differences on the system during a period of time. 3.- Universal human values Todo sistema sociocultural posee los componentes de la cultura humana en su conjunto y los expresa de un modo particular y único. Las variaciones entre los sistemas se deben a las diferencias entre los hábitat físicos y los recursos, al rango de posibilidades inherente en las varias áreas de actividad, y al grado de desarrollo. Each socio-cultural system has the components of the human culture on the whole and express it in an unique and particular way. Variations between system are due to the differences between the physical habitats and , the inherent range of posibilities in the various activities areas and to the development degree. 4.- Modal personality Relación entre cultura e identidad. La relación entre cultura y personalidad individual viene marcada por el proceso por el que la personalidad individual se forma y se desarrolla bajo la influencia de su entorno cultural. En la especie humana el niño llega al mundo sin cultura; su comportamiento, sus actitudes, los valores, su ideales, y creencias, así como su aparente actividad motora se ve influida poderosamente por la cultura que le rodea. Personalidad modal : la suma del factor biológico y el factor cultural. Tesis: La sociedad y el individuo preceden a la cultura, pero no hay identidad social ni individual sin cultura. Relation between culture and individual personality is marked by the process for which individual personality forms and developes under the influence of its cultural enviroment. In human beings, the child comes into the world without a culture; his behaviour, attitudes, values, ideals and beliefs, as his apparent motor skills is hughely influyed by the culture that surround him. Modal personality: the sum of the biologic factor plus the cultural factor. Thesis: The society an the individual precede the culture, but there is not social or individual identity without culture.

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TEMA 2 THE BEBINNING: MODES OF THOUGHT: CHRISTIAN, CLASSIC AL AND GERMANIC PERSPECTIVES. BRITANNIA AND ENGLAD ( - 10 66) 1.- PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD: 3.500 BC > 55 BC NEOLITIC, BRONZE AND IRON AGES 50000 BC this is the first mark of people living in Britain. 10000 BC people inhabitant the Isles were organized in small groups of hunters and fishers. c. 3.500 B.C.- Stonehenge (ancient Britons) 3000 BC which is called the Neolithic or New Stone Age: People have already learnt how to keep animals, so they didn´t depend on hunting. They also learnt how to grow crops, so they cultivated things they needed. They also have learnt how to make pottery, so how to keep food in containers. A revolution took place: the appearance of farming which allowed people to settle down a concrete place. There are remains of some public works belonging to this period:

1. The barrows: burial mounds made of earth or stone. 2. Henges: circles of earth banks and ditches Inside these circles there were

wooden building and stone circles. These henges were centers of economic, political and religious power. The best known of these henges is Stonehenge.

c. 3.500 –1200: Farming (houses and separate walled fields), pottery, primitive burial rite known as “corpse exposure”, metal objects. 1300 BC We can find a settle farming class that had learnt how to enrich the soil with natual waste material (this is the difference between the previous). They could also work the metal, mainly the bronze. In this period the tools and weapons were made of bronze and not of stone as in the previous period. The centers of local power were hill-forts: family villages in fortified enclosures. Another change is that the power in the British Isles moved to the Thames Valley. c.1200-1000: Emergence of a warrior class who now begins to take a central role in society. c.1100 – (Geoffrey of Monmouth) suggests that Brutus arrives about this time. THE CELTS By 700 BC this tribe arrived to the Island and stayed there during 7 centuries. The came from central Europe and they are importat in the British history because they are the ancestros of many people in Scotland, Wales, Cornwall and Irelad. Their influece is still present in the country thank to the fact that Celtic languages are still spoken in these areas: Gaelic,Welsh, Cornish and Irish. The Celts were organized into different tribes and these tribes had chiefs. In this period, the hill-forts remained and these hill-forts were also centers of local power. They were technically advanced an they could work the iron, so they had better weapons and better tools. They were practiced farmers and they had more advanced ploughing methods thanks to the use of iron. Celts introduced the use of iron, which made them stronger at battles. The could work heavier/harder soils.

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The Celts were also good traders.They traded across their border to two different places: by the Firth of Forth (importance of the port of Edingburgh in order to trade with Europe), and by the River Thames. They also traded with other tribes in Ireland. Celts occupied the whole area in 700 BC. In some parts of te British Isles they absorbed the previous culture, but in others they pushed population to the west. Celtic culture was later on destroyed by Romans, who described Celts as wild and uncivilizated people. On the contrary, Celts were a very sophisticated culture an it was brilliant in some features that nowadays can still be noticed in language and culture; they were also excellent farmers. During the Celtic period women may have had more independece than they ad again for hundreds of years; 2 of the largest tribes were ruled by women (like Bodicea, who fougt against Romans and after some victories, was defeated and kill). c.500 - Evidence of the spread of Celtic customs and artefacts across Britain. Druids - "the hidden people“ - the intellectual class of the Celts The Celtic tribes were ruled by a warrior class and some of the important members of this warrior class were the priest called druids. These druids couldn´t write or read but they memorized all the religious teaching, the tribal laws, the history, the medicine, any kind of knowledge necessary for organization of the Celtic society. The role of druids was basic in Celtic culture. They were:

- Diviners, seers. - Sacrificial priest. - Recorders of history (memoriy of the clan) - Teachers of other druids. - Judges - Official poets or bards for the king and court.

CELTIC BRITAIN (600 BC-50 AD)

2.- ROMAN PERIOD: 55 BC > 420 AD 2. a.- ALBION/BRITANNIA 55 BC > 420 AD At the end of these 7 centuries, the Romans arrived to the Island. It was the year zero or the beginning of the Christian era. 55 BC - Julius Caesar's first invasion of Britain. The first chief who came to Britain was Julius Caesar, in 55 BC. He gathered information about the Island, but he didn´t invaded it.

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The Romans invaded because the Celts of Britain were working with the Celts of Gaul against them, and they realised that the only way of conquering Gaul was attacking from the north. Once Romans won the war, they forgot about the British Isles for some years. AD 5 AD- Rome acknowledges Cymbeline, King of the Catuvellauni, as king of Britain AD. 43 Romans finally settled down, imposing their language, culture, laws and tradition, destroyin the Celtic roots. Using the oral transmision, the Celtic druids tried to keep their cultural memory alive through generatios, but Romans destroyed druids to make an easier imposition of Roman culture. 51 - Caratacus, British resistance leader, is captured and taken to Rome He was a historical British chieftain of the Catuvellauni tribe, who led the British resistance to the Roman conquest. 61 - Boudicca, queen of the Iceni, led uprising against the Roman occupiers, but is defeated and killed by the Roman governor, Suetonius Paulinus In 61 AD, the queen of Iceni, Boudica, revolted against the Roman army but was defeated. This was the last native rebellion. Trom this time onwards, a period of peace began to emerge. c.75-77 - The Roman conquest of Britain is complete, as Wales is finally subdued; Julius Agricola is imperial governor (to 84) It was early in 43 AD, when a Roman army led by Claudius invaded the Island and made it part of the Roman Empire. The conquest of the Island was quite easy because the Romans had a better trained army and the Celts were fighting against themselves. Romans were interested in Britain because two reasons: - The Celts in Britain were helping the Celts of Gaul against the Romans by giving

them food and by allowing them to hide in Britain. - Britain became an importat food producer (mainly cereals) and Rome needed food

for its army and for the other parts of the empire that didn´t have so much food. Romans conquered England easily because the Celtic society didn´t have professional warriors, nevertheless it’s true that Celts had a cult of war that can be observed through their artistic manifestations: - Celtic helmets: in some cases, they had a great degree of ormanentation depending on the man who wore it. - Shields: ornamented. - Swords: reconstructed handles. 122 - Construction of Hadrian 's Wall ordered along the northern frontier, for the purpose of hindering incursions of the aggressive tribes there into Britannia The influence of the Roman-British civilization covered only part of the Island: from The River Humber downward and from The River Severn eastward. The romans could never conquer what they called Caledonia (Scotland) and they even had to build a wall across the country to stop the tribes coming from the North coming into the Roman area: Hadrian´s Wall. 306 - Constantine (later to be known as "the Great") was proclaimed Emperor at York. Constantine was the first Roman emperor who made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire in the Ivth century AD. 360's - Series of attacks on Britain from the north by the Picts, the Attacotti and the Irish (Scots), requiring the intervention of Roman generals leading special legions. The year 367 was the beginning of the end. It was an age dominated by productivity intense trade (silver, tin, iron, animals, slaves...) commercial expasion and farming.

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The situation created a division in society into the ‘honestiones’ (wealthy people) and the ‘humiliores’ (poor people). This social division was new. This was also the time of the appearacne of ‘roman Villas’. In the entire roman world, uran growth was in decline, whereas rural areas were growing. The reason was the beginning of political instability that brought a decline in trade, which strongly affected the cities. The ‘villa’ appeared as a self-sufficient centre. This Romano-British civilization lasted for around 4 centuries of occupation because by the year 400 AC, the Roman Empire started to collapse. In 410 Roman soldiers abandoned Britain. They had a great influece in the history and culture of the country: - Romans brought reading and writing to Britain. It was importat for the spreading

of ideas and for the establishment of power. - They left in Britain the organization of towns which had their origin in Celtic

settlement, in market centres and military camps. What Romans did was to turn these places into towns following a grid-like plan:

When the Romans left the country there were around 20 towns with 50,000 inhabitants. They had markets, shops and even had some public services. Romans built an importat network of main and secondary roads linking most important towns. Most of these roads started from London (20,000 inhabitants at that period) and went out to the other cities. Some of these routes have been kept nowadays. So the most importat town was London which became the capital city of this Roman territory and it had became an important trading centre with Northen Europe. Outside the towns, there were some large farms called villas, which produced food, crops and animals that were taken to towns and distributed from there. ROMAN BRITAIN (45 BC -420 AD)

The romans brought the skills of reading and writing to Britain, and soon Latin and roman traditions were accepted, especially by town people. Latin disappeared when the Anglo-Saxons invaded Britain.

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WHAT THE ROMANS BROUGHT TO THE ISLAND The name: Britannia One example of their influence over Britain is in the name of the Isle: the word Britain comes from the Greco-Roman noun Britani < Pretani < Britannia. The roads: radial roads from London Romans built an importat network of main and secondary roads linking most important towns. Most of these roads started from London (20,000 inhabitants at that period) and went out to the other cities. Some of these routes have been kept nowadays. So the most importat town was London which became the capital city of this Roman territory and it had became an important trading centre with Northen Europe. The cities: Chester, Colchester, Bath, York, etc. - They left in Britain the organization of towns which had their origin in Celtic

settlement, in market centres and military camps. What Romans did was to turn these places into towns following a grid-like plan:

When the Romans left the country there were around 20 towns with 50,000 inhabitants. The towns were the basis of Roman administration and cvilisation. Many of this towns were at first army camps; the Latin word ‘castra’ remained part of many towns names to this days eith the endings ‘Chester, caster or cester’. The law: Roman law Roman law is the legal system of ancient Rome. New techniques: army, agriculture, rivers, sailing, etc. 410 A.D. Romans leave Britain This Romano-British civilization lasted for around 4 centuries of occupation because by the year 400 AC, the Roman Empire started to collapse. In 410 Roman soldiers abandoned Britain. 4.- CHRISTIAN WORLD: 450 Christianity had been introduced in the last part of the Roman period It became quite popular with Celts and the Celts kept this Christian religion. When the Saxons arrived, they brought their own gods and religion. At the end of the 6th century, the year 597, the Pope at that time (Gregory the Great) decided to send a monk called Augustine to the Isles in order to reestablish Christianity. Augustine became the 1st Archbishop of Canterbury. The kind of religion he establishd was known as the Roman Church. Quite known by the nobility, it was involved in the power and it had very good connections with Pope. However, there was another church known as the Celtic Churc: that was the Christianty that had been retained by Celts. It was popular with ordinar people. The Bishops were not interested in power, but speading the word of God. They came out of the monasteries to be with the ordinary poeple. Very often, they didn´t agree with the Pope. The one which became more importat was the Roman Church because it increased the power of the monarch. How? The Church established several monasteries which became centers of learning and education. Men were taught to read and write, and they also were trained to work in the administration of the monarch The stornger the administration was, the stronger the monarch could be.

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One of the monach who made a greater use of the church was King Alfred. He used those men educated in monasteries to establish a new system of law to educate other people, and he and his men wrote books about important events in the country. 1.- period Christianity had been introduced in the last part of the Roman period. It became quiet popular with Celts and the Celts kept this Christian religion. 313 - Edict of Toleration proclaimed at Milan An edict of toleration is a declaration made by a government or ruler and states that members of a given religion will not be persecuted for engaging in their religious practices and traditions. The edict implies tacit acceptance of the religion rather than its endorsement by the ruling power. 311 - Roman Emperor Constantine I issued the Edict of Toleration that legalized Christianity. c. 450.- Irish monks founded monasteries in Dalriada, Iona (West Scotland) and Lindisfarne and Jarrow (Northumbria) The Romans had left Egland around 407 to defend the south of their empire, leaving the British population withut ant defend from invasions of Jutes, Saxons or Angles. In 500 AD in a manuscript about the ‘battle of Mons Badanous’ it is told about a king called Arthur taht won this struggle against the invaders, which the origin of the legend. The new waves of invaders pushed the native population to the west Between 430 and 460 a monk called St Patrick christianised Ireland. He might be from Wales or Cornwal, but pushed into Irelad due to the new waves of invaders. c.540 - Probable writing of Gildas' "De Excidio Britanniae." Gildas' surviving written work, De Excidio Britanniae or On the Ruin of Britain, is a sermon in three parts condemning the acts of his contemporaries, both secular and religious. The first part consists of Gildas' explanation for his work and a brief narrative of Roman Britain from its conquest under the principate to Gildas' time In the second part, opening with the assertion "Britain has kings, yet they are tyrants; it has judges, yet they are undutiful", Gildas addresses the lives and actions of five contemporary rulers: Constantine of Dumnonia, Aurelius Caninus, Vortiporius of the Demetae (now called Dyfed), Cuneglasus apparently of 'the Bear's Home' (possibly 'the Bear's Stronghold' - Dinarth at Llandrillo-yn-Rhôs near Llandudno), and lastly Maglocunus or Maelgwn. Without exception, Gildas declares each of these rulers cruel, rapacious, and living a life of sin. The third part begins with the words, "Britain has priests, but they are fools; numerous ministers, but they are shameless; clerics, but they are wily plunderers." Gildas continues his jeremiad against the clergy of his age, but does not explicitly mention any names in this section, and so does not cast any light on the history of the Christian church in this period. Gildas's work is of great importance to historians, because although it is not intended primarily as history, it is almost the only surviving source written by a near-contemporary of British events in the fifth and sixth centuries. The usual date that has been given for the composition of the work is some time in the 540s, but it is now regarded as quite possibly earlier, in the first quarter of the sixth century, or even before that. 550 - St. David takes Christianity to Wales 563 - Irish monk, St. Columba founds a monastery on island of Iona and begins conversion of the Picts to Christianity.

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He was the monk responsible for taking Christianity from Ireland to Scotland. Columba was founder of the first Christian monastery in Scotland, Iona (563-565). 597 - St. Augustine comes from Rome. Canterbury, first Archbishop. When the Saxons arrived, they brought their own Gods and religion. At the end of the 6th century, the year 597, the Pope at that time (Gregory The Great) decided to send a monk called Augustine to the Isles in order to reestablish Christianity. Augustine became the 1st archbishop of Canterbury the kind of religion he establised was known as the Roman Church. Quite known by the nobility, it was involved in the power and it had very good connections with Pope. However, there was another church known as the Celtic Church: that was the Christianity that had been retained by Celts. It was popular with ordinary people. The bishops were not interested in power, but spreading the word of God. They came out of the monasteries to be with the ordinary people. Very often, they didn´t agree with the Pope. The one which became more importat was the Roman Church because it increased the power of the monarchs. How? The Church established several monasteries which became centers of learning and education. Men were taught to read and write, and they also were trained to work in the administration of the Monarch. The stronger the adminstration was, the stronger the Monarch could be. One of the monarch who made a greater use of the church was king Alfred (King of Wessex in 9th century). He used those men educated in monasteries to establish a new system of law to educate other people, and he and his men wrote books about importat events in the country 2.- period c. 600.- Conversion to Christianity of Aethelbert and other Saxon leaders. King of Kent ( 560 - 616 ). First Anglo Saxon king to be converted to Christianity in 597. He was married to a Christian Frankish princess named Bertha. His wife, a Christian, was the deciding factor that led St Augustine to start his conversion mission in Kent. Kent was the first kingdom to become Christian. It became the home of the Archbishop of Canterbury or Primate of all England. 600-700.- Heptarquy: Anglo-Saxon seven kingdoms Jutes, Angles and Saxons. These 3 tribes established 7 different kingdoms or an heptarchy: They didn´t have one single king, but several. This caused the division of England. Kent (Jutes) Essex (Saxons) Sussex (Saxons) Wessex (Saxons) East Anglia (Angles) Mercia (Angles) 663.- Synod of Whitby The clash between the Celtic and Roman churches took place in Northumbira. The king Oswy decided then to choose the Roman branch (Synod of Whitby) leaving the Celtic church in the North-west of Britain separated from the roman church int he south-east. But why this Anglo-Saxon replaced his own religion wihout any violence? The reason why Oswy chose the Roman church was the prestige of the Roman culture and civilisation, because Anglo-Saxons didn´t possess that knowledge of organisation (libraries, education, taxation....) that Romans had and Anglo-Saxons needed so much

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to organise their reigns. The Roman monks were then considered useful by the kings, so the imposition of Christianity was made from top of society to bottom. From the Synod of Whitby onwards, both king and church worked together for centuries. 673-735.- Venerable Bede Bede was a Benedictine monk at the Northumbrian monastery of Saint Peter at Monkwearmouth, today part of Sunderland, and of its companion monastery, Saint Paul's, in modern Jarrow (see Wearmouth-Jarrow), both in the English county of Durham (now Tyne and Wear). He is well known as an author and scholar, and his most famous work, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (The Ecclesiastical History of the English People) gained him the title "The father of English history". Giving in five books and 400 pages the history of England, ecclesiastical and political, from the time of Caesar to the date of its completion (731). 700/50.- Beowulf Beowulf is an Old English heroic epic poem of anonymous authorship. Its creation dates to between the 8th[1] and the 11th century, the only surviving manuscript dating to circa 1010.[2] At 3183 lines, it is notable for its length. It has risen to national epic status in England.[3]. In the poem, Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, battles three antagonists: Grendel, who is attacking the Danish mead hall called Heorot and its inhabitants; Grendel's mother; and, later in life after returning to Geatland (modern southern Sweden) and becoming a king, an unnamed dragon. He is mortally wounded in the final battle, and after his death he is buried in a barrow in Geatland by his retainers. The events described in the poem take place in the late 5th century and during the 6th century after the Anglo-Saxons had begun their migration and settlement in England, and before it had ended, a time when the Anglo-Saxons were either newly arrived or in close contact with their fellow Germanic kinsmen in Scandinavia and Northern Germany. The events described in the poem take place in the late 5th century and during the 6th century after the Anglo-Saxons had begun their migration and settlement in England, and before it had ended, a time when the Anglo-Saxons were either newly arrived or in close contact with their fellow Germanic kinsmen in Scandinavia and Northern Germany. 735-804.- Alcuin of York Alcuin of York had a long career as a teacher and scholar, first at the school at York now known as St Peter's School, York (founded AD 627) and later as Charlemagne's leading advisor on ecclesiastical and educational affairs. From 796 until his death he was abbot of the great monastery of St. Martin of Tours. Alcuin came to the cathedral school of York in the golden age of Egbert and Eadbert. Egbert had been a disciple of the Venerable Bede who urged him to have York raised to an archbishopric. These two men oversaw the reenergizing and reorganization of the English church with an emphasis on reforming the clergy and on the tradition of learning begun under Bede Scandinavian invasions (late 8th century) 793 Lindisfarne destroyed The monastery of Lindisfarne was founded by Irish born Saint Aidan, who had been sent from Iona off the west coast of Scotland to Northumbria at the request of King Oswald around AD 635. It became the base for Christian evangelising in the North of England and also sent a successful mission to Mercia. Monks from the community of Iona settled

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on the island. Northumberland's patron saint, Saint Cuthbert, was a monk and later Abbot of the monastery, and his miracles and life are recorded by the Venerable Bede. Cuthbert later became Bishop of Lindisfarne. In 793 A.D. a Viking raid on Lindisfarne caused much consternation throughout the Christian west, and is now often taken as the beginning of the Viking Age 794 Jarrow destroyed The Monastery of Saint Paul in Jarrow, part of the twin foundation Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Priory, was once the home of the Venerable Bede, whose most notable works include The Ecclesiastical History of the English People and the translation of the Gospel of John into Old English. At the time of its foundation, it was reputed to have been the only centre of learning in Europe north of Rome. In 794 Jarrow became the second target in England of the Vikings, who had plundered Lindisfarne in 793. The Monastery was later dissolved by Henry VIII. 795 Iona destroyed In 563 Saint Columba, also known as Colm Cille, was exiled from his native Ireland as a result of his involvement in the Battle of Cul Dreimhne,[citation needed] and founded a monastery here with 12 companions. From Iona they set about the conversion of pagan Scotland and much of northern England to Christianity. Iona's fame as a place of learning and Christian mission spread throughout Europe and it became a major site of pilgrimage. Iona became a holy island where several kings of Scotland, Ireland and Norway came to be buried. A series of Viking raids on the monastery on Iona began in 794, and after its treasures had been plundered many times, Columba’s relics were removed and divided two ways between Scotland and Ireland in 849 as the monastery was abandoned 849-899/901Alfred the Great One of the monarch who made a greater use of the church was king Alfred (King of Wessex in 9th century). He used those men educated in monasteries to establish a new system of law to educate other people, and he and his men wrote books about importat events in the country 878 Treaty of Wedmore The Peace of Wedmore is a term used by Historians for an event referred to by the monk Asser in his Life of Alfred, outlining how in 878 the Viking leader Guthrum was baptised and accepted Alfred as his adoptive father. Guthrum agreed to leave Wessex ANGLO-SAXON KINGDOMS AND CHRISTIAN SITES (600)

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WHAT CHRISTIANITY BROUGHT TO THE ISLAND Roman alphabet Christianity, however, that overshadows the literary achievements of the age. In most of lowland Britain, Latin had become the language of administration and education, especially since Celtic writing was virtually unknown. Latin was also the language of the Church in Rome. The old Celtic gods had given way to the new ones such as Mithras introduced by the Roman mercenaries; they were again replaced when missionaries from Gaul introduced Christianity to the islands. By 3l4, an organized Christian Church seems to have been established in most of Britain, for in that year British bishops were summoned to the Council of Arles. By the end of the fourth century, a diocesan structure had been set up, many districts having come under the pastoral care of a bishop. Teocratic religion > Christian The Christianity of England moved in the direction and rule of Roman Catholicism. Roman Catholicism involved a deep, devout belief in God; however, this meant being controlled under the guise of the “man of God,” the Papacy, rather than being directed by the Son of God, Jesus. Providence as instrument of History Monasteries: literacy, Classical cultura Church education. Churches were almost the only forum for education. Under the auspices of Alfred the Great church schools were encouraged, and many Latin works were translated into English. The higher church officials also played important secular roles; advising the king, witnessing charters, and administering estates of the church, which could be exceedingly large. Religious buildings Most church buildings were built of stone, but this was not true of domestic buildings. Even in towns, very few buildings would have had even a stone foundation. Most dwellings were wooden, with low, thatched roofs, an open hearth in a floor of earth or gravel, and walls of planks or wattle and daub. Especially in towns, where then, as today, buildings were crowded together, fire was an ever present danger. Administrative division of the land ROMAN/CHRISTIAN/SAXON CULTURES: MIXTURE Main topics: 1.- Preservation and transmission of Classical Culture Missionary schools were established in order to train clergy so a s to ensure the spread of Latin Christianity. 2.- Searching for identity: History and Chronicle 3.- Providence as an instrument of History 4.- Tradition and Innovation 5.- Arthurian Myth When the inestability of the roman Empire grew, England began to be isolated in the map. Many places in England were attacked and town life disappeared. We no longer have a province, but different territories ruled by ‘contes’ who organised the defence. This was the time of the legend of King Arthur, who was probably on of those ‘contes’.

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In 500 AD in a manuscript about the ‘battle of Mons Badanous’ it is told about a king called Arthur taht won this struggle against the invaders, which the origin of the legend. CHRISTIANITY Christianity came at the pagan Anglo-Saxons from two directions. The Celtic Church, pushed back into Wales, Cornwall, and particularly Ireland, made inroads in the north from an early base on Lindisfarne Island. The Roman Catholic Church approached from the south, beginning with the mission of St.Augustine to Aethelbert, King of Kent, in 597. Saxon churches. The Celtic and Roman churches, though not incompatible, certainly enjoyed differences of opinion and practice. The Celtic church was ascetic, fervent, based on monastic life, and more loosely organized. The Roman church was more conscious of structure, discipline, and moderation. They also celebrated Easter on different days. To resolve their differences they met at the Synod of Whitby in 664, where the Roman cause triumphed. The church was a very important force in society; the only truly national entity tying together the different Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The early monasteries of Northumberland were vital centres of learning and the arts until they were scourged by the Viking raids of the 9th century.

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TEMA 3 3.- ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD: 410 -1066 GERMANIC/TEUTONIC WORLD. Two periods: 1.- From 400 till 800, mainly in the North 2.- From 800 (Scandinavian invasions) till 1066, in Wessex 1.- First invasions > 410 A.D. Early Anglo-Saxon Invasions > c.438 - Probable birth of Ambrosius Aurelianus > c.428.- Vortigern, British Leader invited Hengist and Horsa, Saxon leaders, to Britain as mercenaries. > c. 452-458.- Anglo-Saxon invasion: Jutes, Angles, Saxons These germanic tribes – also called Anglo-Saxons- came from North and Central Europe around the year 400 AD. The reason to invade Britain was that its wealth was a temptation for any tribe. The Saxons were warlike and illiterate. We distiguish 3 tribes:

1. Jutes: they settled in the South east of the Island, in the area of k¡Kent. 2. Angles: Tey conquered the biggest area end setteld in the east and midlans of

the Island; this in Esst Anlia, Mercia, Northumbria. 3. Saxons-, they settled in the south of the Island excpet Kente; this is in Essex,

Sussex and Wessex. These 3 tribes established 7 different kingdoms or an heptarchy: They didn´t have one single king, but several. This caused the division of England.

1. Kent (Jutes) 2. Essex (Saxons) 3. Sussex (Saxons) 4. Wessex (Saxons) 5. East Anglia (Angles) 6. Mercia (Angles) 7. Northumbria (angles)

> c.465 - Arthur probably born around this time. People living there, the Celts, were pushed into the mountains in the North, so to Scotland. They also were pushed to Wales, some others to the area of Cornwall and some other crossed the sea and went to the Roman region of Armonica. (Brittany). Ireland wasn´t invade by Romans neither by the Saxons, so it remained Celtic. This is the period when the leged of King Arthur started. Characteristics of the Celts who were pushed by the Saxons: - They all lived in tribes and they had their tribal chieves. They had some kingdoms

that were independent from the Saxons kingdoms. - This people reatined the Celtic language an Celtic culture. - Land holding and animal property system which was a community system; the

land/animals belonged to the whole tribe/to the whole comunity. - They were Christians. > 450-750.- the invaders settle all over the land Saxons organization: - Government:

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They created some institutions. The best known is the Witan: a kind of king’s council, a group of people who advice and support the king on different matters. This Witan has suvived up to nowadays known as Privy council. So the aim of this Witan has survided. - Admistration of the country: They divided the land into administrative areas that they called shires. In each shire there was a shire reeve or a sheriff who has the local adminstrator. Each shire was divided into districts and in each district there was a manor or a big house. This was the place where the local villager went to pay taxes, where justice was aministrated and it was also the place where man gahtered to make an army when it was necessary. The lord of the manor house was encharged of organizing all thes things and he aslo had to make sure that land was properly shared. - Agricuture: The Saxons introduced new techniques in agriculture (new ploughs). This new ploughs a very heavy one which was difficult to use and to turn. Therefore, the land had to be ploughed in straight lines. So the common land belong to the whole village was divided into several fields, and then a field was divided into long stripes of land:

Each family had several of these stripes of land . At the same time, the plough had to be puled by several oxen A few families could afford to have so many animals, so they were shared in order to have a co-operative kind of work. The land was divided into 4: one devoted to spring crop, other devoted to autumn crop, and the 3rd was left to rest. They kept runing and this was used up to the 18th century: Anglo-Saxon Cronicle 449 In this year Mauricius and Valentinian obtained the Kingdom and reigned seven years. In their days Hengest and Horsa, invited by Vortigern, King of the Britons, came to Britain at a place called Ebbsfleet at first to help the Britons, but later they fought against them. The king ordered them to fight against the Picts, and so they did and had victory wherever they came. They then sent to Angeln; ordered them to send them more aid and to be told of the worthlessness of the Britons and of the excellence of the land. They sent them more aid. These men came from three nations of Germany: from the Old Saxons, from the Angles, from the Jutes. From the Jutes came the people of Kent and the people of the Isle of Wight, that is the race which now dwells in the Isle of Wight, and the race among the West Saxons which is still called the race of the Jutes. From the Old Saxons came the East Saxons and South Saxons and West Saxons. From Angel, which has stood waste ever since between the Jutes and the Saxons, came the East Angles, Middle Angles, Mercians and all the Northumbrians.'

Northern invasions ANGLO-SAXON HEPTARCHY (700)

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2.- Scandinavian invasions (late 8th century) The Vikings: Norwegians, Swiss and Danes. Vikings were another group of people who were in the Isles at the same time as te Saxons. They didn´t throw the Saxons away. They arrived in the Island around the 8th century and they came from Norway. They accepted Christiantiy quite quickly, and settle with the local population, specially in the North of the Island. First attacks took place in the 8th century, and tey were very quick. England ws then a Christian land, with monasteris along the coast which were often destroyed by de Danes. Around AD 540 the Isles suffered huge expeditions with the idea of settling down. All Anglo-Saxons kingdoms fell with the exception of Wessex dominated by king Alfred the Great. It was the time when most of the British land was under the ‘Dane Law? Alfred the Great (849-901) He started the ‘Reconquest of the Dane Law’. Since he initiated the emerge of England, he is considered the first king of England the reconquest took several generations, and it culmitated with a mixture between Anglo-Saxon and Viking elementes and population. This racial blend is visible in the case of king Cnut, which was from Viking origin. 878 Treaty of Wedmore: Division of the land in two halves: the Danelagh There were fights between the Saxons and the Vikings. In fact, King Alfred fought against the Vinkings and even they made a treaty which establised a kind of border or divisory line between the area ruled by the Vinkings, Danelaw, and they are ruled by the Saxons. This treaty didn´t avoid future fights/wars, in fact they were figthing until the end of this period. The last Saxon king, Edward the Confessor, built many churches in the country. When he died there wasn´t an obvius hier to the Crown. Finally, a Saxon called Harold Godwinson was elected king of England (but his reing lasted for a few time). Edward had spent some time in Normandy (an area in France where people from Norway – the vikings- had establised). William, Duke of Normandy, claimed the crown of England. So he took his army (well armed and organized) to England and in a a battle in Hastings he defeated Harold. So William was crowned King of Englad in 1066. This is an importat date because it means the end of a period and the beginning of the Middle Ages or also know as the Norman Period. Kingdom of Wessex> cultural Renaissance During the reing of Alfred ‘te Great’, the Anglo-Saxon king of Wssex things began to change gradually. He opposed a fierce resistance against the Vikings, for many, he is the first king of england. To start with, Alfred was a benefactor of the Church and introduced learning into society. He also organised the territory on a national basis: thanks to him a territor known as ‘Angle-land’ began to take shape. It was the first notion of national entity. The old world of clans gradually canged into a system of loyalty of the nation towards the king. Alfred was a great promoter of commercial activity because he was a city builder. And by the buildig of cities, he found a great weapon to oppose reistance to the attacks of Vikings. He was the first te first Anglo-Saxon king to build ‘burhs’, which were basically fortified towns that were built folloving a given model. They developed into big towns, wich were not only a sing of urban attitude, but also a military advantage. The later towns were fortresees (military purposes), ecclesiastic centres (when te church arrived9 or commercial cities.

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Around Alfred´s Renaissance His restoration of the monastic life of the Church, which had been severely disrupted by the arrival of the Norsemen; his enthusiastic patronage of the arts and learning; and the respect that he gained on the Continent of Europe for himself and his kingdom. Alfred's strenuous efforts to rebuild the fabric of the Church also met with great success, as recorded by his biographer, Welsh monk Asser. He filled Church positions with men of intelligence and learning; he increased the number of monasteries and made personal efforts to restore learning to the English nation that are recorded in his own words in a prose preface to the new edition of Pope Gregory's Pastoral Care, which he translated into English. King, warrior, law-giver and scholar, Alfred was also responsible (with other learned men) for the translation of Bede's Ecclesiastical History, Orosius' History of the Ancient World, as well as De Consolatione Philosophiae of Boethius. Outside Wessex, however, most of England remained under Dane Law, ruled by Scandinavian kings. a.- School at court > a program of translation to improve learning Education in the Anglo-Saxon period was the exclusive responsibility of the church. Schools could be linked to the monasteries or located in the priest or bishop’s home. Classes were conducted by those who were in holy orders or under th e church’s jurisdiction. The purpose of schools was to educate future priests and monks, who needed to know how to read and write Latin, and to educate scribes, who were needed by the bishop for administrative duties, as well as for reproducing manuscripts. Not all scribes were literate in Latin, and Len dinara differentiates between scribes and scholars. The former was a craftsman, but not necessarily the possessor of learning. Basic education in grammar and rhetoric could lead to a career as a priest, but also served as training for non-religiou s jobs that required basic literacy (e.g. merchants). It was the role of the priest, in turn, to educate his flock. b.- Program - Cura Pastoralis, Pope Gregory It is a treatise on the responsibilities of the clergy written by Pope Gregory I around the year 590, shortly after his papal inauguration. It became one of the most influential works on the topic ever written. The title was that used by Gregory when sending a copy to his friend Leander of Seville. The text was addressed to John, the Exarch of Ravenna, as a response to a query from him. Gregory later revised the text somewhat. - Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Anglorum, Bede The history of England, ecclesiastical and political, from the time of Caesar to the date of its completion (731). Consolatione Philosophiae, Boece (v) - Historia adversus Paganos, Paulus Orosius (V) The evidence from history that the circumstances of the world had not really become worse since the introduction of Christianity. c.- Anglo-Saxon Cronicle (from the first invasions Hengest and Horsa, till his death) Aelfric (955-1020), Colloquy on the occupations A series of dialogues between teacher and student describing different works and offices Works in Anglo-Saxon society: 1.- ploughmen, shepherds, oxherds; 2.- hunters, fishermen, fowlers

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3.- merchants, 4.- shoemakers, salt-workers, bakers. Example: Teacher. What do these your companions know? Pupil. Some of them are ploughmen, some shepherds, some oxherds; others, again, are hunters, some are fishermen, some fowlers; then there are merchants, shoemakers, salt-workers, and bakers. WHAT THE ANGLO-SAXONS BROUGHT TO THE ISLAND The name: England, the land of the angles The name of England was originally Angle-land (land of Angles) The language: West Teutonic Their tribal society with its specific structure - Anglo-Saxons also had a social division based on alderman (local officials, then

warlords), manors (kind of local administrator) this is the origin of a class system, mad up of kings, lords, soldiers and workers on the land.

- Lord-things-Ceorls-Slaves. - The Lord And the ‘Thens’ were the responsible for the election of the King which

took place in the ‘Witan’. Not Hereditary. Their oral epic and lyric poetry Much of Old English poetry was probably intended to be chanted, with harp accompaniment, by the Anglo-Saxon scop, or bard. Often bold and strong, but also mournful and elegiac in spirit, this poetry emphasizes the sorrow and ultimate futility of life and the helplessness of humans before the power of fate. Almost all this poetry is composed without rhyme, in a characteristic line, or verse, of four stressed syllables alternating with an indeterminate number of unstressed. Another unfamiliar but equally striking feature in the formal character of Old English poetry is structural alliteration, or the use of syllables beginning with similar sounds in two or three of the stresses in each line. In addition, Old English poets produced a number of more or less lyrical poems of shorter length, which do not contain specific Christian doctrine and which evoke the Anglo-Saxon sense of the harshness of circumstance and the sadness of the human lot. “The Wanderer” and “The Seafarer” are among the most beautiful of this group of Old English poems. New techniques: army, agriculture, rivers, sailing, etc. Anglo-Saxons also brought a new agricultural system: They used a heavy plough only suitable for long straight lines across the field very useful for hard soils. So each village land was divided into 2 or 3 large fields, then divided again into strips; each family had a number of strips. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ROMANS AND ANGLO-SAXONS - Roman were urban (they created a radial system of roads and founded Londinium),

modern and Christian (since the age of Constantine in AD 318)

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- Anglo-Saxons had a Northern Mytohology (with gods as Tig, Thor, Wodin, Frei that are the origin of the days of the week...) and they imposed a new language, culture and religion. Christianity was then pushed to the west (Ireland).

- Anglo-Saxons also brought a new agricultural system: They used a heavy plough only suitable for long straight lines across the field very useful for hard soils. So each village land was divided into 2 or 3 large fields, then divided again into strips; each family had a number of strips.

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TEMA 4 HIGH MIDDLE AGES :1066-1485 Norman Invasion 1066 brings Medieval Period The last Saxon King, Edward the Confessor, built many churches in the country. When he died, there wasn’t an obvius heir to the Crown. Normally te system for choosing a new king was following the heritage line, but in this case Witan must follow a different rule. The main candidate was Harold Gowwinson who was the strongest man in the land. Finally he was elected King of England (but his reing lasted for a few time). But there were 2 other candidates who arqued that they ad rights to the crown. One of them was Harald Haardabe, who was connected to the old Viking line of king Cnut. The other one was William of Normand, who claimed that with a past marriage, an Anglo-Saxons lind had been stablished with his famil. Since Witan had yet decided to choose Harold as king, 2 attacks took place in 1066 Fist, Harald Haardrabe attacks Harold I in the Battle of Stanforbrigde, but the king defeated him. Later on, William of Normandy fights against Harold I in the Battle of Hasting: William kills Harold I and becomes the new king of England. I.- GENERAL FEATURES: Romance and Humanism 1.- Political history: .- Battle of Hastings: William crowned King of England (1066-87). .- England and Scotland developed clearer self-identities. .- Considerable constitutional changes: .- Reinforcement of royal authority. Different Monachs of this period: William I – King of England and Duke of Normandy � his son William II – died in unting accident � his brother Henry I – King of England and Duke of Normandy (kill his brother who was the Duke) Both land united again. � his daughter Matilda – married with Duke of Anjou – noblility preferred Henry’s nephew. They fight and finally Stephen could keep the throne but only if Matilda’s son Henry, could succeed him. � Stephen Henry II – destroyed many castles and forced his nobes to live in manor houses. Very powerful monarch. He was fighting against his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine and also his sons. � his son Richard I – He spent a very litlle time in the country (he was fighting away in the crusades. He also scoured the country. � his brother John I – very unpopular, signed the ‘Magna Carta’ � his son. Henry III – Council of nobles called Parliament � his son Edward I – Real parliament, determined under his control Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In Wales they were defeted, he united Wales to England under the same andministration. From this moment the heir is called ‘Prince of Wales’. In Scotland he was defeated. � his son Edward III – he decied to delcare war on France. 100 years war. � his son Richard II – Many problems with his nobles – no children � Duke of Lancaster. Henry IV – he spent all his reign trying to re-establisch his power and figting against the House of York. Henry V – wo took over the war against France. � his son

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Henry VI – continued fight with France in order to Defend is Crown. He also had several fights with the supporters of the Yorkist. (He was Lancastrian) je was defeated. � House of York Edward IV – The Lancaster vs York fights continued, and Henry VI managed to recover the throne. (war of the Roses). � his son Edward V – his uncle Richard III took him and his brother to the power of London and they died there. � Henry (VII) belonged to House of Tudor, claimed the throne �Tudor. .- Henry II (1154-89) with his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine. He was probably the strongest king in medieval British history. By his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine, he obtained much more possessions south of Anjou. Any way, Henry II was still a subject of the King of France, although he was stronger. .- Civil war > Magna Carta 1215 > John Lackland.

Magna Carta 1215 .- was given by John Lackland (1199-1216) to the barons .- a list of baronial grievances. .- defined limitations to royal rights established in written law. .- control the king's exploitation of the tax system and financial privileges. .- his son king Henry III (1216-72) reissued it in its final form in 1225.

He was called Lackland because he los all his father’s possessions. Nobility also lost many territories, so they fought against John and forced him to sign the ‘Magna Carta’ (also called the ‘Charter of Englich liberties); thanks to it, the rights of the crown were regulated. But John’s son, Henry III, didn´t accpet the termes of the ‘Magna Carta’ and founded the Parliament. .- The period saw the beginning of parliament, (1236-1307). The Parliament brought a time of spledour for the Brithish Empire. Henry III became king when he was only 9 years old. As he grew up, he was surrounded by foreing friends and he also spetn money supporting the Pope at the time. His nobles didn´t like this, so they decided to take over the government and have an elected council of nobles. This council of nobles was called <parliament. These nobles also ook control of the treasury. Some nobles remained loyal to Henry, so he could recover part of the power. But some balance between te power of the nobles and the power of the king remained. In fact, the 1st real Parliament was called by Henry’s son: Edward I. On this occasion, he included people coming from different social gropus, different social classes. He needed money, and the way to get it was by means of taxes. Teh peope who paid more taxes were the merchants and the gentr. They were the wealth makers of the conuntry. This group of peple (merchants & gentry) were the origin of what later beame the House of Commons. Eward decided to have 2 representaties from each shire/town. .- The Hundred Years´ War, (1337-1437) It had tremendous consequences for England. Edward III decided to declare war on France The excuse he had was that he claimed the throne of France because his mother was French. But the real reason to declare the war was that France and Scotland had made an alliance, and this was dangerous for England. Another reason was that France was interfering with English trade and other parts of Europe. The war started in 1337 and it lasted until 1543. Edward III represented the age of chivalry. There was a call of chivalry wich establised that a knight: - Had to fith for his godd name if insulted. - Had to serve the King and God

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- Had to defend any lady in need. The interetsing thing of chilvarlry movement is that it was a useful way of persuadin men to go to war to the King. When Edward II died, he was succeeded by his son Richard II. He had many problems with his nobles, specially with his family. He fought against his uncle the Duke of Lancaster. He was finally deposed and killed. Richard II had no children, so there were several candidates to the throne: one coming from the House of Lancaster and other coming from the House of York. Finally the one coming form Lancaster was stronger, so Henry IV became King. He spent all his reign trying to re-establih his power and fighting against the House of York. When he died, he was succeeded by his son Henry V who took over the war against France. He defeated the French army and after this battle a treaty was signed. This treaty established that Henry V would marry the French King’s daughter, and that he could succeed the French King in the throne. He died before the French king, so his son, inhereted both the English and the French trhone. Henry VI was a peaceful person liked learning and education. In fact, he establised 2 important centers of learning: Eaton college and King´s College in Cambridge. Henry VI continued the fight with France in the sense that He had to defend his Crown, but finally he was defeated in 1453 and the war was over. At the end England only could retain Calais. Of all the territories they had before. .- 1485, the battle of Bosworth > Tudor period 2.- Social history .- The Domesday Book, 1089.

The Domesday Book, the “day of judgement.” Summary: .- a great survey of property commissioned by William .- who lived there and what they owned. .- an exhaustive record of landholders .- their titles and possessions. .- primary purpose was financial .- a register of title, aimed at resolving disputed titles and lands.

With feudalism, the king needed to know how much their lands pruduced so that he could impose taxes with a certain degree of justice. Taxaion appeared; it was a system by which royal officers went through the counties collectin the taxes. The ‘Doomsday Book’ was the book in which they took note of the taxe. It was called that way because for some of them it was their last day. William being new to England wanted an audit (a count) of the assets he now owned so that he could calculate how much he could raise in taxes from his new subjects. .- A complete change of the ruling classes in English society. .- French language replaced English as the official language. Normans came from Normandy in France and spoke French, not English but in essence they were also Vikings who had settled there two hundred years previously, that is at the same time as they started settling in England. Changes in language also became permanent. The new nobility knew no English and probably did little to learn it (in contrast to the situation on the borders of Wales where many Norman lords freely fraternized and married local inhabitants and learned the Welsh language). Though English continued to be spoken by the great majority, it was

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the language of the common people, not those in power, a situation that wasn't to change until the 14th century. .- Changes in the social structure > three statements.

� The King � His Barons (eventually became a parliament after Magna Carta) � And the Church

.- A new aristocracy was introduced (feudal- stone castles). The Norman stablished the feudal system. The word feudalisim comes from the French term feu meaning ‘land held in reurn for service to a Lord’. A Lond had land, an this land he owned was held by his vassals The vassals had to do several services for the lord who had: - To serve the King in war - To give part of the produce of the land - To serve the King on the Grand Council (The Witan in Saxon period). There were 2 basic principles in Feudalism: 1. Every man had a Lord 2. Every lord had land The Lord also had responsibilities towards his vassals: to give land and protection. .- Cultural and economic links with Europe. .- Richard I, Lionheart and the Crusades 1189 > symbolic importance. He has been one of the most popular Kings of the history of Britain. He was very popular on this time although he spent very little time in the country (he was fighting away in the Crusades). He also scoured the country. And he was King for 10 years. .- Clerical privilege. Thomas Becket.

Clerical Privilege .- Legal reforms introduced by Henry II (1154-89) .- Cultural Renaissance > John of Salisbury > Policraticus .- extended his reforms to the clerical courts. .- Clerical privilege : .- Clerical immunity .- the king demanded that all clergy convicted should be handed over to the royal courts for punishment. .- Thomas Becket, chancellor and bishop of Canterbury

A good example of the power struggle between an English King and Roman Church is illustrated in the story of King Henry II (1154-1189) and his friend and Archbishop Thomas Becket. Henry was one of the best kings England ever had and at the time was the best King in Europe. He ruled the whole of the British Isles including Ireland and more of France than the contemporary French King. Henry was noted for his efforts to improve justice for everybody, equally, regardless of power or rank. To put things in perspective, it was customary at this time for justice to be metered out by the baron’s men in the most barbaric ways. Henry wanted two things. The same rules for everybody and the judges to report to the King. Things were brought to a head when a bishop was tried in the old way for murder. The King complained to his friend and Archbishop Becket. Becket maintained the church was exempt and not only this, the final adjudicator for a churchman was the Pope in Rome. The friendship between the two men evaporated and Becket fled to northern France. The King very much missed Becket who he had made his political right hand man (Chancellor) as well as Archbishop.

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Finally Becket returned to Canterbury Cathedral but the arguments between these two highly intelligent men with different views persisted. The Knights travelled to Canterbury and killed Becket in his cathedral (1170). .- The expulsion of the Jews from England, 1290. William can be remembered for encouraging the financially astute Jews to settle in England from France to help boost the economy. Jews at that time were well ahead with schooling, science and mathematics and most importantly were not forbidden by their religion to lend money to finance a new trade. Jews were so important to trade that for example, when the Norman King, William “The Conqueror”, invaded England and became King in 1066 he asked a selection of the Jews who lived in Normandy to come with him to set up his financial and trading links. 200 years later (1290), when many English Jews had become very rich, English King Edward 1st expelled the lot and confiscated their wealth. He was indeed reluctant to expel the Jews who he saw as a huge asset. Unfortunately because of their special status as a royal protected minority the barons and the Christian church became jealous and the King bowed to popular discontent fuelled by the following: In 1144 rumour was rife, starting in Norwich, that Jews killed Christians in ritual sacrifice and drank their blood. (“Blood Libel”). In 1190 there was a massacre of Jews in York also following a Blood Libel charge. (In fact a blood sacrifice of babies was the least likely crime Jews would commit because of their religious laws about the consumption of blood.) Indeed enemies of the Jews stuck this odious label on the Jews for about 2000 years. .- The arrival of the friars, 1220-40. .- Robin Hood, c. 1225. There is no evidence that Robin Hood existed although the legend is so strong that it is thought that somebody like him must have. He features in a series of songs circa 1300. The legend refers to the time of Norman King Richard 1st 1189 - 1199 who during his 10 year reign was hardly ever in England as he preferred wider “Crusading” duties organised by the Pope in Rome, attempting to regain Jerusalem for Christians from the Arab Islamic Egyptian/Syrian rulers notably Saladin. They failed. These Crusades cost a fortune and were financed by taxes collected from ordinary country folk. Robin Hood was the Gangster Hero who robbed the tax collectors and local Barons and returned the money to the poor. Robin Hood and his followers are depicted as being extraordinarily good with the English Long Bow. This part of the story rings true as the English were supreme with this beautifully produced weapon for more than 250 years. (The Long Bow was a hand crafted laminate of wood from various parts of the Yew tree.) II.- Romance in Context 1.- Social context: .- feudal system > social movility .- legends of great heroes > knightly values A romance, or tale, of knightly adventure and love, of the general medieval type introduced by the French. Most English romances were drawn, as this one apparently was, from French sources. Most of these sources are concerned with the knights of King Arthur (see Arthurian Legend) and seem to go back in turn to Celtic tales of great antiquity. In Sir Gawain, against a background of chivalric gallantry, the tale is told of the knight's resistance to the blandishments of another man's beautiful wife. .- stories rooted in ancient folklore

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.- highly ritualized and sophisticated.

.- didactic function 2.- Literary Context .-Language:mainly in French From the Norman conquest of England in 1066 until the 14th century, French largely replaced English in ordinary literary composition, and Latin maintained its role as the language of learned works. By the 14th century, when English again became the chosen language of the ruling classes, it had lost much of the Old English inflectional system, had undergone certain sound changes, and had acquired the characteristic it still possesses of freely taking into the native stock numbers of foreign words, in this case French and Latin ones. .-Prosody: Alliterative/accentual/syllabic In the north and west, poems continued to be written in forms very like the Old English alliterative, four-stress lines. Of these poems, The Vision of William Concerning Piers the Plowman, better known as Piers Plowman, is the most significant. The emphasis, however, is placed on a Christian vision of the life of activity, of the life of unity with God, and of the synthesis of these two under the rule of a purified Church.A second and shorter alliterative vision poem, The Pearl, written in north-west England about 1370, is similarly doctrinal, but its tone is ecstatic, and it is more overtly artistic. Apparently an elegy for the death of a small girl (although widely varying religious allegorical interpretations have been suggested for it), the poem describes the exalted state of child-like innocence in heaven and the need for all souls to become as children to enter the pearly gates of the New Jerusalem. The work ends with an impressive vision of heaven, from which the dreamer awakes. In general, poetry and prose expressing a mystical longing for, and union with, the deity is a common feature of the late Middle Ages, particularly in northern England. A third alliterative poem, supposedly by the same anonymous author who wrote The Pearl, is Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (c. 1370), a romance, or tale, of knightly adventure and love, of the general medieval type introduced by the French. Most English romances were drawn, as this one apparently was, from French sources. Most of these sources are concerned with the knights of King Arthur (see Arthurian Legend) and seem to go back in turn to Celtic tales of great antiquity. In Sir Gawain, against a background of chivalric gallantry, the tale is told of the knight's resistance to the blandishments of another man's beautiful wife. .-Tone: Courtly poetry:"amour courtois“ .-Performance: Still oral: professional minstrels .-Function: Docere et delectare Many French words replaced English ones. English became vastly enriched, more cosmopolitan, sharing its Teutonic and Romance traditions. Norman influence on literature was equally profound, for the developments in French literature, the leading literature of Europe, could now circulate in the English court as it did in France. “amour courtois” introduces: Eleanor of Aquitaine brought ideals of courtly love from Aquitaine first to the court of France, then to England, where she was queen to two kings. The rules of courtly love were codified by the late 12th century in Andreas Capellanus' highly influential work De Amore ("Concerning Love"). Queen: Eleanor of Aquitaine .- high symbolic relationship.

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.- new poetic sensibility> magnanimity

.- new poetic theme > lover in distress

.- new poetic prosody: syllabic line

.- new role of women in society and literature 3.-e.- Romance: Cycles the "matter" of France : Charlemagne the "matter" of Rome: Thebes, Troy, Alexander the "matter" of Britain: Arthur and his knights the "matter" of England : Danish > Horn, Havelock Humanism : Literary "Renaissance"(XIIth) Revival of Classical learning via Al-Andalus Scholastic philosophy: Aristotelian reasoning Founding of the universities: “Studium generale” Mode of thought: religious in tone, classical in manners. Sharing of political power by clergy/university Language of transmission > Latin Mode of transmission > Written > manuscripts Function = Instruction > didactic University syllabus: The Seven Liberal Arts: 1. Trivium: Grammar, Rhetoric, Logic/Dialectic 2. Quadrivium: Geometry, Astronomy, Arithmetic, Music Theories of medicine Four humours = four basic elements in nature HUMOUR TEMPER ORGAN SEASONS ELEMENT Black bile Melancholic Spleen Autumn Earth Phlegm Phlegmatic Lungs Winter Water Blood Sanguine Head Spring Air Yellow bile

Choleric Baldder Summer Fire

Four humours and their Physical representation

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WHAT THE PERIOD BROUGHT TO THE ISLAND Romance > new poetry > symbolic world Humanism > new wisdom and knowledge > universities New political structure > king and parliament and legal reforms New social organization > feudal system > symbolic world New modes of thought > reasoning and experience All over the landscape, we see physical reminders of the Norman presence, not only in the military strongholds, which meant a castle in just about every town, but also in the cathedrals, abbeys and monasteries that so effectively symbolize the triumph of the new order. Everywhere in England, a frenzy of church building took place, in which the style we call "Romanesque" dominated. On the borders of Wales and Scotland, in particular, we see that combination of church and castle, abbey and town that demonstrate only too well the genius of this hardy breed of seafarers, explorers, settlers, administrators, law givers and builders who were never more than a tiny majority. But what they built was meant to stay.

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TEMA 5 Early Modern Period 1485-1603 The Tudor period covers 5 different Kings: - Henry VII - Henry VIII - Edward VI - Mary - Elisabeth The situation of England at the beginning of the XVI century is the following: It had suffered a civil war, it was surrounded by enemies (Scontland and France) and it was very weak in Europe. In the XVII century England started the expasion overseas an colonise America, becoming a colinial power. It’s in the XVII century when the United Kingdom is foundes, including the adhesion of Scotland. I.- Political history: a.- International: Constantinople taken by the Turks (1453). The New World (1492). The Reform:1517 Luther’s thesis at Wittenberg). The Conquest of Granada (1492). b.- In England: .-The Hundred Years’ War (1337-1437). .-Scotland new dynasty> the Stewarts (1371-1714) > 1603. .-The war of the Roses (1455-1485) > Henry VII vs Richard III (Bosworth) .-From 1485 Tudor period: Henry VIII 1509 – 1547. .-1603, death of Queen Elizabeth I .-The Anglican Reform (1535 Act of Supremacy). The brake with the Chuch of Rome was political and not religious. Henry wanted to control the Church and to get its money, but he didn´t approved of the new idesa of Reformation that had been started by Martin Luther or John Calvin in other parts of Europe. - Succesion: he was not allowed to get divorced (he couldn´t have an heir and Pope

was controlled by Charles V, his wife´s nephew), so, both political and family reasons.

- Finantial situation, deteriorated along the yeares. Henry had too many businesses to pay, while the English Church was rich.

.-The Reformation of Parliament 1529 – 36.

.-Henry VIII, King of Ireland 1541.

.-1549 The Act of Uniformity : The Book of the Common Prayer.

.-Mary I 1553 - 1558 ( Bloody Mary).

.-1560 Scotland approved Calvinist Confession of Faith.

.-Elizabeth I 1558 - 1603.> James I Stewart, 1603. II.- Social history a.- General view: .-Radical changes in the nation's spiritual and intellectual life: .-The enquiring spirit.

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.-The establishment of the crown > absolutism but growing importance of Parliament.

.-The social, religious and linguistic controversy: pamphlet.

.-The "green world" and the court > artificial world.

.-The "Tudor myth"> Tudor monarchy from Arthur.

.-The imperial impulse > an age of maritime discovery.

.-Elizabeth >The "Faerie Queene".

.-English became the language of daily use.

.-An era where women exercised great influence: Catherine de Medici in France, Elizabeth and Mary in England and Mary in Scotland. b.- Important singular events: .-Black Death (1348) and Peasants’ Revolt (1381). The Black Death 1348 affected society and changed the Church radically. The Black Death was a disease came from the East that affected practically whole Europe: within a year, Europe lost 20-25 million of inhabitants, with towns and cities completel disappeared. At that time, it was an event that no one could understand, so people began to look for explanations. The Peasants' Revolt, Tyler’s Rebellion, or the Great Rising of 1381 was one of a number of popular revolts in late medieval Europe and is a major event in the history of England. The names of some of its leaders, John Ball, Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, are still familiar even though very little is actually known about these individuals. Tyler's Rebellion is significant because it marked the beginning of the end of serfdom in medieval England. Tyler's Rebellion led to calls for the reform of feudalism in England and an increase in rights for the serf class. .-Statute of Laboures (1351). The Statute of Labourers was a law enacted by the English parliament under King Edward III in 1351 in response to a labour shortage. It was introduced by Sir John Halles. The Black Death, which killed approximately one-third of the population of Europe, caused a dramatic decrease in the supply of labour. Landowners suddenly faced a sharp increase in competition for workers. Labourers had increased bargaining power and commanded higher wages. The increase in labour cost also led to inflation throughout the economy. The elite class lamented the sudden shift in economic power. In an attempt to control labour costs and price levels, Edward issued the Ordinance of Labourers in 1349.[1] Parliament attempted to reinforce the Ordinance with the Statute of Labourers. .-Emergency of Lollardy(1382) & .- Lollard rising (1414) > John Wycliff. A theorethical movement called Lollardy appeared, leaded by John Wycliffe. The Lollardy was an intellectual movement that believed in a personal interpretation of the Holy Scriptures. That meant making the Scriptures available to everyone, translatin them to their own languages (the first translation to Englisch was made by Wycliffe in 1396). The Lollards became heresies because the Church would then lose its absolute control as interpreters of the Bible. Kings and Church tried to eradicate Lollardy, ut it survived in secret. .-From 1400 founded the most important university colleges (St Andrews, Eton, Magdalen, Kings). .-1496 Royal Patronage of John Cabot. .-1540 Ignacio de Loyola founds the Company of Jesus. .-Henry VIII > Church of England : James IV > Catholic; .- By the end of the century both realms were strongly protestant.

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.-The Dissolution of the Monasteries 1536 – 40.

.-Beginnings of the Slave Trade 1562 > John Hawkins.

.-Drake circumnavigates the globe 1578 – 80.

.-1585 Richard Grenville, first colony in Virginia..

.-The Spanish Armada 1588.

.-1600 East India Company was founded. III.- Cultural: a.- Humanism: Renaissance: .- Rebirth of learning and of free enquiry .- The exaltation of the individual (both in mind and body) .- Focus on 'life', instead of the medieval preoccupation with the soul and death. Reinaissance was the time of discovers and scientific attitude, an all the great centres of culture of those years coincided with the universities of medieval ages. Reaction to Black Death – Carpe Diem, if we are all going to die, let´s enjoy the day. It also changed the mentality of peple in the way they saw the Church: it was no longer a hoy and innocent institution since if Black Death was a punishment of God Church was also being punished. Renaissance certainly influenced court life, courtly manners and architectural building .-Gutenberg (1450) : William Caxton (1463) .-Thomas More (1478-1535), Utopia .-John Calvin born (1509) .-1515 Machiavelli writes The Prince .-Book of Common Prayer by Thomas Cranmer (1549) .-1564 Shakespeare born> drama as a dominant form. b.- The beggings of scientific impulse: .-Royal College of Physycians founded (1518) .-Institution of the Faculty of Advocates (1532) .-Founding of Cambridge University Press (1534) .-Human Anatomy by Andreas Vasalius (1543) .-Francis Bacon (1561-1626)> empirical scientific method .-William Gilbert (1544-1603) > 'De magnete' [On the magnet] (1600) .-John Harvey (1578-1657)> De motu cordis et sanguinis (1628) WHAT THE PERIOD BROUGHT The enquiring spirit > exploration and discovery Anglicanism and protestantism > new modes of thought The expansion of literacy > authors and bookshops The exaltation of the individual > both in mind and body The scientific impulse > instrument of history Paradigm of Life : Instruments of History Fate /Wyrd > before Christianity Providence/ > Christian tradition (question of free will) Wheel of Fortune/Dance of Death > Medieval Tradition Partial introduction of Science > humanistic tradition

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TEMA 6 Revolution & Restoration Period. The New Colonies (1603-1750). I.- Political history: Critical period - From monarchy to republic - From anglicanism to puritanism - From the republicanism to restoration The most important event was the change from Absolute Monarchy to Parliament Monarchy. In the middles was a civil war, a Republic. All this changes in policits were possible becasue there were some changes in society too. For instance, teh economic power moved faster and faster into the hands of merchants and the gentry. So the Crown could not longer get money or govern witout the support of these people. As a conseguence of this, merchans and gentry wanted to have more power. Historical facts A.- The Stuart Period 1.- James I (1603-1625): VI of Scotland ws an absolute monarch, as all the previus monarchs who believed in the divine rights of kings. This means that he believed that he had been chosen by god to be king. Therefore, he only could be judged by God. He expressed these ideas openly and also had the problem that Elizabeth (the previous monarch) had left a huge debt and he had to ask Parliament to get money to pay for this debt. Parliament agreed, but in return they wanted to debate king´s policy. James I disagreed and he kept quarreling with Parliament during his reign. 2.- Plantation of Ulster 1609 – 13 > to replace Gaelic culture with English and Scottish protestant culture and new government administrators The Plantation of Ulster was a planned process of colonisation which took place in the northern Irish province of Ulster during the early 17th century in the reign of James I of England. English and Scottish Protestants were settled on land that had been confiscated from Catholic Irish landowners Ulster had been the most Gaelic part of Ireland, a province existing largely outside English control. 3.- Charles I (1625-1649): absolutism Initially he tried to get money without the help of Parliament by borrowing it from bankers and merchants. But in 1628, Parliament passed an Act wich obliged the monarch to raise money only through Parliament. This act was known as the Petition of Rights. This Act gave Parliament control over the state money and over an importat part of te law. When Charles I realised the amount of power he ad given to Parliament, he decided to dissolved it (1629). 4.- 1629 > dissolved parliament and imprisoned its leaders After this he managed to govern without help of Parliament for 10/11 years. 5.- English Civil War 1642 Some more religious problems that took place after Parliament had been recalled happened in Ireland: Protestants English and Scottish settlers, and around 3000 of them were killed. It was necessary to send an army to control them, but Charles I and Parliamet quarrelled over who should control the Army.

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Parliament considered that this rebellion was against Parliament and not against the King. Therefore, the King could use this army against Parliament. And this is waht the ing didm he went to Nothingham and gahered anorther army to fight against parliamtne. So we have 2 armies fighting one against the otehr so a Civil war started. - Charles I was supported by members of the House of Lords, and just a few of the house of Commons. - Parliament was supported bostly of the commons and by merchants and the people in London and the navy. 6.- 1647 > Charles I, beheaded. He was defeated at the battle of Noseby. B.- The Republic (1649-60): After the King had been defeated there were serveral possibliities: - To bring the King back to the throne and impose some conditions on him. To reate a new sysem of Government without a King.By that time, most peopel wanted the King back, but they fear Parliament and its army. However some Parliament army commandesres were determined to get rid of the KINg. So when 2/3 of the members of Parliament didn´t want to put the King on trieal, they were removed of Parliament, and te rest of the Parliment members judged the King. They found him guilty for treason and executed him. So now the possibility was to create a new system of Governemnt: A Republic. 1.- Radical parlamentarism 2.- Cromwell, Puritan leader of the Parliamentary side of the Civil War, declared England a republic, or the 'Commonwealth', in 1649 (died 1658) This Republic started in 1649 ands lasted until 1660 and it was a failure. The Republic was led by Oliver Cormwell adn his supporters. They created a very severe govern. They had got rid of monarh and now they tried to get rid of the Lords and the Anglichn Church. But they didn´t succeeded. They ruled more and more by degree an by direct military rule. There were some rebellions, and one of them took place in scotland. Scots were defeated an brought under Republic ruel. There was also a rebellion or some protest in Ireland. So Cromwell took an army there and 600 Catholics wee killed as a kind of punishment for the killing of 3000 Protestants. Some disagreements started between the army and Parliament, so Cromwell decided to dissolve Parliamnet. Cromwell became a Lord protector and he had a greater powers that Charles I had had. He prohibited the celebration of Easter and Christmas, and he also forbade the represantion of plays at the theatres and to play games on Sunday. Cromwell died and he was succeeded by hs son. But he wasn’t able to govern the country. So the army commanders started to qurrel among themselves, and one of them decided to go to London to arrange a new wlections an invite Charles II to return to the Kingdom. C.- Restoration 1.- Charles II 1660-1685 When Charles II became king, he cancelled most of hte laws that ad been passed during the republic. He was attrated to the Catholicism. Church and Parliament feared that he could become a Catholic, and that´s why Parliament passed the Test Act in 1673 which prevented any Catholic from holding public office (to become a memeber of Government, Political insitutions, parliament, etc). However, it didn.t prevetn a Catholic to become a king. That´s why it was possible for James II to become king.

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2.- In 1672, he issued the Declaration of Indulgence, suspending all penal laws against Catholics and Dissenters. The Royal Declaration of Indulgence was Charles II of England's attempt to extend religious liberty to Protestant nonconformists in his realms, by suspending the execution of the penal laws that punished recusants from the Church of England. Charles issued the Declaration on March 15, 1672. The English Parliament, however, suspected that their king favoured Roman Catholicism, and compelled him to withdraw this declaration in favour of religious freedom - putting in its place the first of the Test Acts (1673), which required anyone entering public service in England to take the Anglican sacrament. When Charles II's openly Catholic successor James II attempted to issue a similar Declaration of Indulgence, an order for general religious tolerance, this was one of the grievances that led to the Glorious Revolution that ousted him from the throne. 3.- 1673, Test Act, excluding all Catholics from office. Church and Parliament feared that he could become a Catholic, and that´s why Parliament passed the Test Act in 1673 which prevented any Catholic from holding public office (to become a memeber of Government, Political insitutions, parliament, etc). However, it didn.t prevetn a Catholic to become a king. That´s why it was possible for James II to become king. II.- Social history: A.- Struggle: .- Absolutism <> parlamentarism. Absolutism was practically imposible in England, because the decisions of the king were always controlled by Parliament. But Stuart dynasty ame from Scotland, whre the king was the absolute ruler, and therefore they wanted to declare absolutism. Parliametn won the struggle . .- Parliament <> King .- Tory <> Whig Emergence of the fist political parties: Tories: - They agree with the authority of the Crown and the Church - In general they supported royalist position. Whigs: - They didn´t want an Absolute Monarchy - They didn´t like teh Catholic faith (but heay believed in religious freedom). - They didn´t want to have a regular army. .- Catholic <> Protestant There were different faiths coexisting in the Bristih Isles: Anglicanism � official – mayority Cahtolicism & puritanism � persecuted – minority .- Absolutism <> liberalism .- Court nobility <> gentry >urban>middle class>commons The gap neween the tow groups at the beginning of the 17th century was uge, but y the end there was a reversal: nobility found more difficulties that before (taxes, loos of lands int he ivil war, oss of power) whereas The middle class posssesses cah but no lands nor titles. By the end of the century the middle class is the most powerul in society. .- Blood aristocracy <> landowners

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B.- Restoration brought: .- Restoration: genteel tolerance. .- The court and French influence. .- reason, moderation, good taste and simplicity. .- The historical parallel between the early imperialism of Rome and the restored English monarchy, both of which had replaced republican institutions> Augustan .- Ruling and learned classes. C.- Social events: .- King James' Bible 1611> The 'Authorised Version' of the Bible At the beginning of the 17th century, the influcen of Puritanism had increased among the merchants and the genry. They had persuaded James I to have a new authorised version of the Bible, tat was publised in 1611. And this Bible was read by merchants, gentry and also some of the labourers. .- Sailing of the Mayflower 1620 > attempting to escape religious persecution in England > landed at Plymouth Rock, Massachusetts After the Church reformation that had taken place in England, there were some people who still disliked some aspects of this Church. They didn´t like the power of bishops... in general they wanted a more plain Church, that is to say a pure Church. That’s why they were called purtians. They were attracted to the ideas of John Calvin. To espace the persecution, some of them set off from Plymouth on a boat called the Mayflower, and loaded in Cape Cod in Massachusetts. More Puritans continued to arrive and the first town of Boston was founded. .- 1665 > The Great Plague > changed the population rate and introduced family-planning habits and new methods of farming. A gruesome new plague economy developed, as parishes hired their own residents to carry out the plague orders. People became 'examiners', who found and reported the sickness; 'scavengers' and 'rakers', who cleaned the streets; and 'watchers' who guarded them. Women were paid to go into houses as 'nurses' and as 'searchers', to find out who had died. .- The Great Fire of London 1666 > (Two thirds of the city) On the night of September 2, 1666, a small fire broke out in the premises of a baker's shop in Pudding Lane, London, perhaps started by the carelessness of a maid. If it was carelessness, it was carelessness that had enormous and disastrous consequences, for the fire spread and soon the whole building was alight. In the close-packed streets of London, where buildings jostled each other for space, the blaze soon became an inferno. Fanned by an east wind, the fire spread with terrifying speed, feeding on the tar and pitch commonly used to seal houses. After four days while helpless citizens stood by and watched the destruction of their homes, the wind mercifully died and the fire was stopped. Then the accounting took place. .- From the 1670s, England became an exporter as opposed to a net importer of grain. .- Bank of England founded 1694 The bank was founded by the Scotsman William Paterson, in 1694 to act as the English government's banker. He proposed a loan of £1.2m to the government; in return the subscribers would be incorporated as The Governor and Company of the Bank of England with long term banking privileges including the issue of notes .- The first steam engine 1712 .- Transport 1735 .- The beginning of industrial revolution (1700)

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II.- Cultural history: A.- Humanism: 1.- Literary conditions: .- Old trends & new artistic forms .- Realism vs decorative language .- The author & his audience .- The book trade. .- The foundations of libraries. .- Secularization of attitudes & beliefs. 2.- The new political thought: corporate political body .- Against the arbitrary acceptance of the monarch's divine right, Thomas Hobbes in his Leviathan (1651) defends the idea of political absolutism with a rationally conceived sanction. The State, it now seemed to Hobbes, might be regarded as a great artificial man or monster (Leviathan), composed of men, with a life that might be traced from its generation under pressure of human needs to its dissolution through civil strife proceeding from human passions. The work was closed with a general "Review and Conclusion", in direct response to the war which raised the question of the subject's right to change allegiance when a former sovereign's power to protect was irrecoverably gone. Also he criticized religious doctrines on rationalistic grounds in the Commonwealth. .- The monarch should rule not by divine right but by an original and indissoluble social contract in order to secure universal peace and material gratification (The Commonwealth). Thus commonwealth originally meant a state or nation-state governed for the common good as opposed to an authoritarian state governed for the benefit of a given class of owners. .- Similarly rationalistic, but opposed to this rigorous subordination of all organs of the state to central control, were Locke's Two Treatises on Government (1690): the authority of the governor is derived from the always revocable consent of the governed and that the people's welfare is the only proper object of that authority. The First Treatise is focused on the refutation of Sir Robert Filmer, in particular his Patriarcha which argued that civil society was founded on a divinely-sanctioned patriarchalism. Locke proceeds through Filmer's arguments, contesting his proofs from Scripture and ridiculing them as senseless, until concluding that no government can be justified by an appeal to the divine right of kings. The Second Treatise outlines a theory of civil society. Locke begins by describing the state of nature, a picture much more stable than Thomas Hobbes' state of "war of every man against every man," and argues that all men are created equal in the state of nature by God. From this, he goes on to explain the hypothetical rise of property and civilization, in the process explaining that the only legitimate governments are those which have the consent of the people. Thus, any government that rules without the consent of the people can, in theory, be overthrown. 3.- The "new philosophy": contrasted views .- The great philosophical and political treatises of the time emphasize rationalism. .- Belief in experience as the exclusive basis of knowledge: empirism

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.- John Locke: Essay concerning Human Understanding (1691) : Summary of empirical doctrine plus rationalism Prose as a dominant literary and cultural genre Types of prose: a.- Letters, familiar prose, journalism and diaries. b.- The essay: prose as an intellectual instrument patterns in historical, sicientific, philosophical, political writing. c.- History, "character" books and autobiographies. d.- The Bible as a formative instrument. e.- Moral fiction:J.Bunyan (1628-88), Pilgrim´s Progress(1668) f.- Scientific: .- Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge (1662): impartial investigation and scientific experimentation > simple prose as an instrument of rational communication. g.- The advancement of sciences: .- Francis Bacon: The Advancement of Learning (1605) .- Isaac Newton: Philisophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687) .- Edmund Halley, the Astronomer Royal, (1656-1742).

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TEMA 7 18th century and onwards: Cultural challenges The breaking off with old beliefs 1776, Declaration of Independence (USA) Break with colonial power, political and economical, but not cultural It was an act of the Second Continental Congress, adopted on July 4, 1776, which declared that the Thirteen Colonies in North America were "Free and Independent States" and that "all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved." The document, formally entitled The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen United States of America, explained the justifications for separation from the British crown, 1789, French Revolution Break with the traditional pyramid of power: King’s authority from God. Now political authority from people 1794, Thomas Paine, The Rights of Man Break with the belief that the rights of man come from God Anti-biblical, republican. According to Paine, the sole purpose of the government is to protect the irrefutable rights inherent to every human being. Thus all institutions which do not benefit a nation are illegitimate, including the monarchy (and the nobility) and the military establishment. - Men are born, and always continue, free and equal in respect of their rights. Civil

distinctions, therefore, can be founded only on public utility. - The end of all political associations is the preservation of the natural and

imprescriptible rights of man; and these rights are liberty, property, security, and resistance of oppression.

- The nation is essentially the source of all sovereignty; neither can any individual, nor any body of men, be entitled to any authority which is not expressly derived from it.

1798, William Wordsworth, Preface to Lyrical Ballads Romanticism manifesto: break with rules in artistic creation poetry is: “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings” The Preface as a whole deserves its reputation as a revolutionary manifesto about the nature of poetry. Wordsworth’s Preface implicitly denies the traditional assumption that the poetic genres constitute a hierarchy, from epic and tragedy at the top down through comedy, satire, pastoral, to the short lyric at the lowest reaches of the poetic scale; he also rejects the traditional principle of “decorum”, according to which the subject matter (especially the social class of the protagonists) and the level of diction are contrived by the poet to conform to the status of the literary kind on the poetic scale. Against neoclassicism Challenge of gender Mary Wollstonecraft: 1792, A Vindication of the Rights of Women Main points: Women’s rebellion against their traditional role in society.

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The state of culture and civilization concerning women. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. Wollstonecraft is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason. She argues that women ought to have an education commensurate with their position in society, claiming that women are essential to the nation because they educate its children and because they could be "companions" to their husbands, rather than mere wives. Instead of viewing women as ornaments to society or property to be traded in marriage, Wollstonecraft maintains that they are human beings deserving of the same fundamental rights as men. The challenge of Man The origin/ the creation of Man TRADITION Carol Linneo, Systema Naturae (1758) Main points: Everything in Nature is orderly created > harmony Man is at the centre > anthropological view He outlines his ideas for the hierarchical classification of the natural world, dividing it into the animal kingdom (Regnum animale), the plant kingdom (Regnum vegetabile) and the "mineral kingdom" (Regnum lapideum). The classification of the plant kingdom in the book was not a natural one, but of convenience: it followed Linnaeus' new Sexual system where species with the same number of stamens were treated in the same group. Linnaeus believed that he was classifying God's creation and was not trying to express evolutionary relationships. The classification of animals was more natural. For instance, humans were for the first time placed together with other primates. Chavalier de Lamarck (1744-1829). According to Lamarck, organisms adapt to their environments and then have the power to pass those changes on to their offspring. Lamarck is usually remembered for his belief in the inheritance of acquired characteristics, and the "use and disuse" model by which organisms developed their characteristics. Lamarck incorporated this belief into his theory of evolution, along with other more common beliefs of the time, such as spontaneous generation. CHALLENGE Charles Darwin (1809-1882). The Origin of Species. 1859. Darwin questions: The traditional assumptions in the history of natural sciences The traditional assumptions in the history of the Creation

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The traditional assumption that Man was created as an image of God Darwin challenges the following assumptions: - All living organisms had their proper place in a fixed, immutable order. - The literal truth of the Bible Darwin states that: Species inevitably produced random variations by Natural Selection Evolutive theory of species. Displaces man's world from the center of the universe Paradigm of Life : Instruments of History Fate /Wyrd > before Christianity Providence/ > Christian tradition (question of free will) Wheel of Fortune/Dance of Death > Medieval Tradition Partial introduction of Science > humanistic tradition Evolutive theory > natural selection

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TEMA 8 18th century and onwards: Cultural challenges The challenge of social order 1.- The modern bourgeois society and the Industrial revolution Established new classes, new types of labour New conditions in the social relationship New modes of thinking reality. 2.- The industrial bourgeoisie has simplified class antagonisms Society = two great classes > bourgeoisie and proletariat. Culture = two great classes > literacy and illiteracy. Monetary activity gives new cultural impulse 3.- Economy: Expansion overseas: Brought increase in the means of exchange Brought new commodities and privileges for few people Brought a reinforcement to the spirit of Empire Brought an impulse to the revolutionary element. 4.- Market growing: Markets kept ever growing > the demand ever rising > manufacturers no longer sufficed Steam and machinery revolutionized industrial production. The place of manufacture > MODERN INDUSTRY The place of the industrial middle class > industrial millionaires The leaders of the whole industrial wealth > modern bourgeois Philosophical approach : an example Karl Marx (1818-1883), Frederick Engels (1820-1895) Manifesto of the Communist Party. London, 1848. a.- Background: The forward strides of science and philosophy rejection of the idealism of Hegel (1770-1831) and turning toward materialism, partly through the influence of Feuerbach (1804-1872). The growth of the labour and the revolutionary movements Chartism (1838-1848), (People’s Charter, 1838) the movement for extension of suffrage to workers. In 1864 the "International Working Men's Association" was founded in London. Marx was a central figure in the new organization. The first volume of "Das Kapital," Marx's most important work, appeared in 1867 b.- Basic assumptions: Politics and history could be explained only in terms of the economic development of society.

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The social evils of the time were the inevitable result of the institution of private property and could be eliminated only through a class struggle culminating in a Communist society. Main cultural issues: Communist Manifesto outlines the theory of the class struggle, and of the revolutionary role of the proletariat. Questioning Providence as an instrument of History. Understanding material economy as an instrument of history. The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Paradigm of Life : Instruments of History Fate /Wyrd > before Christianity Providence/ > Christian tradition (question of free will) Wheel of Fortune/Dance of Death > Medieval Tradition Partial introduction of Science > humanistic tradition Evolutive theory > natural selection History of class struggle > economic laws

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TEMA 9 CULTURAL TERMINOLOGY Ethnocentrism Interpretation or evaluation of other cultures in terms of our own. Ex. Romans brought civilization to Anglo-Saxon barbarism. Cultural gradation (degree): There are cultures better than others as a means to get the survival of species and life Ex. agriculture is better than hunting and wild recolection) BUT: We cannot say the same concernign other values as happiness, dignity, justice, and so on. Cultural determinism A view that stresses the impact of some specific aspect in the cultural creation. Ex. The impact of milieu or habitat. Cultural diffusion The spreading of cultural traits from one society to another through trade or other froms of contact. Ex. Anglo-Saxon culture was contaminated by Christian thought Acculturation Cultural change that occurs in response to extended firsthand contacts between two or more previous autonomous groups. Ex. The Norman conquest of England Cultural marker Minimun unit in which any culture can be divided, Ex. an object (a knife); a way of doing something (weave); a belief (superstition), or some attitude (horror to incest). Cultural complex Relationship with other markers quite discernible and relatively autonomous. This association can be of functional, mechanical, conceptual or emotional nature. Ex. Christian culture is common to many particular cultures Cultural areas A region in which several groups have similar cultural complexes. Ex. Scottish culture, Welsh culture. Cultural types Configuration, organization and significative pattern of features and set of features linked to an specific topographical area. Ex. Highlander, in Scotland. Universal cultural pattern All particular and real cultures have the same general categories Ex. “Justice is equity.”; Light and Darkness.

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Man-made changes Any changes caused by humans Ex. Building, cities, motor-roads Natural changes Any changes caused by Nature Ex. Volcanoes, earthquakes, tsunamies. Cross-cultural Used to describe comparative data and studies of a limited number of cultures. Ex. Attitudes in Spain and France Inter-cultural Used to describe comparative data and studies of a large number of cultures. Ex. Presence of wine in Mediterranean cultures Intracultural Used to describe data and studies from within one cultural group. Ex. Value variations among English Multiculturalism Advocates that society consists of distinct cultural groups with equal status. Ex. Applied to distinct cultures of inmigrant groups Monoculturalism Implies a normative cultural unity and usually describes homogeneity. Ex. Was historically the norm in the nation-state. They see multiculturalism as an assault to national and cultural identity.

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TEMA 10 British Colonization Ways of colonization: Religious Immigration Military conquest Economic control Excarcelation The colonists brought with them: Christian & Classical views Civil and political structure Humanistic perspective > artistic and scientific Ethnocentric pose Apartheid Language > alphabet and literacy THEME: VICTORIAN IMPERIALISM and COLONIALISM 1.- Great Britain The center of a global empire Western culture in contact with other cultures English language imposed upon other languages 2.- Quality of the empire Heterogeneous entity > heterogeneous practices Crown colonies : Jamaica Protectorates: Uganda Internal colonies: Ireland East Indian Company ruled India African colonies > the result of economic interest 3.- Imperialism and colonialism Imperialism: Claiming and exploiting territories Outside of one own national boundaries For a variety of motives Motives: - To increase its own holdings - To enhance its prestige - To secure trade routes

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- To obtain raw materials - To procure a market for its own goods Colonialism: Involves the settling of those territories And the transformation of their social structure, culture, government and economy. THEME: Slavery: Distinction between citizen and slave: Slavery : the property and sale of human beings. European settlers brought slavery with them to the New World so it existed in America from the very beginning . By the mid-1700s, slavery had become necessary to run the huge plantations in the Southern colonies.

Historical process of slavery in the United States Abraham Lincoln (1809-/1861/-1865) 1865, Abolition of slavery in the United States (13th amendment): 13th amendment: “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.” 1870, The Fifteenth Amendment is adopted and blacks are granted the right to vote: “The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”

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TEMA 11 Celebrating the past, understanding the present, contributing to the future. Frederick Douglass (1818- 1895) “My objection to slavery is not that it sinks a Negro to the condition of a brute, but that it sinks a man to that conditon” One of the foremost leaders of the abolitionist movement, Dedicated his life to crusading for freedom, justice and equality. An abolitionist, orator, writer, reformer, diplomat and statesman. Served as an adviser to President Abraham Lincoln during the Civil War 1818-1845, The Slave Years 1860/1-1865, The Civil War Years - The Fight for Emancipation 2.- Main cultural issues in the following fragment: a.- The process of acculturation:

The importance of literacy and learning to get political power The freedom of mind and the freedom of body

b.- Conditions of work c.- Social hypocrisy d.- The importance of religion as an instrument of control (social and political) Establishing Identity The theme of establishing one's self, an identity independent of one's surroundings. It is a question of lines, boundaries, borders, migration, being uprooted search for one’s own identity and self-creation amidst a world that strives to define, identify, and label people. - How to defy definitions of race and nationality - The use of the English language: how to decolonise it - Creating an identity despite a patchwork past - Fighting against definitions demanded by greater society - Fighting against traditions and definitions enforced within the community. Emerging from a postcolonial country is a process of self-creation in which a cultural identification has its boundaries and borders. Meena Alexander (1951- ) "I am a poet writing in America. But American poet?...An Asian-American poet then?... Poet tout court?... A woman poet, a woman poet of color, a South Indian woman who makes up lines in English... A Third World woman poet...?".