08Msclixojf

7/28/2019 08Msclixojf

1/85

Consumers Perceptions of the Ethics of Brand Placement in Hollywood Movies: A

Cross-Cultural Study of Chinese and English Students at the University of

Nottingham.

by

Oliver Fawcett

2008

A Dissertation presented in part consideration for the degree of International Business (MSc)


2/85

1

Abstract

This qualitative study explores how ethical brand placement in Hollywood movies is perceived

to be by consumers. This industry has grown rapidly over the last few decades. However, the

ethical guidelines in place are not currently sufficient to ensure the protection of the consumer.

In an age of global advertising, promotional tools that offer a global reach are very important to

advertising companies. If brand placement in movies is to be an effective global promotional

tool it is necessary to understand how different cultures react to it. This study compares the

views of Chinese and English students at the University of Nottingham. The findings suggest

there is a difference between the views of the two cultures in their acceptability of brand

placement. Several propositions for future research have been identified.


3/85

2

Table of Contents

1. Introduction 5

1.1 The Ethical Guidelines of the Brand Placement Industry 5

1.2 Brand Placement as a Global Promotional Tool 6

2. Literature Review 7

2.1 Introduction 7

2.2 Brand Placement 7

2.2.1 The Definition of Brand Placement 7

2.2.2 The Development of Brand Placement in Hollywood Movies 10

2.1.3 The growth of brand placement in movies as a promotional tool 12

2.3 Brand Placements and Ethics 15

2.3.1 The Deceptive Nature of Advertising and Brand Placement 16

2.3.2 The Freedom of Choice 19

2.3.3 The Promotion of Ethically-Charged Products 21

2.3.4 The Consumer Effect 22

2.4 The Cross Cultural Element 24

2.4.1 The Chinese Culture 27

2.5 Summary 32

3. Methodology 36

3.1 Introduction 36

3.2 Data Collection 37

3.2.1 Qualitative Research 37

3.2.2 The Interviews 37

3.2.3 Individual Depth Interview 38


4/85

3

3.2.4 Advance Materials 40

3.2.5 Computer Assisted Personal Interview (CAPI) 40

3.2.6 Semi-structured Interview Design 41

3.2.7 Interview Outline 41

3.2.8 The Interviewer as the Research Tool 45

3.2.9 Sampling 45

3.3 Ethical Considerations 46

3.4 Data Analysis 47

4. Analysis 48

4.1 Ethically Charged Products 48

4.2 Casting Products in a False Light 50

4.3 The Consumer Effect 52

4.4 General Awareness to Brand Placements in Movies 56

4.5 Deception of Brand Placement 59

4.6 Jeopardising the Consumers Freedom of Choice 64

5. Conclusion, Propositions and Limitations 69

5.1 Conclusion 69

5.2 Propositions for future research: 73

5.3 Limitations of the Study 74

References 76

Appendix 1. 83


5/85

4

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank Deborah Roberts for her guidance over the course of this dissertation. Her

comments have been very useful throughout the research project.

I would also like to thank all the respondents who took part in the interviews.


6/85

5

Chapter 1 - Introduction

For the purpose of this dissertation brand placement has been defined as Incorporating brands

into movies in return for money or for some promotional or other consideration Gould and

Gupta (1997, p. 37). The full commercial impact of brand placement in Hollywood movies was

realised following the placement of Peanut Butter candy Haresheys Reeses Pieces in the film

E.T. the Extra Terrestrial. Sales of the candy increased by 65% within a month following the

placement (Gould and Gupta 1997). Brand placements are now being used with increased

frequency and are becoming increasingly important to advertisers. There are number of reasons

for the growth of the brand placement industry which are explored later in the dissertation. As

the industry has grown its affect on consumers has increased. As with any industry there is a

need to fully understand the ethics of the industrys actions and how the consumer is affected.

1.1 The Ethical Guidelines of the Brand Placement Industry

The ethical protection of the consumer has been somewhat avoided by the law and codes of

conduct and as such the ethics of brand placement is still a major issue. The US law has been

said to have taken a hands off approach with respect to brand placement in Hollywood

movies (Karrh 1998). The issue of ethics of brand placement has thus been predominantly left

to the brand placement industry. They have established their own association called

Entertainment Marketing Association (EMA) (Wenner 2004). According to a former president

of the EMA, their purpose is to promote the profession and to ensure that it has a high

standard of ethics (as quoted in Harrison, 1999). The EMA has developed a twelve point code

of ethics which refers explicitly to business transaction between the corporate identity; issues

referring to consumer protection have been left out.


7/85

6

As films continue to emerge that contain placements considered to be unethical there is clearly

a need for research into the ethics of brand placement. It has been argued that brand placement

in movies is unethical for a number of reasons. This dissertation explores these reasons and

provides an insight into how they are perceived by consumers.

1.2 Brand Placement as a Global Promotional Tool

Hollywood movies allow advertisers to have an almost global reach to consumers (Karrh

1998). The movies are watched all over the world which means advertisers can have their

placement seen by a vast number of cultures. Douglas and Craig (2001) emphasise the point

that target audiences differ from country to country in terms of how they perceive different

things. If brand placement is to be an effective global promotional tool, an understanding of

how different cultures react towards it is necessary. Due to the supposedly unethical nature of

brand placement, consumer perception of the ethicality of the practice is an appropriate place

to start.

To date the majority of studies (Nebenzahl and Secunda 1993, Gould and Gupta 1997) have

focussed on Western audiences. This dissertation provides a comparison of Chinese and

English students at the University of Nottingham. This cross cultural element is necessary to

assess the validity of brand placement as a global promotional tool.


8/85

7

Chapter 2 - Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

This literature review is composed of three sections. The first provides a general outline of

what brand placement is and describes how it is used in movies. The concept of brand

placement is defined and its development in Hollywood movies is described in some detail.

The literature covering the growth of brand placement as a promotional tool is then critiqued.

The second section explores the ethics of brand placement. From the literature the following

four sub-topics were identified: advertising deception; the freedom of choice; ethically-charged

products; and the consumer effect. Each sub-topic is discussed in detail and the relevant

literature is reviewed. The final section of the literature review covers the cross-cultural

element of the study. The issue of global advertising is critiqued in detail. The Chinese and

English cultures are also explored, with particular reference to the cultural dimensions of Geert

Hofstede. The literature review summarises the literature and identifies gaps in need of further

research.

2.2 Brand Placement

2.2.1 The Definition of Brand Placement

For the purpose of this dissertation the term brand placement as oppose to product

placement will be used. Karrh (1998) argues that whilst product placement is more

commonly used in both trade and academic articles, it is actually less accurate as more

frequently a particular brand and not a product is being highlighted. There is a degree of


9/85

8

ambiguity over exactly what is meant by the term brand placement. Karrh (1998) has attempted

to form a unified definition by observing the shortcomings of the three following definitions:

The inclusion of a brand name, product package, signage, or other trademark merchandisewithin a motion picture, television show, or music video (Steortz, 1987, p. 22).

A paid product message aimed at influencing movie (or television audiences) via theplanned and unobtrusive entry of a branded product into a movie (or television

programme) (Balasubramanian 1994, p. 31)

The inclusion of commercial products or services in any form in television or filmproductions in return for some sort of payment from the advertiser (Baker and Crawford,

1995, p. 2)

Karrh (1998) argues that the first definition failed to recognise the paid nature of the placement

or the potential for a placement to be audio and not visual. The second two definitions also

failed to recognise the potential for the placement to be contained in other media, for example

novels and computer games (Karrh 1998). Balasubramanian (1994) also referred to the

placement as unobtrusive which is potentially inaccurate. Karrh (1998, p. 33) thus attempts

to produce a unified definition:

The paid inclusion of branded products or brand identifiers, through audio and/or visualmeans, within mass media programming.

When researching brand placement it is important to recognise that it can loosely fall into one

of two categories. It can be used by creative professionals such as writers and directors to help

convey a particular trait or impression of a character or scene. Alternatively the placement can


10/85

9

be used as a promotional tool that is sponsored by the advertiser. Karrhs (1998) definition can

only be used to define brand placement from a marketing perspective because if the placement

is being used by creative professionals solely to evoke an emotion it will not contain a money

transaction. As brand placement is very diverse a simple definition is perhaps more

appropriate. The following definition offered by Reijmersdal et al. (2007, p. 403) is simple yet

accurate:

The intentional incorporation of a brand into editorial content.

Whilst this definition omits the issue of payment it does not mean it is less accurate as it may

refer to both paid placements and those used by creative professionals. However, as this

dissertation is focussing on brand placement as a promotional tool a definition similar to

Karrhs is more useful. Other attempts within the marketing literature do appear to reflect the

views held by Karrh, for example Gould and Gupta (1997, p. 37) have defined brand

placement in movies and from a marketing perspective as:

Incorporating brands into movies in return for money or for some promotional or otherconsideration.

As this dissertation is aiming to make a contribution to the topic of brand placement as a

promotional tool, the definition offered by Gupta and Gould (1997) is accepted. The picture

below shows an example of a brand placement in the movie Castaway starring Tom Hanks.

The FedEx brand is clearly displayed on the truck in the background.


11/85

10

(Friedman 2004)

2.2.2 The Development of Brand Placement in Hollywood Movies

The presence of advertisers and advertising agencies in entertainment media is not a new

phenomenon. It first emerged on the radio in 1922 with a ten minute spiel for apartments in

Jackson Heights (Turner 2004). By 1929 55% of the programmes on radio were not just

sponsored by advertisers, but were created by advertisers and advertising agencies (Turner

2004). The emergence of television as the new mass medium in the 1940s and 1950s drew

wholesale from the radio, including programmes, stars, and a means of revenue: advertising

(Turner 2004). By 1957 over one third of television programmes were controlled by the

advertising agencies (Turner 2004). The foundations had been set for brand placement to

emerge as a major promotional tool.

The early use of brand placement in Hollywood movies was a relatively unsophisticated

process. Karrh (1998) illustrates this with the example of a typical auto-manufacturer who

might have sent a fleet of cars to a Hollywood movie studio with very little control over how or

even if the cars would be used in the movie. Brand placement in Hollywood movies intensified

over the 1930s when studios started to send advertising agencies shot by shot scripts with the


12/85

11

promotional opportunities clearly highlighted (Galician and Bourdeau 2004). The potential of

Hollywood movies for advertisers was truly recognised when undershirt sales plummeted

following the 1934 release of It Happened One Night in which film idol Clark Gable

removed his dress shirt revealing his bare chest and the absence of an undershirt (Galician and

Bourdeau 2004). By 1939, the first placement office had been established by a Hollywood

movie studio, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. The first documented brand placement occurred in 1945

in the film Mildred Pierce when Joan Crawford drank Jack Daniels Whiskey (Nebenzahl and

Secunda 1993). Brand placement grew slowly until the 1960s when several directors started

using brands for an enhanced sense of realism. The movie studios latched onto this trend and

encouraged brand placement as a source of revenue (Galician and Bourdeau 2004). However,

the full commercial impact of brand placement was not realised until the release of E.T. The

Extra-Terrestrial in 1982. The placement of Peanut Butter candy Haresheys Reeses Pieces

increased in sales by 65% within a month following its placement in E.T. (Gould and Gupta

1997).

It is not surprising that as movies and the advertising industry have developed the use of brand

placement has become much more organised and sophisticated. Today placements will usually

occur through one of two channels, placement agents or the movie studios. Agents function as

an intermediary between the advertising agency and the movie producer. It is now common

place for a movie studio to have their own brand placement department to coordinate brand

placement opportunities (Karrh 1998). Advertising agencies do not typically have a major role

in brand placements as the market has become dominated by the brand placement agents.

The development of the brand placement industry and the popularity of Hollywood movies has

seen the cost of the placements rapidly increase. For example, for the film Mr. Destiny, the


13/85

12

producers (Walt Disney) provided a brand placement price list for the film of $20,000 for a

visual product display and $60,000 for an actor to use the product in the movie (Magiera,

1990). In 1989 the producers of Licence to kill were paid $350,000 to place a Lark cigarette

in the mouth of James Bond (Gould and Gupta 1997). Brand placement has become a major

sector of the advertising industry.

2.1.3 The growth of brand placement in movies as a promotional tool

In 1998 Karrh published an article entitled Brand Placement: A Review. Despite the decade

that has passed since, it is still the most useful article for information on brand placement as a

whole. There has been no article since which covers a range of topics in the same depth.

However, it is worth mentioning that the article does not address the potential false

associations between real brands and how they are used in movies. This point is explored in

more detail in the Ethics of brand Placement section of this literature review.

Karrh (1998) states that brand placements are used with increased frequency and are becoming

increasingly important to advertisers. A number of reasons have been suggested for the growth

of this sector of the advertising industry. Brand placement in movies allows advertisers to take

advantage of the movies shelf life as consumers are likely to view the movie, and therefore

the advert, over a number of years from the cinema to television viewing (Karrh 1998).

Hollywood movies allow the advertiser to have an almost global reach which is particularly

important when advertisers are attempting to convey a global brand image. Kaarh (1998)

illustrates this point with the example of the Heineken Larger advertising campaign which used

a fully integrated plan around James Bond Tomorrow Never Dies as its first major global


14/85

13

promotion. However, Karrh (1998) does not question the appropriateness of global brand

promotion. This is an important point which needs to be investigated further. It is discussed in

detail in the Cross Cultural Element section of this literature review.

Movies can carry a strong consumer persuasive power which has in part raised questions as to

the ethicality of brand placement. Morrison (1994) studied movie going audiences through a

series of in depth interviews. Her results revealed that the primary motivations for watching

movies tended to be learning or entertainment/escape. From this she concluded that movie

audiences were generally eager to become highly involved in the stories and that this powerful

response can be transferred to the brand placement.

Reijmersdal et al. (2007) conducted a survey on the effects of brand placement on brand image.

Their survey took the form of an online questionnaire which attracted 655 respondents. They

suggest the context the brand is placed in can further help develop connotations of the brand.

They state that brands are placed in advantageous, natural, and credible contexts that offer

advertisers a unique opportunity to add favourable associations to their brands (Reijmersdal et

al. 2007, p. 404). Thus brand image changes in the direction of the program. This article

suggests the brand placement- brand image association is a reason why brand placement has

become a popular promotional tool for advertises. However, Reijmersdal et al. (2007) fail to

mention the ethical implications of the study. Their findings should be perceived negatively by

consumers as emotions attached to the programme are shifted over to the brand. This may

mean the brand is shown in a false light which constitutes a form of deception (Wenner 2004).

This idea is very important for the brand placement stakeholders to be aware of and seems to

have been completely ignored by Reijmersdal et al. (2007). The concept of deception of brand


15/85

14

placement is looked at in greater detail in the Ethics of Brand Placement chapter of this

literature review.

Nelson (2003) suggests brand placement is important to advertisers as it allows them to keep

pace with the media and technological evolution. It helps them to overcome budget

constraints, fragmented media audiences, and technological advances which allow consumers

to zip-zap and circumvent advertising (Nelson 2003, p. 204). One example of a technological

advancement that has enabled consumers to avoid advertising is Sky Plus which allows the

viewer to fast forward through adverts. Consequently advertising companies are forced to

develop new ways of effectively reaching the consumer. By placing a brand into a movie the

advertiser makes the consumption of the advert unavoidable. Again, there is a strong ethical

implication related to this concept that has been overlooked by Nelson (2003). Nelson (2003)

has suggested brand placement has grown as a promotional tool because it does not allow the

consumer to avoid the advert. This has raised debate within the brand placement literature as it

conflicts with the consumers freedom of choice (Schmitt et al. 2007). The advertising is

imposed upon the consumer and they may even be unaware that they are being exposed to

advertising of any form (Nebenzahl and Jaffe 1998). This point should be mentioned by Nelson

(2003) as it has implications with respect to the success of brand placement. As articles are

published and consumers are alerted to the unethical traits of brand placement, this form of

promotion will become less effective. This point is further developed in the Ethics of Brand

Placement chapter of the literature review.

A large proportion of the brand placement literature to date has focused on how successful it is

as a marketing tool. This tends to be measured in two ways: brand recall and consumer

attitudes towards the brand and brand placement. For example Reijmersdal et al. (2007) studied


16/85

15

the affect brand placement had on brand image. They found that the integration of a brand into

the editorial content of a programme had a significant affect on brand image. They also found

that brand image and brand memory, the second major research topic were not related. Work

on brand recall has revealed that the degree to which the brand is integrated into the plot can

play a crucial role in brand recall (Babin and Carder 1996). Research on the ethics of brand

placement represents a relatively small portion of the brand placement literature. Reijmersdal

et al. (2007) have been criticised here for not mentioning the ethical implications of their

findings. The next stage of this literature review sheds light on what work has previously been

done on the ethics of brand placement and identifies areas in need of further research.

2.3 Brand Placements and Ethics

It has been mentioned in the previous section that several pieces of work (e.g. Reijmersdal et

al., 2007, and Nelson 2003) have failed to mention the ethics of brand placement. It is

important for a promotional tool to be perceived to be ethical by consumers otherwise it will be

more likely to damage the image of a brand than improve it. This section of the literature

review explores what work has been done on the ethics of brand placement and identifies the

gaps in the literature.

It is first necessary to develop an understanding of what is meant by ethics. Dictionary.com

defines ethics as That branch of philosophy dealing with values relating to human conduct,

with respect to the rightness and wrongness of certain actions and to the goodness and badness

of the motives and ends of such actions. From a brand placement perspective ethics is

concerned with what is morally deemed to be right. If there is the possibility of harm to the

consumer as a result of the brand placement then the placement is considered to be unethical.


17/85

16

For businesses to survive in todays fiercely competitive marketplace they must be aware of

how their actions are interpreted by consumers. Central to this understanding is the concept of

corporate responsibility and the perceived ethicality of the business. Advertising is often

pinpointed by consumers as being one of the most unethical business functions. This may in

part explain why advertising ethics has been such a mainstream topic in advertising research

(Hyman et al. 1994). In Dobschas 1998 (p. 2) study of consumers he revealed that

advertising continues to be the most criticised marketing function and was categorically

criticised for its fallacious nature.

2.3.1 The Deceptive Nature of Advertising and Brand Placement

Many of the questions surrounding the ethics of advertising arise when it is deemed to be

deceptive in nature. Research has shown that many consumers believe that advertising

strategies are often sleazy and purposely designed to subtly deceive consumers (Graham-

Ausitin et al. 2005). Graham-Austin et al. (2005) researched anti-commercial consumer

rebellion (ACR) and conducted a scale development to measure ACR in the general

population. They concluded that marketing managers have to be both proactive and reactive in

ensuring honesty in their business practices in order to engage customers in todays

marketplace. They also suggested that the capitalist system of today facilitates businesses

manipulation of consumers thoughts, feelings and behaviours, implicitly sanctioning less than

ethical marketing tactics in order to generate sales. Companies must be seen to be functioning

in an ethical manner and must be open about their business practices. Brand placement is a

form of advertising that is frequently accused of being deceptive in nature. The hidden but


18/85

17

paid (Javalgi et al. 1994) nature of placements makes them ideally placed to be deceptive in

terms of how the information is processed by the consumer (Barbour and Gardner 1982).

Deception is a major issue within the topic of advertising and brand placement and represents

an area of the literature which would greatly benefit from further research. It is debatable

whether some degree of deception from brand placement is unavoidable. Wenner (2004)

suggests there is a catch 22 within the brand placement industry in that if a brand placement

is done sensitively and blends into the entertainment, it isnt flagged as a placement and thus

falls below the threshold of perception. If the brand is not perceived to be an advertisement, the

message is misinterpreted and thus deceives. John Barnard, CEO of the UKs largest placement

agency, New Media Group has said you are trying to sink messages into consumers minds

subconsciously, if you are too obvious, the danger is that an audience may feel it is being

plugged, or just see the deal (Cowlett, 2000, p.29). The alternative is to be more subtle,

however, this again raises the issue of deception.

One of the primary ways advertising can be deceptive is through disguised advertising

(Nebenzahl and Jaffe 1998). This may occur when the advert is not perceived as being

sponsored because it is presented as editorial material rather than an advertisement. The

possibility of a misinterpreted message raises an ethical concern. Nebenzahl and Jaffe (1998)

give the example of a movie with a fast food restaurant whose name is prominently displayed

while being frequented by the actors in several scenes. If the consumers are unaware that the

advert is sponsored, they may lack the ability to filter the brand placement (MacInnis et al.

1991). The disguised advert is deceptive and thus violates the consumers right to know who is

communicating a particular message to them.


19/85

18

Obtrusive advertising is another main way brand placement can be deceptive in nature. This is

similar to disguised advertising and consists of messages that are secondary to more prominent

stimuli (Nebenzahl and Jaffe 1998). The advert hides the fact that it is sponsored to give the

impression of publicity rather than a commercial message. It is commonplace for an advert to

be the primary stimuli whereby the message and intent of the advert is clear and received

consciously by the consumer (Nebenzahl and Jaffe 1998). The majority of advertising is

communicated in this way, for example billboard print adverts or commercial breaks on the

television or radio. Obtrusive advertising is background to other stimuli. A typical example is

that of a sports arena where the sports match is the primary stimuli allowing advertising at the

side of the arena to be the secondary stimuli. Consumers may catch a glimpse of the advert and

thus consume the advert subconsciously (Nebenzahl and Jaffe 1998). Nebenzahl and Jaffe

(1998) suggest that this consumption of the advert at the sub-attentive level can actually be

more effective than at the attentive level. Brand placement is a form of obtrusive advertising in

that the brand or product is embedded within the movie and is not the primary stimuli. Many

studies have found brand placement to affect brand choice through consumption at the sub

attentive level (e.g. Nebenzahl, 1997). It is thus argued that brand placement is a form of

obtrusive advertisement and that it violates consumer autonomy and privacy.

Nebenzahl and Jeffe (1998) developed a framework for determining the ethicality of disguised

and obtrusive advertising such as brand placement. They suggest that there is a need to know

whether disguised and/or obtrusive advertising violates the consumer autonomy, privacy and

right to know. They also suggest that consumer attitude is but one indicator of the ethics of this

sort of promotion. However, it is easier to answer whether a company is perceived to be acting

ethically than whether it is actually acting ethically. This may also be more important to a

company/brand whose reputation is often the key to their business success. Whilst Nebenzahl


20/85

19

and Jaffe (1998) do develop a formula they do not gather any data to support their suggestions.

Their article does reveal a lot of useful information, but it is questionable whether their

suggestions for future research are unfounded. There is clearly a real need for some useful data

on deception and consumer attitudes towards the topic is a justifiable place to start.

It has recently been suggested that a new height of advertising deception is on the brand

placement horizon. Ethical issues are heightened when brand placement becomes brand

(product) integration. This refers to when products or brands actually become part of the show

or movie. Wener (2004) raises alarm suggesting that integrated advertising might also become

a slippery slope in which greedy networks and their corporate owners couldnt resist making

every show an infomercial, packed with product plugs at the expense of storyline and character

development. She argues that it may eventually reach a point whereby the consumers cant tell

the show from the advert. Sceptics may argue this is an exaggerated claim, however, with films

such as Transformers (2007) being released which cram in every brand name known to

man, from e-bay to Xbox (Empire Magazine, 2008) this new height of brand integration may

become reality. As the brand placement industry evolves, further studies on consumer attitudes

are necessary to develop the consumers understanding of the ethics of brand placement.

2.3.2 The Freedom of Choice

The potential for brand placement to be deceptive in nature has raised ethical concern because

it has been linked with the cause of harm to the consumer. Schmitt et al. (2007) found that

brand placement disrespects the principle of separation between advertising and editorial

content. Thus the consumers freedom of choice is jeopardized as they can avoid the

advertisement only by choosing not to view the whole programme or movie. Brand placement


21/85

20

has consequently been linked with the invasion of the consumers privacy (Rotzoll 1986).

Whilst most adverts, such as those in newspapers or on the television, allow the consumer to

choose whether they want to view the advert, disguised or obtrusive advertising, such as brand

placements, are not always voluntarily consumed (Lippke 1998). The advertising is imposed

upon the consumer and they may even be unaware that they are being exposed to advertising of

any form (Nebenzahl and Jaffe 1998).

A second reason why deceptive advertising, such as brand placement, is perceived to be

unethical is because it violates the consumers right to know who is sending them a particular

message. In the US in the 1960s President Kennedy attempted to strengthen consumer

protection via a message to the US Congress which contained the basic rights of the consumer

(Nebenzahl and Jaffe 1998). One of these rights was termed the right to be informed which

includes the right to know whether a message is sponsored or merely part of an editorial

content (Nebenzahl and Jaffe 1998). Brand placement has been the subject of criticism due to

its inability to sufficiently inform the consumer. Jacobson (1988) stated that audiences are

never told that they are the object of a uniquely insidious and deceitful form of advertising.

This violation of the consumers right has further enhanced the ethical ambiguity surrounding

placements.

A common counterargument offered by those involved in the placement industry is that many

academic surveys have revealed that consumers are aware of brand placement as a promotional

tool. However, Wener (2004) argues that this does not mean that once the lights go down in the

movie theatre, the consumers defences remain up over the course of the film. As Morrison

(1994) has suggested, consumers go to watch a movie to escape and be entertained and there is


22/85

21

thus a high involvement with the move. The consumers are likely to become less aware that an

advert may be sponsored.

2.3.3 The Promotion of Ethically-Charged Products

The promotion of potentially harmful products, such as cigarettes and alcohol, has raised

ethical concern within the field of advertising. The issue is further sensitised when the

advertising is deemed to be deceptive, as is often the case with brand placement (e.g. Gupta

and Gould 1997, Nebenzahl and Jaffe 1998). In 1991 it was investigated whether brand

placements of cigarettes in movies should require health warnings (Rothenberg 1991).

However, in the same year the tobacco industry volunteered to stop paid placement of its

products in movies. Gupta and Gould (1997) suggest that this incident, in conjunction with

research on other potentially harmful products, indicates that the ethical concern over

placements in movies differs according to the product. They term the potentially harmful

products ethically-charged products.

There has recently been a large body of research on the attitudes of consumers towards product

placement in the movies, much of which focuses on the concept of ethically-charged products.

For example, Hudson et al. 2004 provided the first examination of parental attitudes towards

placement in movies. Some examples of ethically-charged products they highlighted were:

Pepsi and Pizza Hut in Back to the Future II; Burger King and Coors Beer in Gremlins; and

Pepsi, Dos Equis, Burger King and Corona in The Fantastic Four. Studies have shown that

consumer attitudes towards brand placement are strongly affected by the type of product being

advertised (e.g. Gupta and Gould 1997, Hudson et al. 2004). Gupta and Goulds (1997) study

revealed that cigarettes, alcohol and guns were the main objects of controversy.


23/85

22

One of the most frequent arguments in favour of brand placement is that it offers a sense of

realism to the media. However, Wenner (2004) argues that this is a fallacious claim as products

or brands are almost without exception, positively cast. Many harmful products are frequently

placed into Hollywood movies but are never connected with the cause of harm. For example,

the Lark Cigarette smoked by the James Bond character in Licence to Kill has connotations

of debonair and cool, however, in reality this is often not the case as the real associations

may be closer to poor health and sadness. In reality branded products such as automobiles,

cigarettes and fast food restaurants do not correlate with health, safety or happiness (Wenner

2004).

There has been a lack of research on the idea that brand placements tend to be falsely cast.

Gould and Gupta (1997) researched consumer perception of the ethics of brand placement.

They found that ethically-charged products are perceived as less acceptable placements in

movies than less ethically-charged products. However, they overlooked the issue of certain

products been cast in a false light. This is likely to be a major determinant of consumer

attitudes towards brand placement as it strongly associated with the ethics of the promotional

tool. It is necessary to develop an understanding about how consumers react to different

products and whether they perceive movies to cast certain products in a false light.

2.3.4 The Consumer Effect

Recent work on consumer attitudes towards brand placement has revealed there is a consumer

effect (Hudson et al., 2007, and Schmitt et al., 2007). This means that attitudes towards brand


24/85

23

placement depended on both the characteristics of the consumer being interviewed and the

target consumer of the given movie. Ethical concern tends to be much greater when the

placement is featured in a movie directed towards children. The study by Hudson et al. (2007)

highlights this point with movies such as Fantastic Four, a comic book based movie, being

clearly targeted at children. It is suggested that brand placement of certain brands in this movie

may be less ethical as it is aimed towards children.

Schmitt et al. (2007) found that marketing strategies targeting children put pressure on parents

as they would have to counteract their childrens desires for unhealthy food choices. Their

survey revealed that three quarters of parents believed that advertising aimed at children makes

it difficult to insist on healthy nutrition and resist the promoted unhealthy options. Research

supports this viewpoint as brand placement has been found to contribute to childhood diseases

in that it often promotes junk food, soda pop and alcohol (Story and French 2004). Karrh

(1998) suggests that one of the main brand placement research justifications is the social and

legal implications it carries. It has been the subject of various legal challenges and calls for

constraint, particularly when these more vulnerable audiences are involved.

This issue has been well researched and there is now a lot of up-to-date data. However, as this

study is taking a holistic look at the topic of the ethics of brand placement, it is still necessary

to discuss it. Whilst it is accepted that the study is unlikely to yield new data on the consumer

effect, it is an important sub-unit of ethics and must therefore be built into the interviews. It is

also necessary to develop a firm understanding of how the two different cultures differ or

coincide in their views on this matter.


25/85

24

2.4 The Cross Cultural Element

Cross-cultural studies provide an insight into the varying attitudes of consumers across

cultures. They are often used to examine the reputed convergence of consumption patterns and

tastes across nations (Karrh et al. 2001). Brand placement, a potentially global promotion tool,

needs to be investigated across cultures.

Whilst there is a lack of cross-cultural studies into brand placement, there have been various

investigations of this kind in the wider advertising topic. Chen and Allmon (1998) surveyed

Taiwanese, American and Australian business students regarding their perceptions of various

forms of mass media. Their results showed there to be little difference between the American

and Australian students, a big difference between them and the Taiwanese students. The

Taiwanese students were found to hold more positive views of print based media and more

negative views of electronic media when compared to the Western Students. Cheng and

Schweitzer (1996) researched Chinese and American television commercials to give an insight

into how the Eastern and Western cultures are likely to differ in their views of advertising.

Strong differences between the advertising strategies in the two countries may indicate that

global advertising strategies which incorporate methods such as brand placement are less likely

to be successful. The dominant values found in the Chinese television commercials were

family, tradition and technology, whilst the dominant values found in the American television

commercials were enjoyment, individualism, economy, modernity and youth. The disparity

between the two countries is likely to have an affect on the views held by the two different

cultures with respect to advertising. Cheng (1997) has commented on the array of cross-

cultural studies in Advertising which emerged throughout the 1980s suggesting that although

Americanisation was clearly increasing in Eastern advertisements, deep rooted Eastern cultural


26/85

25

values still remained strong. He argues this may suggest a global advertising strategy such as

brand placement may be perceived differently by different cultures.

Cross-cultural studies on brand placement tend to have focussed on Western audiences (e.g.

Rossler and Bacher 2002) and have neglected the comparison of Western and Eastern

consumers. One of the only cross-cultural studies to have compared Western and Eastern

audiences on brand placement to date has been conducted by Karrh et al. (2001). They

compared American and Singaporean consumers and recorded several differences between the

two cultures. Singaporean respondents were less likely to perceive brand placements as paid

advertisements and they were noted to have greater concern regarding the ethics of brand

placements. Karrh et al. (2001) stated that advertisers frequently assume that by building an

association with popular Hollywood movies they can reinforce brand image across national

and cultural boundaries. However, research suggests this assumption may be false as

consumers from some cultures may have a less positive view of brand placement than is typical

in the West. This is an interesting suggestion which would clearly benefit from further

research. In particular it is worth focussing on how the consumer attitudes towards ethics are

likely to differ across cultures.

There is a real need for more in depth cross-cultural studies on brand placement to provide an

insight into macro factors that might mediate placement impact (Karrh 1998). As is pointed out

by Karrh (2001) the brand placement research to date has been and remains to be dominated by

investigations focussing on Western audiences. More research on the attitudes of Eastern

cultures would be of great benefit to the brand placement literature. Consumers from different

cultures are very likely to react differently towards brand placements. With the emergence of

global media vehicles, agreements among nations for common advertising regulations, and the


27/85

26

implementation of global advertising strategies (Karrh et al. 2001), it is vital to understand how

different cultures react to the same advertising.

Since the 1960s there has been a belief that economic development would lead to the

convergence of needs and tastes which would facilitate global advertising (De Mooij 2000).

Ted Levitt, a Harvard Professor published an article in 1983 entitled The Globalization of

Markets which suggested that world tastes would become homogenised. However, this idea

has been met with much scepticism. De Mooij (2000) argued that although there is evidence of

the convergence of economic systems, there is no evidence of peoples value systems. He

suggests that the contrary is actually true as higher incomes give people more freedom to

express themselves. He concludes that the phenomenon of the strengthening of value

differences makes it increasingly important to understand values of national culture and their

impact on consumer behaviour. Thus cross-cultural studies such as this one are important in

developing an understanding of the different values held across cultures.

Despite the idea that cultural values may be strengthening there is still data supporting the

global brand. Holt et al. (2004) conducted a global brands study which aimed to find out how

consumers in different countries value global brands. They argued that smart companies

manage their brands as global symbols as that is how consumers perceive them. A potentially

global advertising strategy such as brand placement in Hollywood movies would certainly

support the development of a global symbol.

It is questionable whether the beliefs of consumers from different cultures are really

converging in sync with global advertising. If advertisers use brand placement based on the

possible false assumption of converging world attitudes many global promotional strategies


28/85

27

will fail (Karrh 2001). For this reason a cross-cultural study into the consumer attitudes

towards the ethics associated with brand placement would benefit both the academic and

business arenas.

2.4.1 The Chinese Culture

One key to understanding similarities and differences in responses to

brand placement is to understand the traditions of the culture and the consequential values held

by the population. The English culture will only be briefly looked at as the majority of work in

this area has focussed on Western audiences. Eastern audiences have received less attention

and thus their views on advertising are less understood.

The main research that will be looked at is the work of Geert Hofstede. In YEAR he conducted

a large scale study in over fifty countries. He interviewed workers in the local subsidiaries of

one large multinational corporation IBM. He states that from one country to another they

represent almost perfectly matched samples: they are similar in all respects except nationality,

which makes the affect of national cultural differences in their answers stand out unusually

clearly. From his work he concluded that there were four dimensions that defined national

culture: power distance; individualism; masculinity; and uncertainty avoidance. Following

another survey a fifth dimension was later added, long term orientation.

This is a graph showing how

China ranked in the five dimensions.

(www.Geert-Hofstede.com)


29/85

28

China was ranked the highest in the world for long term orientation which suggests that their

culture today is strongly influenced by the traditional values of the past. These set of values

have loosely been termed Confucianism (Redding 1999). In his 1997 study of Chinese

marketing Cheng emphasised the importance of Confucianism as an influence on present day

Chinese Culture. Redding (1999) has described ethnic Chinese people as old fashioned in

that Chinese tradition permeates their everyday life. He suggests that the Confucian tradition

has shaped the modern day values and beliefs of much of the Chinese population.

The following are the key principles of the Confucian teaching (Hofstede 1994):

1. The stability of society is based on unequal relationships between people. Confuciusdistinguished the wu lun, the five basic relationships: ruler subject, father son, older

brother younger brother, husband wife, and senior friend junior friend (Hofstede

1994). This idea has survived as a guideline for proper behaviour of Chinese people to this

day.

2. The family is the prototype of all social organizations. A person is not primarily anindividual; rather he or she is a member of a family. Harmony is found in the maintenance

of ones dignity, self respect and prestige. Social relations should be conducted in such a

way that everybodys face is maintained.

3. Virtuous behaviour towards others consists of not treating others as one would not like tobe treated oneself.

4. Virtue with regard to ones tasks in life consists of trying to acquire skills and education,working hard, not spending more than necessary, being patient and preserving. Moderation

is enjoyed in all things.


30/85

29

The second point which suggests a person is not primarily an individual supports Hofstedes

low individualism score which can be seen on the graph. China has thus been described as a

collectivist culture as issues may be considered in terms of the group, organizational unit or

even society at large (Hofstede 1994). This means that the Chinese may be less concerned with

how something may affect them as an individual and more concerned with how it affects the

whole of society.

Closely linked the collectivist characteristic of the Chinese population is the idea of the holistic

perspective (Kirkbride et al., 1991). Kirkbride et al. (1991) state that this perspective has a

strong influence on the Chinese thought process. This means that the Chinese population may

relate a particular issue to the total situation and consider issues in the wider context.

The graph also shows China to have a high power distance index which describes the extent to

which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions, such as the family, accept

and expect that power is distributed unequally. Hofstedes (1994) typical characteristics of a

large power distance population for general, family, school and workplace are shown on the

next page.


31/85

30

Large Power Distance

Less powerful people should be dependent on more powerful people

Parents teach children obedience

Children treat parents with respect

Teachers are expected to rake all initiatives in class

Inequalities among people are both expected and desired

Teachers are gurus who transfer personal wisdom

Students treat teachers with respect

Both more and less educated persons show almost equally authoritarian values

Hierarchy in organizations reflects the existential inequality between

higher up and lower downs

The ideal boss is a benevolent autocrat or good father and centralization is popular

Privileges and status symbols for managers are both expected and popular

Chinas high power distance index has been linked with Confucianism and the creation of the

wu lun, the five basic relationships: ruler subject, father son, older brother younger

brother, husband wife, and senior friend junior friend (Hofstede 1994). This idea has

survived as a guideline for proper behaviour of Chinese people to this day. Redding (1999)

stated that paternalism is the central pillar of the Confucian design for social order. The large

power index is likely to have a significant affect on the present day values held by the Chinese

population.

There is a moral quality and trust that exists within the tradition of the Chinese culture. Cheng

and Schweitzer (1996) found these traditional set of values to be present in the world of

advertising. Examples of traditional Chinese values evident in Chinese advertising were group


32/85

31

consensus, veneration of the elderly, tradition and oneness with nature (Cheng and Schweitzer

1996). The Confucian tradition is even likely to affect modern day business issues, such as

marketing and advertising.

It is, however, worth mentioning that Cheng and Schweitzer 1996 found that Chinese

advertising had adopted certain Western values, such as modernity and youth. Thus they

described Chinese advertising as a semi-traditional melting pot. This adoption of both

Western and Eastern values in Chinese advertising makes it difficult to predict how Chinese

cultures are likely to respond to brand placement in Hollywood movies.

The English culture is far less rooted in the traditions of the past. The graph below shows how

the United Kingdom ranked for each of Hofstedes five dimensions.

Taken from www.Geert-Hofstede.com

The UK scored much higher than china for the Individualism dimension. This suggests that the

population is more concerned with the individual than the team. Everyone is more likely to


33/85

32

consider how something affects them themselves as an individual, as oppose to the rest of

society (Hofstede 1994).

This investigation is comparing the views held by ethnic Chinese and ethnic English students.

These two countries have been chosen for a number of reasons. The cross-cultural element is

fulfilled most effectively by the comparison of Western and Eastern audiences. Both ethnicities

and traditions are also likely to influence the views of people in different ways. China is a

major socialist country and England is a capitalist country. The social realities for advertising

in these two countries are quite different. This may have an affect on the views held by the two

populations with respect to advertising. In a supposed age of global advertising it is necessary

to understand whether the same promotion is interpreted in the same way by different cultures.

2.5 Summary

There have been numerous studies (Nebenzahl and Secunda 1993, Gould and Gupta 1997,

Karrh et al. 2001, Hudson et al. 2007, Schmitt et al. 2007) that have focussed on the attitudes

of consumers towards brand placements. This may include several subtopics with the issue of

ethics usually being included as one of these subtopics. However, there are various issues

within the topic of ethics of brand placement which justify the entire attention of a research

study. This dissertation solely focuses on the consumer perceptions of the ethicality of brand

placement in Hollywood movies.

The brand placement industry lacks the consumer protection which tends to be in place in the

majority of industries. As the US law takes a hands off approach to brand placement in


34/85

33

Hollywood movies and the EMAs code of conduct does not address consumer protection,

there is a need to highlight the ethical implications of brand placement.

This literature review has identified and examines three major research projects (Nebenzahl

and Secunda 1993, Gupta and Gould 1997 and Karrh at el. 2001) that have focussed on the

attitudes of the consumer to brand placement. In 1993 Nebenzahl and Secundas study entitled

Consumer Attitudes Towards Product Placement in Movies surveyed 171 college. Whilst the

study touched on the consumer perception of the ethics of brand placement it did not explore

the topic in sufficient detail. In 1997 Gupta and Gould conducted a larger scale study of 1,000

students which had a greater focus on the consumers perception of the ethics of brand

placement. Karrh (1998) suggested that the body of work on brand placement was in great

need of a cross-cultural study. The studies by Nebenzahl and Secunda (1993) and Gupta and

Gould (1997) had only surveyed Western audiences and had attempted to draw conclusions for

a potentially global promotional tool.

In 2001 Karrh et al. built on the work of Nebenzahl and Secunda 1993 and Gupta and Gould

1997 with their comparison of USA and Singaporean audiences. This study again focussed on

the broader topic of consumer attitudes towards brand placement and did not isolate the ethics

of brand placement as a research topic. This dissertation provides a cross cultural study of

consumer perception of the ethics of brand placement.

This literature review has explored the work by Nebenzahl and Jaffe (1998) which describes

the ethical dimensions of advertising, focussing largely on brand placement. Their work is in

need of a study to investigate the validity of many of their conclusions. For a global


35/85

34

promotional tool such as brand placement it is necessary to compare and contrast across

cultures.

It is important for the views of the consumer to be understood across cultures. This study will

therefore also benefit the industry as brand placement is essentially a global promotional tool.

Globalisation has encouraged the use of global advertising which communicates the same

message to different cultures. It is highly questionable whether this is an effective marketing

technique as different cultures may hold very different views and as such they may interpret

and react to the same message differently (Karrh et al., 2001).

This research study has focussed solely on brand placements in Hollywood movies. For a

cross-cultural study of this type a product must be chosen that both the ethnic Chinese and

ethnic English are likely to have seen. Hollywood movies are not far away from a truly global

product, and with insufficient media substitutes they are ideally placed for a comparison of this

type. Also as the USA is often described as the advertising capital of the world (Cheng and

Schweitzer 1996) it comes as no surprise that Hollywood movies contain more brand

placements than any other form of media.

Although various studies have been conducted on consumer attitudes towards brand

placements in movies, Galician and Bourdeau (2004) suggest that research must be constantly

updated as consumer attitudes can greatly change from decade to decade. Galician and

Bourdeau (2004) researched how brand placements had changed over three decades. They

recorded all brand placements in the top fifteen grossing Hollywood movies of 1977, 1987 and

1997. They suggest that the survey provided a reliable reflection of changing societal

conventions over the three decades. They illustrate this with the example of liquor placements


36/85

35

which decreased from fifteen in 1977 to six in 1997. This shows how advertisers and movie

studios are forced to consider how consumers respond to different products. It also suggests

that consumers are likely to respond to different products in different ways and that they may

change their views over time. In the ever evolving world of advertising with the ambiguity

over global marketing it is necessary to have a reliable and up to date understanding of

consumer attitudes.

The purpose of this research study is to provide up-to-date research on the attitudes of

consumers across cultures to brand placement in Hollywood movies, a supposed global

promotional tool. This literature review has identified the following subtopics within the

ethics of brand placement:

Ethically-charged products Casting products in a false light Consumer awareness of brand placement in Hollywood movies Deception of brand placement Jeopardising the consumers freedom of choice

This dissertation will explore these subtopics across two cultures which will contribute to the

understanding of brand placement as a global promotional tool. It will thus benefit both

consumers and the brand placement industry.


37/85

36

Chapter 3 - Methodology

3.1 Introduction

This study aims to develop an understanding of the ethics of brand placement in Hollywood

movies. This is done through the exploration of consumer perceptions of brand placement as a

promotional tool. This research aims to produce in depth data which can be used to produce a

number of propositions for future research. It is thus suggested that qualitative research is most

appropriate as it allows the researcher to gain detailed insights and discover consumer beliefs

and attitudes (Malhotra and Birks, 2003).

This chapter begins with an explanation of why qualitative data as oppose to quantitative data

has been selected. The type of interview being used for the study is then explained in detail.

The advance materials given to the respondents are then described. An outline of the

Interviews is given which details the basic structure and topics to be covered. This discussion

is followed by a brief explanation of the sampling technique used. Ethical considerations for

the research study are also discussed. Finally a loose framework for how the data will be

analysed is explored.

Many things need to be considered when forming a methodology, such as the speed with which

insights are needed, the budget, the issue being studied, and researchers skill and preferences

(Cooper and Schnider 2006).


38/85

37

3.2 Data Collection

3.2.1 Qualitative Research

Put quite simply qualitative research aims to achieve an in-depth understanding of a situation

(Cooper and Schindler 2006). It is the most appropriate form of data collection for this study as

it will unveil consumer beliefs and attitudes to a particular situation. This type of data is very

difficult to obtain through quantitative research (King 2004). Qualitative data collection has a

lower degree of structure than quantitative methods which allows the research method to be

highly flexible (Malhotra and Birks 2003). This allows the researcher to adjust the method to

suit the research participant.

The purpose of qualitative data is based on researcher immersion in the phenomenon to be

studied, gathering data which provide a detailed description of events, situations and

interactions between people and things, thus providing depth and detail (Cooper and

Schindler, 2006, p. 198). In this case depth and detail is needed to give as clear an image as

possible on the interaction between people and brand placements Hollywood movies.

3.2.2 The Interviews

Interviews with ten ethnic Chinese students and interviews with ten ethnic English students

was considered sufficient enough for detailed data to be gathered. This number of interviews

was also in fitting with the time constraints and limited resources of the investigation.


39/85

38

3.2.3 Individual Depth Interview

Each interview took the form of an Individual Depth Interview (IDI) in that they consisted of

the interviewer and interviewee only. This was considered to be the most effective way of

yielding valuable data as the subject matter being discussed was of a sensitive nature.

Respondents are often unwilling to report honestly or accurately on sensitive issues for ego-

defensive reasons (Fisher 1993). If focus groups were chosen as the main method for gathering

data respondents may feel pressured to conform to what is deemed to be ethically right

(Chatzidakis et al. 2007). As a result the data may be biased towards this viewpoint. This

phenomenon is termed social desirability bias and has been found to occur in virtually all

types of research (Fisher 1993). It is vital to be fully aware of this concept as it can potentially

lead to misleading research. In an attempt to prevent this form of bias it will be made clear to

the participants prior to the interview that their identity will be held strictly confidential and

that they can retract any comment at any time. An IDI also allowed the researcher to focus on

one individual and thus delve deep into the participants thoughts.

There are various advantages and disadvantages of interviews which are worth being aware of

to ensure the potential of the research is maximised and the limitations are minimised. The

main advantages and disadvantages are listed below.

Advantages:

An interview allows the researcher to give a more detailed explanation of the research topicthan a cover letter alone (Oppenheim 1992).


40/85

39

An interview allows the interviewer to actually talk to this person and to record a real set ofresponses at a given time and thus limit any possible misunderstandings (Oppenheim

1992).

An interview can be adjusted quickly to suit the participant. An interview can range from structured to unstructured a allowing the researcher to adjust

the method to suit their research requirements.

Disadvantages:

The interviewer can purposefully or accidently exert bias on the investigation (Oppenheim1992).

Interviews are potentially very time-consuming and costly as travel and other arrangementsmust inevitably be made (Oppenheim 1992).

The sample size chosen may not be a true representation of the actual population. The skill of the interviewer in forming a dialogue with the participant and probing for the

right information is of utmost importance.

These disadvantages have been carefully considered and whenever possible steps have been

made to ensure they are kept to an absolute minimum.

The gain of the interviewer and the interviewee are not equal. The interviewer gains data whilst

the interviewee is asked to give up time, thought, privacy and effort. Openheim (1992)

suggests that anything to make the transaction less unequal will be very useful. In this case a

copy of the finished research project will be made available to any participants should they

wish to see how they have contributed to the study.


41/85

40

3.2.4 Advance Materials

The interviewees were provided with advance materials. These consisted of a cover letter and

several examples of brand placements which were sent to them several days before their

scheduled interview date via email (see appendix 1). These were then discussed prior to the

interview to ensure the participant fully understood exactly what a brand placement was and

the purpose of the research study. This was also necessary to ensure tat the interviews were

conducted in an ethical manner and that the participant fully understood what they were being

asked to do.

3.2.5 Computer Assisted Personal Interview (CAPI)

The interview also took the form of a computer assisted personal interview (CAPIs) as

technology was used to provide audio and visual aids (Cooper and Schnider 2006). This took

the form of a brief introductory video which featured a number of brand placements, both

obvious and obscure. The clips shown were all from Hollywood movies and in some cases

would be discussed in the interview. A screen shot illustrating one of the examples revealed to

the respondents is shown below. This clip features a brand placement of Coca Cola and is

taken from the film Juno (2008).


42/85

41

This was done to further enhance the understanding of the interviewee and to encourage them

to think more clearly about Hollywood movies they may have seen and brand placements.

3.2.6 Semi-structured Interview Design

A semi-structured interview design was used (Cooper and Schnider, 2006) whereby

participants were directed towards certain topic areas but were also given freedom to explore

their own views. The amount of freedom given largely depended on how useful the

participants views were likely to be to the overall research project. However, it was important

to ensure the research participant did not feel too constrained and unable to express their views.

Oppenheim (1996, p. 81) suggests that open ended questions are important in allowing the

respondents to say what they think and to do so with greater richness and spontaneity. The

probes used by the interviewer had to be flexible yet standardised to ensure data was gathered

which allowed a detailed comparison of the respondents.

3.2.7 Interview Outline

An outline of the purpose of the dissertation was given to each interviewee which included the

information shown below.

The definition of brand placement in movies as a promotional tool given by Gould and Gupta

(1997, p. 37) - Incorporating brands into movies in return for money or for some promotional

or other consideration. As mentioned the interviewees were also shown several examples of

brand placements in Hollywood movies on a recorded video to improve their understanding

and to help them visualise the topic. A brief discussion then took place to ensure they fully


43/85

42

understood the concept of brand placement and they were given the chance to ask any

questions about anything they did not understand. They were also informed of the fact that the

dissertation referred explicitly to Hollywood movies so when answering the questions they

should only recall the relevant examples.

The issue of ethics was then discussed in some detail. It was important for a relatively simple

definition to be put forward to ensure the interviewee fully understood and also to give them

freedom to talk around the topic. The definition put forward by Dictionary.com was discussed

to ensure a common understanding was gained by each interviewee:

That branch of philosophy dealing with values relating to human conduct, with respect to the

rightness and wrongness of certain actions and to the goodness and badness of the motives and

ends of such actions. (Dictionary.com)

For the purpose of brand placement in Hollywood movies it was assumed that unethical

behaviour was closely linked the potential cause of harm to the consumer.

The interview outline shown below was based on the literature and was designed to aid the

analysis section of the dissertation.

Ethically Charged Products:

Is the placement of some brands/products more or less acceptable than others? If no, why do you think all brands/products are acceptable to the same degree?


44/85

43

If yes, what brands/products do you think are less ethically acceptable (ethically-charged)as brand placements?

Are some brands/products shown in movies cast in a false light? Why are some brands/products less acceptable than others?*An attempt would then be made to explore this line of questioning in some detail.

The consumer effect:

Do you think that the acceptability of a brand placement in a movie varies in anyway withthe movies target audience?

The interviewees were then given some examples of ethically-charged products in movies

which tend to be targeted at a relatively young audience: Pepsi and Pizza Hut in Back to the

Future II; Burger King and Coors Beer in Gremlins; and Pepsi, Dos Equis, Burger King and

Corona in The Fantastic Four.

Do you think it is acceptable for these brands to be placed in these movies? Why/Why not? Do you think the acceptability of brand placement varies in anyway with the movie?

Brand placement and deception:

A clear explanation from the literature was given on how advertising can be deceptive. It was

explained what was meant by deception and disguised and obtrusive advertising was discussed.


45/85

44

The argument for brand placement being deceptive in nature was also discussed in detail. The

interviewees were then given the chance to ask any questions to aid their understanding.

Do you choose to view the advert or do you merely view the placement as part of themovie?

If the interviewee reveals that they only view it as part of the movie Do you think thisacceptable? Please explain your answer.

How much control do you feel you have over the consumption of a brand placementadvert?

Do you think this level of control is acceptable? Bearing in mind the understanding of deception that has been discussed, do you think brand

placements can be deceitful in nature? Please explain your answer.

If so, how are brands deceitful? Please relate to your own experience. Is some degree of deception unavoidable/acceptable?

Disguised advertising:

Before this interview how aware were you of the existence of brand placement in moviesand their use in advertising?

Does your level of awareness remain constant throughout a cinema experience? (forexample would you be more likely to see a brand placement and recognise it as an advert,

or would you be too engrossed in the movie to realise there has been any promotion at all)

Do you think you are consciously aware when a brand is being used in a move? When you see a brand in a movie, do you know whether it is a paid advert or merely part of

the editorial content used to add realism?


46/85

45

3.2.8 The Interviewer as the Research Tool

The skill requirement of the interviewer has been mentioned as one of the main disadvantages

of the interview method. However, being fully aware of this potential drawback is the first step

to overcoming it. Oppenheim (1996) states that the interviewer must be able to gauge the

participants interest and attention, to create and maintain a rapport at just the right level and to

leave the participant feeling that something useful and pleasant has been accomplished. Cooper

and Schnider (2006) suggest this can be done via the development of a dialogue between the

interviewer and participant. They also suggest the interviewer must be skilled in achieving

greater clarity and elaboration of answers wherever necessary. This has been mentioned earlier

as one of the main advantages of the interview and is integral to ensuring data is collected

which is as reliable as possible.

3.2.9 Sampling

The investigation employed a purposive sampling technique whereby participants were chosen

for their specific characteristics (Cooper and Schnider 2006). The participants required were

twenty Nottingham University Business School students, ten ethnic Chinese and ten ethnic

English. As many students at Nottingham University fall into these two categories a sample

within these two populations was required. Due to time constraints and a lack of willing

students, participants were chosen on a purely convenience basis. This means whoever was

willing to participate in this research study was chosen. Given greater time and resources each

participant would have been interviewed prior to the research interview to assess their specific


47/85

46

characteristics. For example, it would have been useful to have had an equal number of heavy

movie goers from both the ethnic Chinese and ethnic English populations.

The use of university students is justifiable as 18 to 24-year-olds are the primary audience for

film-makers and many television producers (Dortch, 1996). In the US 34% of people aged 18

24 report going to watch a movie at least once per month compared with 20% for the rest of the

US adult population (Karrh 1998). The 18 24 year olds are also more than twice as likely as

the rest of the population to have seen specific movies within the last six months (Karrh 1998).

This means they are not only likely to be more interested in movies and brand placement but

are also likely to be the primary targets of the brand placements. Their views on the matter are

likely to be strong and most applicable to the subject matter.

3.3 Ethical Considerations

As with any research study careful consideration must be give to ensure everything is

conducted in an ethical manner. The basic ethical principle governing data collection is that

no harm should come to the respondents as a result of their participation in the research

(Oppenheim, 1992, p. 83). If some questions seem to be upsetting the interviewee for any

reason that line of questioning or whole interview should be abandoned. It was also necessary

to get informed consent from each participant whereby the details of the interview were agreed

upon and the confidentiality of the participants data was ensured.


48/85

47

3.4 Data Analysis

To analyse the data common themes were identified for both the English and Chinese cultures.

The data from the interviews was used to explore the similarities and differences between the

two cultures. To aid cross-cultural comparison previous work on cultures will be used, in

particular the cultural elements proposed by Geert Hofstede. The literature review was used to

form a framework and to divide the data into manageable sections for analysis. This framework

is outlined below:

Ethically-charged products Casting products in a false light Consumer awareness of brand placement in Hollywood movies Deception of brand placement Jeopardising the consumers freedom of choice

The Chinese participants have the letter C. and the English participants have the letter E. They

have then been assigned a random number in place of their name to ensure their identity is

confidential.


49/85

48

Chapter 4 Analysis

4.1 Ethically Charged Products

All twenty of the English and Chinese students stated that certain products were more

acceptable as brand placements than others. Two responses, one from a Chinese student and

one from an English student are shown below.

Respondent 4E: Yeh, it definitely depends on what the product is. If it can be bad for someone

then its obviously not as acceptable as something that wont harm anybody.

Respondent 2C: I think some products can have a negative impact on someones life so these

are not as acceptable. I dont think, like a toothpaste would be bad as it wont damage

anything, if anything it could be a positive thing [laughs]

The answer from respondent 4E is typical of most of the answers from both cultures. It was

firmly believed that the type of product advertised affects the acceptability of the placement.

Respondent 2C develops this idea further suggesting that whether a placement is bad or not can

solely depend on the type of product being advertised and how much harm it can possibly

cause. This answer illustrates the importance of the type of product being advertised.

None of the respondents believed all products were acceptable to the same degree. These

findings definitely support the theory of ethically-charged products in that some

products/brands are more acceptable as brand placements than others (Gupta and Gould 1997).

The concept of ethically-charged products is highly plausible and thus seemed to be quite


50/85

49

obvious to the students. Once they fully understood what brand placement was the idea that

that the promotion of harmful products was less acceptable than harmless products seemed to

follow and make sense.

For both cultures the most ethically charged product was cigarettes. When respondents were

asked to justify there answer a common theme seemed to emerge. The answer from respondent

1E shown below illustrates this point.

Respondent 1E: Well some products are much worse for you than others. They can be really

bad for your health which makes advertising them less ethical. I personally smoke, but I always

hear about how bad the health effects are which is why I said it was probably the worst

placement there can be.

Interviewer: How do you always hear about the health effects?

Respondent 1E: Its always on tele on the news and stuff.

Several of the English and Chinese respondents referred to negative media input regarding

specific products. The harm caused by cigarettes is highly publicised in both Western and

Eastern cultures and is thus likely to be at the forefront of the respondents minds. There has

been a relatively recent (2007) smoking ban in public places in England, and China has

experienced severe debate over a possible smoking ban, particularly surrounding the 2008

Olympics in Beijing. Also for a cigarette to be placed in a movie it normally has to be used by

one of the actors, whilst other supposedly ethically-charged products must simply be present

in the movie. Thus cigarettes are potentially more obvious when they are in a movie.


51/85

50

The responses from the Chinese and English students were very similar for this section of the

interview. However, the second most ethically charged product was found to be different for

the two cultures. The Chinese students believed it to be alcohol, whilst the English students

believed it to be fast-food. Obesity has been publicised as a serious issue in the UK for longer

than in China. Whilst Chinas figures are rapidly increasing it has not been covered in the

media to the same extent as it has in England. Current World Health Organisation (WHO)

figures reveal that 25% of the adult Chinese population are obese or overweight compared with

46% for the UK.

The two cultures appear to differ subtly in what they consider to be the most ethically charged

products. It is suggested here that this may be affected by the level of media attention a

potentially harmful product has received. This carries implications with respect to how ethical

certain placements are perceived to be by different cultures. The more negative media attention

a product has received the more likely it is to be perceived as harmful and the less acceptable

brand placement of that product will be. It is important for global advertisers to develop a good

understanding of how different cultures react to the same advertising message.

4.2 Casting Products in a False Light

The respondents were asked whether they believe products/brands are cast in a false light in

Hollywood movies. The responses from the two cultures were remarkably different. Two of the

responses from the English students are shown below:


52/85

51

Respondent 4E: They will be a bit, but the film is fiction. There are ways that certain products

are used which make the character look cool or whatever. Say if the character is necking a

bottle of beer or something. This would also benefit the beer company as it would associate

them with the character. But companies will obviously do that to make their brand look good

Respondent 9E: Well I dont think companies would want their product to be cast in a bad

light. McDonalds would be unlikely to want a huge obese guy drinking a McDonalds

milkshake, theyd obviously much rather be associated with something that puts them in a good

light

The majority of the English students did seem to think that brands/products were cast in a false

light. However, this generally did not seem to concern them. There seemed to be a common

belief that advertisers would not be doing there job if they did not cast there brand/product in a

very good light. They also seemed to think it was acceptable in films as they are often fictitious

in nature. The typical responses from the Chinese students were somewhat different. Whilst

they agreed with the English students that movies did tend to cast brands/products in a false

light, they disagreed in their acceptance of this practice. The two quotes below illustrate the

concern which was stressed by many of the Chinese respondents.

Respondent 2C: Yes I do think that movies paint products in a false light. The companies are

always made to look good which isnt always the case. I dont think that it wouldnt make

sense for like a cigarette to be associated with poor health in a film because this would be bad

for the business, but I do think there should be guidelines about what is acceptable. The truth is

that there are negative sides to many products and this should be considered


53/85

52

Respondent 8C: Im not sure how right brand placement really is because the brands are

always made to look good no matter how bad they can be for your health

The interviews from nearly all the respondents supported the claim made by Wener (2004) that

brands/products are almost always positively cast. However, it is interesting that this seemed to

bother the Chinese students significantly more than the English students. This can be linked

with the Confucian ideals which still exist in the Chinese culture today (Redding 1999). Their

strong belief in trust and honesty may mean they do not consider potentially false advertising

to be acceptable. Respondents 8C and 2C are clearly far less at ease with the idea than

respondents 4E and 9E

This section of the interview found another difference between the two cultures. The Chinese

students were far less accepting of untruthful casting of brands than the English students.

4.3 The Consumer Effect

The majority of responses from both the Chinese and English students suggested that there was

a strong consumer effect. These findings are consistent with the recent studies by Schmitt et

al. (2007) and Hudson et al. (2007). Whilst the responses from both cultures were very similar,

there were subtle differences. The tone of the responses from the Chinese students seemed to

be slightly more concerning than that of the English students. One response from a Chinese

student is shown below.

Respondent 5C: I dont think advertising in movies aimed at children should be allowed at

all. You mentioned Fantastic Four as a childrens film, well if it is why would there be a beer


54/85

5

08Msclixojf

Documents