-
rh
2Central Electricity Authority, Sewa Bhawan, R.K. Puram, New
Delhi 110 066, India3Department of Electrical Engineering, Ecole de
Technologie Superieure (ETS), 1100 Notre Dame Oust, Montreal,
Quebec,
IETdo
www.ietdl.orgCanada, H3C1K3E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract: Fast acting static synchronous compensator (STATCOM),
a representative of FACTS family, is a promisingtechnology being
extensively used as the state-of-the-art dynamic shunt compensator
for reactive power controlin transmission and distribution system.
Over the last couple of decades, researchers and engineers have
madepath-breaking research on this technology and by virtue of
which, many STATCOM controllers based on the self-commutating
solid-state voltage-source converter (VSC) have been developed and
commercially put in operationto control system dynamics under
stressed conditions. Because of its many attributes, STATCOM has
emerged as aqualitatively superior controller relative to the line
commutating static VAR compensator (SVC). This controller iscalled
with different terminologies as STATic COMpensator advanced static
VAR compensator, advanced static VARgenerator or static VAR
generator, STATic CONdenser, synchronous solid-state VAR
compensator, VSC-based SVC orself-commutated SVC or static
synchronous compensator (SSC or S2C). The development of STATCOM
controlleremploying various solid-state converter topologies,
magnetics congurations, control algorithms, switchingtechniques and
so on, has been well reported in literature with its versatile
applications in power system. Areview on the state-of-the-art
STATCOM technology and further research potential are presented
classifyingmore than 300 research publications.
1 IntroductionLine commutating thyristor device-based
solid-state reactivepower compensators were developed in the 1970s.
These areused either as thyristor switched capacitors or
thyristor-controlled reactor (TCRs) or a combination thereof
withpassive lters eliminating dominant harmonics generatedfrom
electronic switching phenomenon. These are basicallya VAR
impedance-type controllers, commonly known asstatic VAR compensator
(SVC), where susceptance of theTCR is controlled by varying the
ring angle. Thetechnology is well matured, but its operational
exibilityand versatile applications are limited.
With the advent of voltage-source converter (VSC)technology
built upon self-commutating controllable solid-state switches viz.
gate turn-off thyristor (GTO), insulatedgate bipolar transistor
(IGBT), injection-enhanced gate
transistor (IEGT), integrated gate commutated thyristor(IGCT) or
gate commutated thyristor (GCT) and so on, ithas ushered a new
family of FACTS controllers such asstatic synchronous compensators
(STATCOM) and uniedpower ow controller (UPFC) have been developed.
Theself-commutating VSC, called as DC-to-AC converter, isthe
backbone of these controllers being employed toregulate reactive
current by generation and absorption ofcontrollable reactive power
with various solid-stateswitching techniques. The major attributes
of STATCOMare quick response time, less space requirement,
optimumvoltage platform, higher operational exibility and
excellentdynamic characteristics under various operating
conditions.These controllers are also known as STATic
COMpensator(STATCOM), advanced static VAR compensator
(ASVC),advanced static VAR generator (ASVG), STATicCONdenser
(STATCON), static var generator (SVG),synchronous solid-state VAR
compensator (SSVC),Published in IET Power ElectronicsReceived on
28th January 2008Revised on 22nd April 2008doi:
10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034
Static synchronous com(STATCOM): a reviewB. Singh1 R. Saha2 A.
Chand1Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of
TecPower Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297324i:
10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034ISSN 1755-4535
pensators
a3 K. Al-Haddad3nology, New Delhi 110 016, India297
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2009
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298
&
www.ietdl.orgVSC-based SVC or self-commutated SVC or
staticsynchronous compensator (SSC or S2C). EPRI in USA isa pioneer
to conduct research in this area and has beeninstrumental to
develop a number of existing STATCOMprojects in collaboration with
power utilities/industries.Power industries such as GE, Siemens,
ABB, Alsthom,Mitsubishi, Toshiba and so on, with their in-house
R&Dfacilities have given birth to many versatile
STATCOMprojects presently in operation in high-voltage
transmissionsystem to control system dynamics under
stressedconditions. The VSC-based STATCOM has emerged as
aqualitatively superior technology relative to that of the
line-commutating thyristor-based SVC being used as dynamicshunt
compensator.
GTO-based VSCs (GTO-VSC), commercially availablewith high power
capacity, are employed in high powerrating controllers with
triggering once per cycle[fundamental frequency switching (FFS)].
Although IGBTand IGCT devices are available with reasonably
goodpower ratings, these are being mainly used in low-to-medium
rating compensators operated under pulse-widthmodulation (PWM)
switching, that is, multiple switching(13 kHz) in a cycle of
operation. Use of these switchingdevices in high power rating
controllers is yet to be fullycommercialised and therefore its use
is limited. In thestate-of-the-art STATCOM equipments, two
majortopologies of VSC-bridges viz. multi-pulse and multi-levelare
the most common for operation under FFS or PWMmode or selective
harmonic elimination modulation. Forhigh power rating STATCOMs,
GTO-VSC is still thechoice for operation under square-wave mode of
switching,that is, once per cycle. A concept of multi-level voltage
re-injection in DC circuit of VSC topology, as an alternativeto
high-frequency device switching adopted under PWMcontrol or instead
of adopting higher multi-level topologyunder FFS principle, has
been reported to multiply thepulse-order several times without
employing additionalVSCs. With commercialisation of this approach,
therewould be a major saving of solid-state devices and
magneticcomponents.
A comprehensive review on the STATCOM technologyand its
development are carried out in this paper. Thepaper includes ten
sections viz. (i) working principle ofSTATCOM, (ii) solid-state
switching devices andtechnology, (iii) STATCOM topologies and
congurations,(iv) control methodologies and approaches, (v)
componentselection, (vi) specic applications, (vii) simulation
tools,(viii) latest trends and perspective research potentials
(ix)concluding remarks and (x) references. Based on theliterature
survey, Refs. [1320] are classied into threecategories such as
texts [117], patents [1840] andresearch papers [41320]. Based on
the development ofSTATCOM technology, the articles [41320] have
beenclassied into eight subgroups comprising of (i)
state-of-the-art technology [4154], (ii) GTO-VSC basedSTATCOMs
[5572], (iii) PWM-VSC basedThe Institution of Engineering and
Technology 2009STATCOMs [7391], (iv) multi-level and
multi-pulsetopologies [92132], (v) control methodologies
[133227],(vi) specic applications of STATCOMs [228305],
(vii)STATCOMs with energy source [306313] and (viii)STATCOM
simulation techniques [314320].
2 Working principle of statcomVSC is the backbone of STATCOM and
it is a combinationof self-commutating solid-state turn-off devices
(viz. GTO,IGBT, IGCT and so on) with a reverse diode connected
inparallel to them. The solid-state switches are operatedeither in
square-wave mode with switching once per cycleor in PWM mode
employing high switching frequencies ina cycle of operation or
selective harmonic eliminationmodulation employing low switching
frequencies. A DCvoltage source on the input side of VSC, which is
generallyachieved by a DC capacitor and output, is a
multi-steppedAC voltage waveform, almost a sinusoidal waveform.
Theturn-off device makes the converter action, whereas diodehandles
rectier action. STATCOM is essentiallyconsisting of six-pulse VSC
units, DC side of which isconnected to a DC capacitor to be used as
an energystorage device, interfacing magnetics (main
couplingtransformer and/or inter-mediate/inter-phase
transformers)that form the electrical coupling between converter
ACoutput voltage (Vc) and system voltage (Vs) and a controller.The
primary objective of STATCOM is to obtain analmost harmonic
neutralised and controllable three-phaseAC output voltage waveforms
at the point of commoncoupling (PCC) to regulate reactive current
ow bygeneration and absorption of controllable reactive power bythe
solid-state switching algorithm. As STATCOM hasinherent
characteristics for real power exchange with asupport of proper
energy storage system, operation of suchcontroller is possible in
all four quadrants of QP plane [2]and it is governed by the
following power ow relation
S 3VsVcXL
sina j3 VsVcXL
cosa V2s
XL
! P jQ (1)
where S is the apparent power ow, P the active power ow,Q the
reactive power ow, Vs the main AC phase voltage toneutral (rms), Vc
the STATCOM fundamental output ACphase voltage (rms), X ( vL,
where, v 2pf ), theleakage reactance, L the leakage inductance, f
the systemfrequency and a the phase angle between Vs and Vc.
Active power ow is inuenced by the variation of a andreactive
power ow is greatly varied with the magnitude ofthe voltage
variation between Vc and Vs. For lagging a,power (P) ows from Vc to
Vs, for leading a, power (P)ows from Vs to Vc and for a 0, the P is
zero and Q isderived from (1) as follows
Q VsXL
(Vc Vs) (2)IET Power Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp.
297324doi: 10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034
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onhis50,67,
iousnal64],fectas
hasing-ontatenalableture, a
age
IETdo
www.ietdl.orgVc Vs, no reactive power exchange takes place. In
thehigh rating STATCOM operated under fundamentalfrequency
switching, the principle of phase angle control(a) is generally
adopted in control algorithm to compensateconverter losses by
active power drawn from AC systemand also for power ows in or out
of the VSC to indirectlycontrol the magnitude of DC voltage with
charging ordischarging of DC bus capacitor enabling control of
Figure 1 Basic two-level six-pulse VSC bridge and its AC
voltPower Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297324i:
10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034second generation FACTS controller being
used as adynamic reactive power compensator. This
powersemiconductor device has no turn-off capability andrelatively
high response time. The emerging technology issolid-state
controllable turn-off switches. These switchesviz. GTO, IGBT, IGCT
are being used extensively inconverter circuits for
state-of-the-art FACTS controllers.Drive circuit requirements,
switching frequency/speed,
output waveform in square-wave mode of operationThe AC voltage
output (Vc) of STATCOM is governed byDC capacitor voltage (Vdc) and
it can be controlledby varying phase difference (a) between Vc and
Vs (and alsoby m, modulation index for PWM control). The basic
two-level and three-level VSC congurations and respective ACoutput
voltage (Vc) waveforms corresponding to a square-wave mode of
operation are illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2,respectively.
Functionally, STATCOM injects an almost sinusoidalcurrent (I )
in quadrature (lagging or leading) with the linevoltage (Vs), and
emulates as an inductive or a capacitivereactance at the point of
connection with the electricalsystem for reactive power control,
and it is ideally thesituation when amplitude of Vs is controlled
from fullleading (capacitive) to full lagging (inductive) for a
equalsto zero (i.e. both Vc and Vs are in the same phase).
Themagnitude and phase angle of the injected current (I )
aredetermined by the magnitude and phase difference (a)between Vc
and Vs across the leakage inductance (L), whichin turn controls
reactive power ow and DC voltage, Vdcacross the capacitor. When Vc
. Vs, the STATCOM isconsidered to be operating in a capacitive
mode. WhenVc , Vs, it is operating in an inductive mode and for
reactive power ow into the system. Phasor diagramsthe operating
principle are illustrated in (Figs. 3a3g). Taspect is well
presented in [1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 15, 31, 32,58, 59, 63, 73, 92, 96,
109, 116, 136, 140, 144, 160, 1225, 235].
3 State-of-the-art solid-stateswitching devices and
switchingtechnologyIn power converter circuits [41, 44, 47, 48,
51], varcontrollable solid-state switches such as
conventiothyristor, GTO, IGBT, IEGT, IGCT or GCT [1bipolar junction
transistor (BJT) and MOS eld eftransistor are employed for various
applications suchVSC, current-source converter and so on. Each
devicedifferent operating characteristics in respect to
switchfrequency/speed, device ratings, turn-off and turntimings,
forward and reverses breakdown voltage, on-svoltage drop, switching
losses and so on. The conventiothyristor, a line commutating
switching device availcommercially at very high power ratings, is a
matechnology and forms basic switching element for SVC299
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2009
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ativelyd inCTStchingCT isy [47,igherents.OMalega
n
300
&
www.ietdl.orgFigure 3 STATCOM operating principle and control
characteristics
a Capacitive modeb Inductive modec Floating moded Capacitor
charging modee Capacitor discharging modef VI characteristicsg VQ
characteristicsThe Institution of Engineering and Technology
2009switching losses and cost of each device are the trade-off
touse these devices effectively. Among the turn-off powerswitches,
GTO thyristor is a mature technology andcommercially available at
high power ratings. Its extensiveapplications in high power rating
converter-cum-compensator circuits have ushered in a new era of
FACTS[42, 43, 52, 54, 63, 70, 296] controllers, for example,STATCOM
[46, 228, 239, 252, 269, 280282], UPFC[252, 281], convertible
static compensator (CSC) [278],static synchronous series
compensator (SSSC) [252, 281]
and so on. Solid-state IGBT switching device is a relnew
technology in power electronics is employemedium-to-high power
ratings PWM-based FAcontrollers [41, 44, 47, 271] due to its high
swifrequency and speed. Among the turn-off switches, IGthe most
promising and emerging solid-state technolog48] and has the merits
of low switching loss, hswitching frequency/speed, no snubber
circuit requiremIGCT-converter-based high power rating STATC[280]
is under implementation stage at 138 kV T
Figure 2 Basic three-level six-pulse VSC bridge and its output
AC voltage waveform in square-wave mode of operatioIET Power
Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297324doi:
10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034
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IETdo
www.ietdl.orgsub-station in California. Because of relatively
high cost, itscommercial competitiveness is yet to be fully
explored.
Switching topologies such as PWM or power frequencyswitching
depend upon the type of solid-state devices usedin STATCOM.
Primarily, fundamental frequency methodof switching (pulsed one per
line frequency cycle) andPWM techniques (pulsed multi times per
half cycle) arewidely accepted methods. In PWM control,
solid-stateswitches are operated many times at frequent
intervalswithin the same cycle of output voltage, and an
improvedquality of output AC voltage waveforms [in terms of
low-amplitude of low-order harmonics/low total harmonicdistortion
(THD)] can be obtained. Based on thefrequency and amplitude of
triangular shape carrier signaland modulating control signal, PWM
converters aredesigned, in general, to eliminate triplen and other
low-order harmonics (5th/7th), and by means of suitablelter design,
predominantly higher-order harmonics arereduced in the AC voltage
output. As the converterconduction and switching losses are a
function ofswitching frequency, the PWM technique is notgenerally
adopted in high rating STATCOMs onaccount of high switching losses,
whereas low-to-medium rating STATCOMs used in power
distributionsystem are built upon PWM control and suchSTATCOMs are
generally termed D-STATCOM [55,61, 88, 90, 91, 117, 217, 243, 251,
260, 268, 274, 275,307, 310]. Switching frequency [16] of
solid-statedevices is one of the key factors in designing
PWM-VSCand it can be typically 3 kHz for IGBT and 500 Hz forIGCT or
GCT. The various aspects of PWM-VSCbased STATCOM have been
presented in [7391].However, soft-switching technique or rather
zero-voltageswitching applications in multiple voltage source
square-wave converters have been proposed in the literature [73,99]
to considerably reduce switching losses and electro-magnetic
interference.
As GTO is well-proven solid-state device andcommercially
available with power-handling levels as that ofthe conventional
thyristor, GTO-VSC is the backbone ofthe high power rating STATCOMs
[5572] that are usedextensively in high-voltage transmission
system. The PWMtechnique in such converter circuit has been found
to beunpopular due to its higher gating energy requirements
andswitching losses. Factoring this, STATCOMs built uponGTO-VSCs
are designed primarily to operate it in asquare-wave mode of
operation.
4 Statcom topologies andcongurationsMany VSC-based topologies
and congurations are adopted inthe state-of-the-art STATCOM
controllers and signicantly,multi-pulse and/or multi-level
topologies [46, 92132] arewidely accepted in the design of
compensators. For example,Power Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4,
pp. 297324i: 10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034a two-level multi-pulse
topology is a mature topology andcommercially adopted in +100 MVA
STATCOM at 500/161 kV Sullivan S/S of Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA),US [231, 235, 239, 240] and in +80 MVA SVG at 154 kVInuyama
switching station of Kansai Electric Power Co.(KEPC), Japan [228].
An elementary six-pulse VSC whichconsists of three legs (phases)
with two valves per leg and anelectrostatic capacitor on the DC bus
is illustrated in Fig. 1.Each valve consists of a self-commutating
switch with areverse diode connected in parallel. In square-wave
mode,eight possible switching states are possible with respect to
thepolarity of DC voltage source (Vdc). A set of three quasi-square
waveforms at its AC terminals, displaced successivelyby 1208, is
obtained using fundamental frequency switchingmodulation. The phase
to neutral (0, +Vdc/3, +2Vdc/3) andline-to-line voltage (0, +Vdc)
of the converter shown inFig. 1 contain an unacceptable current
harmonics causingsevere harmonic interference to electrical system.
To reduceTHD, multi-pulse converter topology derived from
thecombination of multiple number (N-numbers) of
elementarysix-pulse converter units to be triggered at
specicdisplacement angle(s), is widely adopted, and output
ACvoltage waveforms from each unit is electro-magneticallyadded
with an appropriate phase shift by inter-phasetransformer(s) to
produce a multi-pulse (6 N pulses)waveform close to sinusoidal
wave.
In a multi-pulse converter conguration, the displacementangle
between two consecutive six-pulse converter is 2p/(6N ) and
three-phase voltage contains odd harmonicscomponent of the order of
(6Nk+ 1), where k 1, 2,3, . . . . With the increase in pulse
number, lower-orderharmonics are neutralised and a very close to
sinusoidalAC output voltage waveform can be realised. Comparedwith
basic six-pulse converter, the multi-pulse congurationof STATCOM
increases the achievable VAR rating,improves the harmonic
performance, decreases the DC sidecurrent harmonics and reduces
signicantly the overalllter requirements. Basic two-level 12 (2
6-pulse),24 (4 6-pulse) and 6N (N 6-pulse)-pulse
convertercongurations are depicted in Figs. 4a4b, 5 and
6,respectively. Basic congurations of magnetics in multi-pulse
converters are discussed in [92, 228, 235]. It is notedthat
increase in pulse order increases the number ofelectronics devices,
magnetics and associated componentsand thus added to the cost.
However, the high pulse-orderSTATCOM enables to improve harmonics
and operationalperformances. Most industrial practices are to
employ 48-pulse conguration [46, 228, 131, 235, 239, 240, 252,
269,278] where magnetics are designed generally in two stagesusing
transformers. The inter-phase transformers (as manyas VSCs) are
employed to sum-up the output AC voltagesof converters, which is
further stepped-up through a maincoupling transformer to match with
the main AC system.The typical two stages of magnetics architecture
of theexisting +80 MVA SVG [228] at the Inuyama switchingstation
are depicted in Figs. 7a and 7b. The feasibility ofother magnetics
congurations in 48-pulse compensator,301
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nion
302
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www.ietdl.orgFigure 5 24-pulse (4 6-pulse) converter conguration
Figure 6 6N-pulse (N6-pulse) converter conguratiowhich are proposed
in the literature [46], are illustrated inFigs. 7c and 7d. Out of
the few multi-pulse topologies, 12-pulse, 18-pulse, 24-pulse and
48-pulse congurations arevery common and based on which, many
STATCOMpower circuits are proposed in the literature [20, 21, 26,
36,38, 60, 61, 71, 86, 93, 111, 114, 143, 148, 167, 228, 235,298,
299, 309]. The EMTP models of 12-pulse and 24-pulse VSC-based
STATCOMs are presented in [111, 167].
Typically, 12-pulse two-level converter congurationsconsisting
of two elementary six-pulse bridges [55, 58,167], DC side of each
is connected in parallel and its ACside is either connected in
series or in parallel are shown inFigs. 4a and 4b. Magnetics in a
12-pulse two-levelSTATCOM is congured such that, one bridge is fed
toYY transformer and the other bridge to a DYtransformer
maintaining thereby a phase shift of 308between two sets of
fundamental AC output voltagewaveform. The converter side D-winding
has
p3 times the
turns as the converter side Y-winding to keep the samevolts per
turn in both the windings. The AC mains sidewindings (Y ) are
connected in series and can have any turnratios to increase or
decrease the output voltages. Thecombined output phase voltage
leads to multi-steppedvoltage waveform and has 12-pulse waveform
withharmonics of the order of (12k +1) that is, 11th, 13th,23rd . .
. and with amplitudes of 1/11th, 1/13th, 1/23rd . . . of
fundamental amplitude, respectively.
Figure 4 Multi-pulse parallel and series converter congurat
a 12-pulse parallel converter congurationb 12-pulse series
converter congurationThe Institution of Engineering and Technology
2009Another variant of topology is a multi-level VSC structureto
generate multi-stepped voltage waveform close tosinusoidal nature.
Owing to the complex series-parallelconnection of transformers
windings/circuits in multi-pulseconverters, multi-level
congurations have been receivingincreasing attention for high
voltage and high power ratingapplications. In multi-level topology,
a synthesised stair-case voltage waveform is derived from several
levels of DCvoltage sources obtained normally by using
capacitorvoltage sources, and in this category, three-level
convertertopologies with square-wave mode of operation is
mostcommon [252, 280, 281]. An N-level topology is achievedby
splitting of DC capacitors into (N2 1) sectionsproduces N-level
output phase voltage and a (2N2 1) leveloutput line voltage
waveform. When number of levels ishigh enough, harmonic content in
AC output voltage isreduced to low enough to avoid the need of
lters. Themain features of multi-level converter are the low
harmoniccontent of the output voltage compared with a
square-wavepulse converter, decreased device voltage stress (a
fractionof the total DC bus voltage) and potentially
higherconverter voltage and thus power rating. It is proposed
in[95] that the multi-level topology employing capacitorvoltage
synthesis technique is to be preferred to the multi-pulse topology
employing magnetic coupling technique.Three basic types of
multi-level VSCs are reported in [95,114, 123] viz. (i) multi-point
clamped converter in whichthree-level neutral point clamped (NPC)
converter topologyis a matured technology [61, 114, 116, 153] and
on this
sIET Power Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297324doi:
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IETdo
www.ietdl.orgFigure 7 Two stages of magnetics architecture and
feasibility of other magnetics conguration in two-level 48-pulse
(86-pulse) STATCOM circuit
a Magnetics of 48-pulse, two-level +80 MVA STATCOM at Inuyama
sw. station, KEPCb 48-pulse STATCOM terminal AC voltage waveform at
PCCc Typical magnetics congurations of true 48-pulse STATCOMd
Magnetic conguration of Quasi 48-pulse STATCOMPower Electron.,
2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297324 303i: 10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034
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30
&
www.ietdl.orgconcept many STATCOM controllers have
beencommercially developed. Contrary to two-level converters,this
three-level converter allows controlling of themagnitude of AC
voltage by a variation of dead-angle (b)maintaining xed DC
capacitor voltage. The second type ischain converters based on
standard H-bridge arrangementsand the third is nested-cell
converter or ying capacitormulti-level converter. Implementations
of these convertersrequire the same number of switches for the same
numberof levels, but there is a wide variation in terms of
passivecomponent requirements and operational and
controlstrategies. Such topologies are complex and
thereforeapplications of these converters are limited.
Typically,three-to-nine level converter topologies have been
reportedin the literature [95, 119, 132]. For relatively
slowswitching devices like GTO, application of three-levelconverter
topology with fundamental frequency switchinghas got wide
acceptability in designing STATCOM forhigh power rating
applications. A simplied scheme ofthree-level NPC converter
comprising four-switches ineach converter leg and four-level
single-phase NPCconverter conguration is given in Figs. 8 and 9,
respectively.
It is experienced that fundamental switching based 48-pulse
converter topology is extensively used in high powerrating STATCOMs
due to its excellent operational andharmonics performance, whereas
low pulse-ordercompensators such as 12-pulse, or 18-pulse or
24-pulsecongurations under square-wave mode of operation arenot
adopted due to high impact of voltage harmonics,causing
unacceptable harmonic distortion. Such low-pulseorder and
multi-pulse VSC topology-based STATCOMsare proposed in [71, 298,
299] for voltage regulation, powerfactor improvement in
transmission system and these caneffectively improve harmonic
performance by adopting atypical magnetics structure and simple
control algorithm,the magnetics architectures of which are
illustrated inFigs. 10a10c, 11a11c and 12a12b. Among the two-level,
48-pulse GTO-VSC topology-based STATCOMswith GTO triggering under
FFS principle, two mostpioneering and practical compensators exist
at the 154 kVInuyama switching station of KEPC and at 161/500
kVSullivan substation of TVA. In multi-level topology,
Figure 8 Single phase of a three-level NPC converter4The
Institution of Engineering and Technology 2009three-level
architecture is extensively adopted in high powerrating STATCOMs
being used in high-voltagetransmission system. Interestingly, the
rst UPFC [252] of+160 MVA capacity, which has a STATCOMcomponent,
has been built using three-level NPC GTO-based converter
conguration and it has been in service at138 kV Inez S/S of
American Electric Power since 1997.A three-level IGBT-based NPC
converter congurationwith a rating of +36 MVA being operated as a
back-to-back inter-tie between Texas and Mexico with afunctionality
of STATCOM has been working since 2001[271]. Three-level VSC
topology is adopted in thedevelopment of a versatile +200 MVA CSC
at 345 kVMarcy S/S, NY [278] and a +40 MVA STATCOM[281] under 80
MVA UPFC project of Korea ElectricPower Corporation. In Gleenbrook
115 kV sub-station,Northeast Utilities, +150 MVA STATCOM [282] is
builtupon GTO-based chain-link VSC conguration. Multi-level
topology and various STATCOM circuitcongurations and related
control strategies are presentedin the literature [61, 78, 82, 92,
95, 96, 98, 106, 108, 110,114, 119, 123]. A nine-level high power
rating convertertopology with a combination of IGCT and
IGBT-basedconverter congurations, called hybrid approach,
isproposed in [119].
The concept of multi-level voltage re-injection in DCcircuit of
VSC topology is envisioned in [49, 66, 68, 69,72] to increase
pulse-order (like conventional high-pulseSTATCOM) by minimising
converters requirements andmagnetics. Simple congurations of
voltage reinjection fortwo-level and three-level structurs are
shown in Figs. 13and 14, respectively. Based on this principle, a
model of36-pulse STATCOM is proposed in [68] using only
twoelementary six-pulse VSCs operated under FFS principle.A model
of a 60-pulse STATCOM is proposed in [72]using multi-level voltage
re-injection in DC circuit of2 6-pulse STATCOM operated under
square-wavemode. With the advent of this innovative approach,
basicpulse-order is increased multi-fold improving harmonic
Figure 9 Single phase of a four-level NPC converterIET Power
Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297324doi:
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IETdoi
www.ietdl.orgperformance signicantly. Instead of adopting VSC in
thedesign of STATCOM, the current-source convertertopology with
multi-level current re-injection technique isfocused in [50, 70],
where a ve-level current reinjection isderived to meet harmonic
standards.
5 Control strategies andapproachesThe control system is the
heart of state-of-the-artSTATCOM controller for dynamic control of
reactivepower in electrical system. Based on the
operationalrequirements, type of applications, system conguration
andloss optimisation, essential control parameters arecontrolled to
obtain desired performance and many controlmethodologies in STATCOM
power circuits have beenpresented in [133227]. In a square-wave
mode ofoperation, phase angle control (a) across the
leakagereactance (L) is the main controlling parameter. This
control is employed in a two-level converter structure,where DC
voltage (Vdc) is dynamically adjusted to above orequal to or below
the system voltage for reactive powercontrol. In a three-level
conguration, the dead-angle orzero-swell period (b) is controlled
to vary the converter ACoutput voltage by maintaining Vdc constant.
The controlsystem for STATCOM operated with PWM modeemploys control
of a and m (modulation index) to changethe converter AC voltages
keeping Vdc constant. The basiccontrol architecture is shown in
Fig. 15. For voltageregulation, two control-loop circuits namely
inner currentcontrol loop and external/outer voltage control loop
areemployed in STATCOM power circuit. The currentcontrol loop
produces the desired phase angle difference ofthe converter voltage
relative to the system voltage and inturn, generates the gating
pulses, whereas the voltagecontrol loop generates the reference
reactive current for thecurrent controller of the inner control
loop. This controlphilosophy is implemented with proportional and
integralcontrol (PI control) algorithm or with a combination of
Figure 10 Interfacing magnetics of 12-pulse (26-pulse) two-level
+100 MVA GTO-VSC based STATCOM and STATCOM ACvoltage waveform at
PCC
a Interfacing magnetics conguration-1 of 2 6 pulse convertersb
Interfacing magnetics conguration-2 of 2 6 pulse convertersc
12-pulse STATCOM terminal AC voltage waveform at PCCPower
Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297324:
10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034305
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306
&
www.ietdl.orgFigure 11 Interfacing magnetics of 18-pulse
(36-pulse) two-level +100 MVA GTO-VSC based STATCOM and STATCOM
ACvoltage waveform at PCC
a Stage-I and stage-II Transformer magneticsb ()2082 082 (2)208
under stage-II of magneticsc 18-pulse STATCOM terminal AC voltage
at PCC
Figure 12 Interfacing magnetics of 24-pulse (46-pulse) two-level
+100 MVA GTO-VSC based STATCOM and STATCOM ACvoltage waveform at
PCC
a Interfacing magnetics layout
b 24-pulse STATCOM terminal AC voltage waveform at PCC
IET Power Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297324The
Institution of Engineering and Technology 2009 doi:
10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034
-
IETdoi
www.ietdl.orgFigure 14 Typical voltage reinjection circuit
layout of three-level 12-pulse (26-pulse) converter conguration
fortransforming into 60-pulse AC voltage waveform at PCC17
illustrate the PI methodology for two-level and three-level GTO-VSC
based STATCOM power circuits. Thegeneral mathematical approach,
modelling and design ofcontrol systems for compensator circuits are
proposed in[136, 153, 167, 180, 181, 186188, 194, 202, 220].Power
Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297324:
10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034the essential AC and DC voltages and
current signals(instantaneous values/vectors) are sensed using
sensors. In thenext step, these signals are synthesised by
techniques such asdq synchronous rotating axis transformation,
alphabetastationery reference frame of transformation and so on.
Phaseproportional (P), integral (I ) and derivative (D)
controlalgorithm in dq synchronous rotating frame. Figs. 16 and
In the process of designing and implementation of controlsystem,
acquisition of many signals is involved. Initially,
Figure 13 Typical voltage re-injection circuit layout of
two-level 12-pulse (26-pulse) converter conguration fortransforming
into 36-pulse voltage waveform at PCC307
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2009
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power system,the injectedM mode of
there are twocontrol (VC)que. The CCensation anditching
states,/or nonlinearethodologies,rison currenttate feedbackntrol
are the, 169]. The8, 157, 161,4, 165, 244],t control andr
improvingSTATCOMseural network,echniques andintroduced in
tr
308
& T
www.ietdl.orgvoltage regulation [137, 167, 178, 235] inthe basic
control is realised by controllingreactive current by the STATCOM.
In PWcontrol [73, 74, 78, 80, 138, 160, 178],control strategies
adopted viz. voltagetechnique and current control (CC)
technitechniques [73, 84], where error compvoltage modulation
determine the various swhave been widely adopted with linear
andcontrol strategies. In the linear control mstationery PI
controller or ramp compacontrol, synchronous vector PI control,
scontrol, predictive control and deadbeat covarious approaches
followed [73, 84, 151nonlinear group of controllers [73, 84, 14175,
205] includes hysterisis control [75, 8delta modulation (DM) or
pulse DM currenonline optimised controller [84]. Focontrollability
and operational performance ofunder various system conditions,
fuzzy logic, nneuro-fuzzy articial intelligence/rule-based trelated
supplementary pre-compensators are
Figure 16 PI-control algorithm of two-level GTO-VSC basedSTATCOM
power circuitlocked loop circuit is normally employed to calculate
phase andfrequency information of the fundamental positive
sequencecomponent of system voltage which synchronises ACconverter
output voltage. Third step involves generation ofcompensating
command signals based on three kinds of state-of-the-art control
methodologies, linear, nonlinear and specialcontrol techniques.
Fourth step is to generate required gatingsignals for the
solid-state devices.
Signal actuation: Instantaneous current and voltage signals
suchas system voltage are the basic input parameters to the
controller
Figure 15 Basic GTO-VSC based STATCOM operation and conhe
Institution of Engineering and Technology 2009and are sensed using
CTs and PTs or using other sensingdevices. DC voltage across the
capacitor and current on DCside are sensed using Hall effect and
other sensing devices.
Compensating signals derivation: The compensating signalsare
generally derived either in time domain or infrequency domain.
Time-domain signals of instantaneousvoltage and/or current vectors
are sensed and decomposedusing widely popular method such as the dq
synchronousrotating axis transformation [80, 136, 137, 139, 160].
Thetransformed values are processed by various controltechniques
like PI or PID controllers to derive thecompensating command
signals [31, 32, 167, 235]. For
ol architectureIET Power Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp.
297324doi: 10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034
-
[31, 106, 136, 137140, 160]. Mathematical models of of high
power rating STATCOMs.
age has to beoutput voltagesystem voltagesformer [32] attion
from thiscapacitor ratingnt is explainedic compensatorthe DC
voltage23, 134, 135].optimised byel at the PCCe possibility ofe
[170]. Theristics of then the DC sidend signicantly
taken intohe capacitor. Ife system for aor needs to
berequirement ofoperation is
r a comparable
TAT
IETdo
www.ietdl.orgSTATCOM controller to control system parameters
duringasymmetric conditions have been proposed based on thesequence
analysis [80, 148, 190] and an analysis oncontrolling unbalanced
voltage conditions is presented in[159, 174].
6 Component selectionand ratingsBased on the specic
applications, operating requirements,system congurations and
control strategies, ratings of variouscomponents of STATCOM such as
DC capacitor, leakageinductance of coupling transformers, converter
VA ratingsand so on, are selected. Solid-state self-commutating
switches(GTOs, IGBTs, IGCTs or the like) and a diode connectedin
parallel with reverse polarity constitute a valve in
converter.Based on the current and voltage ratings of
controllableswitches or devices, a group of valves is connected in
series toobtain the desired voltage rating (sum of rated voltages)
of theconverter. The rms current ratings translate in restrictions
onthe converter current at AC side and peak current ratingsrelate
to the device turn-off capabilities. One or moreredundant valve is
also provided for reliability reasons [145,235]. Typical maximum
voltage and current ratings of various
In general, the nominal DC-link voltrelatively a large value to
generate converterwith amplitude similar to that of the ACon the
secondary side of the coupling tranzero VAR generation and moderate
variavalue for rated VAR output. Deriving DCbased on the
peak-stored energy requiremein [58]. The DC capacitor design for
statis greatly inuenced by the ripple factor ofand these aspects
are depicted in [58, 1Nevertheless, the capacitor size
isconsidering the ripple on the harmonic levand also by taking into
consideration thresonance for a given coupling reactancsteady-state
and transient-state charactecontroller and the quantum of AC ripple
owhich is less during balanced conditions ahigh during unbalanced
situation areconsideration in determining the size of tthe
controller exchanges real power with thshort time, the higher size
of the capacitprovided. It is proposed in [4] that theDC-link
component in PWM-modesignicantly smaller than those needed fothe
control of STATCOMs [73, 84, 154, 156, 161, 162, 166,183, 201, 215,
218, 222]. For qualitative improvement ofelectrical system,
DSP-based indirect current controltechniques [180182, 193, 247,
273] have assumed asignicant role. Analytical analysis of various
controlparameters by space vector analysis has been presented
in
Figure 17 Control algorithm of three-level GTO-VSC based SPower
Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297324i:
10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034state-of-the-art turn-off switches are
presented in [16, 41, 45,47] such as GTOs: 6 kV, 6 kA; IGBTs: 6.5
kV, 2000 A [16]or 6.5 kV, 600 A or 4.5 kV, 900 A; IGCTs: 6 kV, 6 kA
andconventional thyristors 8 kV, 3.5 kA. From Table 1, it isseen
that the self-commutating solid-state GTO device is themain power
switching element used in most converter circuits
COM power circuit309
& The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2009
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pulses. However, in multi-level converter topologies, the
d in
ATC
hat
(s
(+tib
7
uno
100
31
&
www.ietdl.orgcapacitor rating is almost independent of the
number of levelsand they are larger than the VA rating of the
compensators. Itis proposed in [123] that DC capacitor rating is
418 timeslarger than the VA rating of the compensator in the
multi-level topologies.
The selection of parameter for coupling reactance ofthe
transformer mostly determines the full VAR output ofthe converter,
and it is typically not more than 15% of thenominal system voltage
[32]. The selection of the couplingreactance is heavily constrained
by the harmonicrequirements of the network and, in general, a high
value ispreferred to minimise the harmonic distortion at the
PCC[170]. However, for low leakage reactance, converter ratingneeds
to be increased.
The converter loss is one of the signicant aspect, whichaffects
the overall efciency of the controller [74]. Theconverter loss
increases almost proportionally with switchingfrequency and
quadratically with the DC voltage. With theincrease of modulation
index (m), losses decrease and thesystem runs at higher DC voltage
for a given reactive current.For optimisation of converter
operating losses, switchingfrequency should be low but m should be
maximum.Mathematical modelling and designing of passive
componentsof many prototype and/or commercial STATCOM
7 Specic application areasof statcomSTATCOM technology has
multi-dimensional applications[228305] to control power system
parameters in steady-state and dynamic system conditions. As a
representative ofFACTS controller, STATCOM is a matured technology
forpower quality improvements [55, 61, 117, 260, 268, 274,275],
reactive power control, voltage regulation [78, 235],power
swings/oscillations damping [78, 237, 259, 266, 284,286], damping
torsional oscillations/SSR damping [202,250, 262], transmission
line capacity enhancement, dynamicstability improvement including
steady state, transient andvoltage stability [175, 228, 255, 275,
277, 288, 291, 292,295, 297, 300, 303], and for application under
power systemfaults [86, 159, 184, 304]. It is also used as
hybridcontrollers in combination with passive elements [235,
273].STATCOM has many interesting features such as highspeed of
response (sub-cycle), versatile controlling andoperational
characteristics, ability to implement controllersof low/medium/high
MVA ratings, low-space requirement,higher stability margins and so
on. It is rapidly replacing theconventional forced-commutating
reactive power controllers,SVC and other slow-acting controllers in
power system. Inthe eld of distribution system, the acronym of
thiscontroller is D-STATCOM [55, 61, 88, 90, 91, 117,
217,square-wave mode operation. Generally, the capacitor rating
inthemulti-pulse circuits decreases with the increasing number
of
Table 1 Self-commutating power semiconductor devices use
Sl. Station-utility-Year of operation ST
1 Inuyama- Kansai Electric Power Corp.,Japan-1991
+80 MVA (at t
2 Sullivan-Tennessee Valley Authority(TVA), US-1996
3 Inez-American Electric Power (AEP),US-1998
+160 MVA
4 Henan-Henan Power Administration,China-1999
5 Marcy-New York Power Authority(NYPA), US-2001
+200 MVAconver
6 East Clayodon-National Grid Company(NGC), UK-2001
+
7 Essex-Vermont Electric PowerCompany (VELCO), US-2001
8 Kangjin-Korea Electric Power Corp.(KEPCO)-2002
+40 MVA (sh
9 Talega-San Diego Gas & Electric(SDG&E),
California-2002
+0The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2009controllers
and solid-state-device rating techniques have beenpresented in [20,
48, 58, 83, 135, 145, 309].
converters of high power rating statcoms
OM effective capacity Solid-state turn-offdevice ratings
time called as static var generator-SVG)
GTO: 4.5 kV, 3 kA
+100 MVA GTO: 4.5 kV, 4 kA
hunt part of unied power owcontroller-UPFC)
GTO: 4.5 kV, 4 kA
+20 MVA GTO: 4.5 kV, 3 kA
2 100 MVA converter units ofle static compensator-CSC)
GTO: 4.5 kV, 4 kA
5 MVA (re-locatable) GTO: 4.5 kV, 3 kA
133/241 MVA GTO: 6 kV, 6 kA
t part of +80 MVA unied powerw controller-UPFC)
GTO: 4.5 kV, 4 kA
MVA (+2 50 MVA) GCT: 6 kV, 6 kAIET Power Electron., 2009, Vol.
2, Iss. 4, pp. 297324doi: 10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034
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IETdo
www.ietdl.org243, 260, 268, 274, 275, 307] being widely used for
power-quality improvement, custom power, voltage
regulation,compensation and balancing of nonlinear loads
and/orunbalanced loads, load power factor improvement,
harmonicelimination and so on. Versatile applications ofD-STATCOM
for system improvements in distribution levelhave been well
documented in many references [251, 257,243, 256, 260, 263, 268,
274, 310]. Considerableimprovement in electrical machine controls
like self-excitedinduction generators (SEIGs) by hysteresis current
controltechnique and other nonlinear approaches have beenpresented
in [181, 182, 244, 253, 272]. For harnessing non-conventional
energy sources such as wind power, applicationsof STATCOMs and its
controlling features to control SEIGsin wind farm are discussed in
[217, 248]. In combinationwith an energy storage system (battery or
magnetic storagedevice), STATCOM are being widely utilised [57,
306313]for power-quality improvements and also for
uninterruptiblepower supply and real power exchange during
emergency.
In high-voltage transmission and high-power ratingapplications,
many practical STATCOM controllers arein real-time applications and
their multi-dimensionaladvantages are well realised [228, 235, 239,
252, 258, 269,278, 280, 281, 282, 301, 306]. STATCOM
back-to-backinter-tie [271] is a relatively new area of application
toexchange power between two inter-ties and to improvevoltage
stability. It is analogous to HVDC back-to-backsystem named as HVDC
light with inherent MVARsupporting feature.
8 Latest trends and futuredevelopmentsIGCT and IGBT devices [47,
48] are the promising self-commutating solid-state controllable
switches that areincreasingly being used in STATCOMs under PWM
modeof operation due to its low switching losses and fast
responsetime relative to GTO switches. Out of these two
powerelectronic devices, IGCT is the most promising technologyfor
high power rating STATCOMs. Owing to its qualitativeimprovement and
rapid commercialisation, these devices arenow available with
reasonably higher power ratings. Designand development of high
power ratings STATCOMs usingIGCT-based VSCs with PWM mode of
operationemploying multi-pulse and/or multi-level topologies are
thepromising area of research. Out of the various
multi-levelconverter topologies, three-level conguration has been
provento be most practical. It is proposed that in
multi-leveltopologies, beyond three levels, the controller design
forbalancing voltages across the various segments of DCcapacitors
to be used as energy storage devices is difcult andtherefore
higher-level converter congurations are rarely used.Evolving proper
controller to meet such specic controlobjective for multi-level
STATCOMs is a potential area ofresearch. There is a further scope
of improving the controllerfunctions in STATCOMs which would enable
to controlPower Electron., 2009, Vol. 2, Iss. 4, pp. 297324i:
10.1049/iet-pel.2008.0034system dynamics during symmetrical and
asymmetrical faultsin high-voltage transmission system. In this
context,improving control algorithms employing fuzzy-logic or
neuralnetwork or neuro-fuzzy logic needs to be investigated
forachieving better controllability. In a system using
multiplenumbers of the state-of-the-art compensators at
variouspotential locations, coordinated control mechanism seems
tobe an interesting area of research in respect to
capacityoptimisation of the compensators ensuring effective
utilisationof the transmission assets and thus, saving in cost.
Theconcept of voltage re-injection principle in DC-link circuit
ofSTATCOMs operated at fundamental frequency switching isa good
technique to be greatly utilised to improve harmonicsperformance
using less number of sold-state devices andassociated components in
STATCOM power circuits.
9 Simulation toolsMany experimental and prototype models of
STATCOMcontrollers have been reported in research
publications.Simulation of various congurations/topologies,
controlstrategies, magnetics, lter requirements, component
leveldesigning and so on, have been presented in [314320] withthe
help of many standard software simulation
tools.MATLAB/SIMULINK/PSB, EMTP, PSCAD/EMTDC,SPICE, EUROSTAG and so
on, are some of the softwaretools being extensively used by
researchers and engineers tosimulate various power electronics
devices in power systemcircuits, electrical machines and so on.
Detailed modelling ofSTATCOM controllers and performance analysis
andsensitivities of various passive components under
varyingsystem-operating conditions ensure the researchers
andengineers to rm up the design parameters in
pre-fabricationstage. Employing EMTP simulation program,
prototypemodelling of typical STATCOM controllers and analysishave
been presented in [111, 167, 315, 316, 320]. A specicmodelling of
D-STATCOM with IGBT converters arepresented by using power system
block set tool box underMATLAB environment [317, 318, 319].
10 ConclusionsSTATCOMis the state-of-the-art dynamic shunt
compensatorin FACTS family, which is widely used to control
systemdynamics under stressed condition. The self-commutatingVSC
built upon controllable solid-state devices (viz. GTO,IGBT, IGCT
and so on) with operation under FFS or PWMswitching principle is
the backbone of this compensator.Many commendable features of
STATCOM viz. four-quadrant operation in PQ plane (in support of
proper energysource), high speed of response (sub-cycle),
versatilecontrolling and operational characteristics, optimum
voltageplatform and so on, have been reported in
researchpublications. STATCOM being a versatile reactive
powercompensator has taken the place of the line commutatingSVC, a
relatively slow-acting dynamic shunt controller. TheEPRI in USA,
who is a pioneer to conduct research andevolve high power rating
STATCOMs employing311
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312
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www.ietdl.orgGTO-VSCs as its backbone, has developed a number of
existingSTATCOM projects in collaboration with many
utilities/organisations. In many research papers, this controller
hasbeen called as ASVC or ASVG or SVG or STATCON orSSVC or
VSC-based SVC or self-commutated SVC or staticsynchronous
compensator (SSC or S2C). Acronym ofSTATCOM in electrical
distribution system is D-STATCOM operating under PWM control. Power
industriesviz. GE, Siemens, ABB, Alsthom, Mitsubishi, Toshiba andso
on, with their in-house R&D facilities have given birth tomany
STATCOM projects that are commercially in operationin high-voltage
transmission system. In addition to its stand-alone usage in
electrical network, this controller has been anintegral component
of other state-of-the-art FACTScontrollers viz. UPFC and CSC. In
the process ofSTATCOM technology development, numerous
convertertopologies, magnetics congurations, control
algorithms,switching principles and so on, have been reported in
literaturefor various applications in transmission and
distributionsystems. A comprehensive review on the
state-of-the-artSTATCOM controllers has been carried out focusing
the newhorizon of research potentials in this eld.
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