This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
Life Cycle AnalysisOutline
Life Cycle Analysis is a tool to assess the environmental impacts
of products and processes throughout their lifecycles. This lecture
provides an introduction to the scope, methodological aspects and
applications of LCA. First, the underlying rationale of LCA is
explored, whereafter the framework of the LCA process is presented.
The steps in LCA are goal and scope definition, inventory analysis,
impact assessment and interpretation of results. An important
aspect of LCA is the ‘functional’ orientation of the analysis. LCA
is a comprehensive and comparative evaluation of environmental
flows and impacts associated to the function of products. Each
subsequent step within the framework of LCA involves specific
requirements that need to be adjusted to the product or process
function.
Although often associated with the environmental sphere, ‘life
cycle thinking’ can be used in other fields as well. Applications
of LCA include Life Cycle Costing, which analyses economic or
financial impacts during life cycles of products and processes. A
rather new concept in the field of LCA is the evaluation of social
aspects from ‘cradle to grave’. In accordance with the
sustainability paradigm of ‘planet, profit and people’, the social
impacts are important as well. Therefore, this lecture ends with an
overview of characteristics and deveopments in the field of ‘social
LCA’.
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) atau Analisis Siklus Hidup. Berikutnya
akan diperkenalkan gagasan tentang
Eco-design, yang merupakan suatu aplikasi praktis dari pemikiran
siklus hidup didalam disain produk.
*
Outline
Life Cycle Analysis is a tool to assess the environmental impacts
of products and processes throughout their lifecycles. This lecture
provides an introduction to the scope, methodological aspects and
applications of LCA. First, the underlying rationale of LCA is
explored, whereafter the framework of the LCA process is presented.
The steps in LCA are goal and scope definition, inventory analysis,
impact assessment and interpretation of results. An important
aspect of LCA is the ‘functional’ orientation of the analysis. LCA
is a comprehensive and comparative evaluation of environmental
flows and impacts associated to the function of products. Each
subsequent step within the framework of LCA involves specific
requirements that need to be adjusted to the product or process
function.
Although often associated with the environmental sphere, ‘life
cycle thinking’ can be used in other fields as well. Applications
of LCA include Life Cycle Costing, which analyses economic or
financial impacts during life cycles of products and processes. A
rather new concept in the field of LCA is the evaluation of social
aspects from ‘cradle to grave’. In accordance with the
sustainability paradigm of ‘planet, profit and people’, the social
impacts are important as well. Therefore, this lecture ends with an
overview of characteristics and deveopments in the field of ‘social
LCA’.
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
Products and Processes
*
Outline
Life Cycle Analysis is a tool to assess the environmental impacts
of products and processes throughout their lifecycles. This lecture
provides an introduction to the scope, methodological aspects and
applications of LCA. First, the underlying rationale of LCA is
explored, whereafter the framework of the LCA process is presented.
The steps in LCA are goal and scope definition, inventory analysis,
impact assessment and interpretation of results. An important
aspect of LCA is the ‘functional’ orientation of the analysis. LCA
is a comprehensive and comparative evaluation of environmental
flows and impacts associated to the function of products. Each
subsequent step within the framework of LCA involves specific
requirements that need to be adjusted to the product or process
function.
Although often associated with the environmental sphere, ‘life
cycle thinking’ can be used in other fields as well. Applications
of LCA include Life Cycle Costing, which analyses economic or
financial impacts during life cycles of products and processes. A
rather new concept in the field of LCA is the evaluation of social
aspects from ‘cradle to grave’. In accordance with the
sustainability paradigm of ‘planet, profit and people’, the social
impacts are important as well. Therefore, this lecture ends with an
overview of characteristics and deveopments in the field of ‘social
LCA’.
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
(1) analisis kontribusi tahapan-tahapan siklus hidup terhadap beban
lingkungan keseluruhan, biasanya dengan tujuan untuk
memprioritaskan pada perbaikan-perbaikan produk atau proses
dan
(2) membandingkan antar produk untuk komunikasi internal.
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
Final waste
Suatu industri mempertimbangkan penambahan satu tahap proses lagi
terhadap lini produknya. Industri tersebut memiliki pilihan antara
Mesin A ataukah Mesin B.
Kedua mesin memerlukan penambahan beberapa bahan kimia dalam
mendukung operasinya, masing-masing menggunakan tenaga yang sama
per unit waktu operasi.
Mesin manakah yang sebaiknya dipilih untuk industri ini jika
didasarkan kepada pengaruh lingkungannya?
Life Cycle of Product Systems (Source: USEPA, 2006. Life Cycle
Assessment: Principles and Practice, Cincinnati, Ohio report no.
45268
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
Source: cycle:
http://www.iso.org/iso/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1019
Inputs and outputs of product system: USEPA, 2006. Life Cycle
Assessment: Principles and Practice, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
Tabel dampak lingkungan dari kedua mesin, yang disajikan dalam
Eco-points. Unit-unit ini dibuat dengan analisis LCA lingkungan
untuk mengukur kategori-kategori dampak lingkungan yang berbeda,
seperti perubahan iklim, toksisitas dan penipisan ozon.
Life Cycle of Product Systems (Source: USEPA, 2006. Life Cycle
Assessment: Principles and Practice, Cincinnati, Ohio report no.
45268
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
210
185
20
24
6
4
Source: cycle:
http://www.iso.org/iso/pressrelease.htm?refid=Ref1019
Inputs and outputs of product system: USEPA, 2006. Life Cycle
Assessment: Principles and Practice, Cincinnati, Ohio 45268
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
The Concept of LCA (2)
Some products have a dominating environmental load in production,
some in use, some in disposal:
Examples:
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
The official LCA framework according to the International
Standards: ISO 14040:2006 and ISO 14044:2006
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
Mendefinisikan tujuan dan ruang lingkup kajian;
membuat model siklus hidup produk dengan semua inflow dan outflow
lingkungan. Tahap ini sering diistilahkan sebagai tahap life cycle
inventory (LCI);
memahami relevansi lingkungan dari semua inflow dan outflow, tahap
ini sering disebut dengan tahap life cycle impact assessment (LCIA)
dan
interpretasi penelitian. Diagram berikut menunjukkan kerangka kerja
ini yang sesuai dengan standar-standar LCA dari ISO.
*
*/57
Suatu model LCA merupakan model sistem teknis kompleks yang
digunakan untuk memproduksi, memindahkan, menggunakan, dan membuang
suatu produk.
Suatu model adalah penyederhanaan dari suatu realitas, yang
mengimplikasikan bahwa realitas akan terdistorsi dalam beberapa
cara dan hasil-hasilnya tidak terpercaya.
Cara terbaik untuk menghindari salah paham atau akurasi parsial
adalah dengan mendefinisikan tujuan dan ruang lingkup LCA anda
secara hati-hati. Didalam tujuan dan ruang lingkup, akan
digambarkan tentang pilihan-pilihan yang paling penting (yang
seringkali bersifat subyektif).
Methodology of LCA (2), Goal and Scope
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
Definition of functional unit, initial system boundaries and
procedural aspects
Functional unit: comparison of products on the basis of equivalent
function, for example: comparison of 2 packaging systems for 1000
litres of milk by (a) 1000 disposable cartons or (b) 100 reusable
bottles; instead of comparison of 1 carton and 1 bottle.
Functional unit is basis for comparison
Methodology of LCA (3), Goal and Scope
=
?
“Compare environmental impacts of packaging of 1000 litres milk in
carton packages or glass bottles”
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
Methodology of LCA (5), Inventory
Pengumpulan Data
Crude oil from earth
Pengukuran Dampak
Category indicators are quantifiable representations of impact
categories (ISO) and are defined according standards, such as
CML-IA, Eco indicator 99, Impact 2002+ etc.)
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
Pengukuran Dampak
Steps: Characterization, Classification and Normalization:
Determine which LCI results contribute to which impact category,
e.g. CO2 and CH4 to climate change
Multiply environmental interventions (resources, emissions etc.)
from LCI with a characterisation factor to get indicator
results
Normalize to understand the relative magnitude of the indicator
results and to get dimensionless score (useful for
comparison)
Impact category
Cat. Indicator result (kg CO2 equivalent)
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
Methodology of LCA (10), Interpretation
“Phase of life cycle assessment in which the findings of either the
inventory analysis or the impact assessment, or both, are combined
consistent with the defined goal and scope in order to reach
conclusions and recommendations” (ISO)
To interpret an LCA, you must check the goal and scope:
Are the the general assumptions reasonable?
Is the functional unit well chosen?
Are ISO standards applied?
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
Methodology of LCA (10), Interpretation
Conduct a sensitivity analysis: analyze the impact of important
choices or assumptions
What if other allocations are applied.
What if other boundaries are applied.
What if other impact assessment method is used.
By recalculating the LCA with other assumptions, we can verify how
the conclusions connect with the assumptions.
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
Extending the scope of Environmental LCA (1)
LCA is often associated with environmental impacts, but scope can
be extended to include economic and social impacts.
Financial LCA = Life Cycle Costing (LCC);
Analysis of life cycle costs
Social LCA
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
Extending the scope of Environmental LCA (2)
What are the costs and revenues incured during the life cycle of a
product or process?
R&D
Production
Marketing
Sales
Etc.
Sometimes external costs included as well (costs that are ‘imposed’
on society or the environment):
Monetary valuation of environmental LCI and LCIA results…but is it
possible to monetise all environmental services?
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
Social LCA analyses social impacts, such as employment and
health:
Job quality
Earthly possessions
Challenging to model social life cycle impacts, because social
conditions do change more rapidly
impacts from changes in employment conditions may dissipate
emotions resulting from changes disappear with time
diseases get cured
5.1 Life Cycle Analysis
Life Cycle Thinking within the Design of Products and
Processes
5.2 Eco-design
This presentation introduces the concept of Eco-design. Eco-design
is a procedural tool for sustainable decision making, in particular
towards the design of products and processes. Eco-design is aimed
at improving both environmental and business performance in the
development of products and processes. Eco-design incorporates the
results of LCA in identifying possibilities for environmental
improvement. Hence, it is a practical application of LCA (section
1.4.1)
In this presentation, the Eco-design strategy wheel is presented,
which can be used to visualize the environmental characteristics of
a product. The axes on the strategy wheel visualizes the outcomes
of environmental assessment studies (such as LCA) and generates a
‘product profile’.
Because Eco-design is a direct application of LCA, the LCA process
should be integrated in the conventional design process. Since LCA
is a very systematic process, the design of products is often
driven by creativity and spontaneity. Therefore, we discuss some
difficulties related to the inclusion of environmental variables
into the familiar design process.
Eco-design has direct consequences for solid waste and associated
environmental problems. Since most of society’s solid waste is
generated due to the disposal of products, the application of
eco-design will obviously affect the amount and composition of
solid waste. Eco-design may lead to lower amounts of solid waste
(through applied materials efficiency in the production, reuse and
recycling) and a less hazardous composition of solid waste (due to
the use of low-impact materials in the production)
Common variants of Eco-design are Design for Environment (DfE) and
Sustainable Product Design (SPD).
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
Consequences for Composition and Amount of Solid Waste.
Related Concepts: Design for Environment, Sustainable Product
Design.
Contents
Eco-design ditujukan untuk memperbaiki kinerja lingkungan dan
bisnis didalam pengembangan produk dan proses. Eco-design
menggabungkan pemikiran siklus hidup didalam mengidentifikasi
kemungkinan-kemungkinan perbaikan lingkungan.
What is Eco-Design?
Penurunan dampak lingkungan melalui efisiensi sumberdaya dan
penurunan tingkat penggunaan zat-zat berbahaya akan menghasilkan
rasio eco-efisiensi yang lebih baik. Aspek-aspek penting dari
eco-design yang berhubungan dengan masalah sampah antara lain
intensitas material yang rendah, produk dengan penggunaan energi
yang rendah dan penggunaan bahan dengan dampak yang rendah.
What is Eco-Design?
5.2 Eco-design
Untuk menemukan jawabannya, maka penelitian harus mengukur siklus
hidup cangkir keramik tersebut, yaitu dari proses produksinya yang
berupa pemrosesan bahan mentah hingga tidak terpakai lagi dan
dibuang ke tempat sampah. Dalam hal ini diperlukan penghitungan
konsumsi bahan mentah, penggunaan energi (untuk pengolahan,
transportasi dan pembersihan), output bahan-bahan berbahaya ke air
dan udara serta volume kotoran yang dihasilkan.
Penghitungan ini mengabaikan beberapa dampak lingkungan lain yang
biasanya bersifat lokal, seperti kebisingan, bau dan bahaya
terhadap bentang alam (landscape).
*
*/57
The relative complex LCA procedure and the creative slightly
chaotic design process are not so easy to combine:
Implications for the Design Process (2)
5.2 Eco-design
Complexity of the Design Process
5.2 Eco-design
Source: Goedkoop, M. Cleaner Production and the Water Cycle,
Environmental Impact Assessment, Eco-design, UNESCO-IHE Institute
for Water Education, 2005)
Planning Idea generation Concept development Detailed design
Availability of information on the product
Freedom to change the design
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
Application of LCA results in Design for Environment
5.2 Eco-design
Design phase
Design activity
LCA activity
Assessment of strategy
LCA of reference product
Design guidelines and eco-indicators
Use of design rules and eco-indicators
Pre-selection of ideas
Short screenings and what-if analysis
Support in concept choices
Specific questions and issues
*
(adapted from Goedkoop, M. Cleaner Production and the Water Cycle,
Environmental Impact Assessment, Eco-design, UNESCO-IHE Institute
for Water Education, 2005)
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
Eco-Design improves Eco-efficiency:
Environmental Impacts of product over life cycle
eco-efficiency
resource-efficiency
5.2 Eco-design
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
Consequences for solid waste:
Reduction of toxic emissions during incineration
Eco-products
Improved material and energy content (quantity and quality) in
products
Reduced solid waste amount and hazardousness composition
5.2 Eco-design
*/57
Design for Environment (DfE): “the systematic consideration of
design performance with respect to environmental, health, and
safety objectives over the full product and process life cycle”
(Fiksel, 1996 in Wrisberg et al. 2002).
DfE…
focuses on existing products and processes that fulfil a specific
function (function-oriented systems)
expands the design scope towards environmental and social
implications of products and processes
Related Concepts: Design for Environment, Sustainable Product
Design (1)
Design for Environment
Examples:
Alternative Function Fulfilment (changes the way in which a
specific function or need is fulfilled)
System innovation (redesigning of product production systems,
creating ‘closed-loop’ economies etc.)
Related Concepts: Design for Environment, Sustainable Product
Design (2)
Sustainable Product Design
Analysis of Material Flows
Outline
Material flow analysis is a tool to analyse the flows and stocks of
materials within an economic system. Because problems of
environmental pollution are caused by hazardous substances, an
understanding of the problem in physical terms is useful to develop
effective solutions. Compared to LCA, which evaluates options
related to the function of small systems (products and processes),
MFA encompasses flows within broader systems defined by
geographical or administrative borders.
MFA’s are used to indentify the existence, intensity and fate of
materials or substances within a region. The results of such a
study may be helpful to develop environmental policy for resource
efficiency and pollution control. Because it visualises flows from
extraction to disposal, problem shifts due to environmental
interventions that restrict certain flows can be identified
easily.
Another advantage of MFA is the possibility to calculate unknown
flows and stocks by applying the mass balance principle. The law of
the conservation of mass, in analogy with the thermodynamic law of
the conservation of energy, enables to calculate the amount of
substances by balancing inputs and outputs. As input data are often
obtainable from economic statistics and technical process data
which can be derived from engineering analysis, direct measurements
of outputs are difficult and unreliable due to dilution or because
they are produced in small quantities. In these cases, balancing
inflows and accumulation with outflows gives the best results. In
solid waste management MFA results are in particular useful to
identify appropriate recycling options and side effects of land
applications of waste residuals.
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
MFA adalah suatu pengukuran sistematis dari aliran-aliran bahan di
suatu kawasan.
Ada dua jenis MFA yaitu bulk-MFA atau b-MFA yang difokuskan kepada
aliran bahan (misalnya bahan-bahan bangunan, produk sampah
elektronik) dan yang kedua adalah Substance Flow Analysis (SFA)
yang bertujuan untuk menganalisis aliran zat tunggal atau kelompok
zat (seperti logam berat, nitrogen organik).
5.3 Material Flow Analysis
bulk-MFA atau b-MFA yang difokuskan kepada aliran bahan (misalnya
bahan-bahan bangunan, produk sampah elektronik)
Substance Flow Analysis (SFA) yang bertujuan untuk menganalisis
aliran zat tunggal atau kelompok zat (seperti logam berat, nitrogen
organik).
5.3 Material Flow Analysis
5.3 Material Flow Analysis
Pengelolaan sampah yang terorganisir muncul ketika manusia mulai
mengumpulkan sampah dan membuangnya. Apa yang dilakukan ini
merupakan langkah penting untuk menjaga kebersihan dan membantu
mencegah munculnya wabah (epidemik) penyakit.
Masalah baru.
*
5.3 Material Flow Analysis
Saat ini, pengelolaan sampah merupakan suatu konsep terpadu yang
terdiri dari praktik-praktik yang berbeda dan pilihan perlakuan
yang terdiri dari strategi pencegahan dan pengumpulan;
langkah-langkah terpisah untuk memproduksi barang yang bisa didaur
ulang atau pemrosesan berikutnya dengan menggunakan teknologi
pengolahan secara biologis, fisika, kimiawi, dan thermal; dan
jenis-jenis landfill yang berbeda.
*
Why MFA? (1)
…hence, material flows and stocks from the economy are crucial to
the understanding of environmental problems
Material flows and accumulations
Why MFA? (2)
… and eventually solutions are based on an analysis of
environmental problems in material/physical terms (Van der Voet,
1996)
Environment: resource base
Environment: resource base
Extractions of materials
Natural Resource Depletion
Environment: resource base
Environment: waste sink
What is MFA? (1)
MFA is a tool for systematic research of flows and stocks of
materials from ‘cradle to grave’ (LCA!) in a region:
MFA is useful for:
Identification of potential control points, useful for
environmental management
5.3 Material Flow Analysis
Figure: Brunner and Rechberger 2004 Practical Handbook for
Materials Flow Analysis, 2004 by CRC Press LLC
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
What is MFA? (2)
MFA describes the industrial ‘metabolism’ of a region: the
transfer, storage and transformation of substances within an
anthropogenic (=human controlled) system and the exchange of these
substances with the environment (Brunner and Rechberger
2004).
Examples:
Nitrogen flows and stocks in the Malang area
Sometimes MFA is applied on systems of smaller scale; for example
the flows and stocks of heavy metals in a waste incineration
plant
5.3 Material Flow Analysis
Systematic analysis of regional material flows and stocks
Systematic description of Flows and Stocks of materials in a region
where activities in the anthroposhere are taking place
There is an exchange of materials between and within anthropogenic
(economic) and environmental subsystems
Systematic overview of material flows in a region
5.3 Material Flow Analysis
*
Source: Brunner P.H. and H. Rechberger 2004. Practical Handbook of
Material Flow Analysis. Lewis Publishers USA)
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
Mass output = Mass input + Mass accumulation
1
3
2
X0-1 = X1-2 + X1-3
Mass balances can be applied at different system levels:
Single processes
Household
Country
World
Valuable tool to calculate regional streams that are hardly
measurable, like in waste residual outputs (Ayres 1989).
Efficient way to obtain accurate results even when some data are
missing
5.3 Material Flow Analysis
Interpretation
Problem
1
2
3
Framework of MFA (1)
Goal definition = selection of substance or material to be
investigated: single element (Substance Flow Analysis) or group of
substances (Material Flow Analysis)
System definition = definition of system boundaries and relevant
processes
Spatial boundary: Geographical or administrative boundary (e.g.
watershed or country)
Temporal boundary: Flows per hour or month or year. Often 1 year
because of data availabillity
Selection of relevant processes: Only processes that are
significant to the substance(s) under investigation
1
Quantification of stocks and flows:
Calculate mass flows of goods that enter and leave processes
(measurements or applying mass balance)
Calculate substance flows within these flows (multiplying mass
flows of goods with element concentrations)
Calculate stocks: is there any type of accumulation occuring?
Example of mass flow of goods and a substance (Cadmium) in a
municipal waste incinerator
2
*
(Source: Brunner P.H. and H. Rechberger 2004. Practical Handbook of
Material Flow Analysis. Lewis Publishers USA)
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
What is the relative contribution of processes to certain
flows?
Where are hotspots and potential control points?
Is there a possibility of problem shifting when certain flows will
be restricted?
3
Framework of MFA (4)
MFA is a cyclical process: start with provisional data and rough
estimations; refine and improve system until required data quality
is achieved
Systematic overview of MFA procedures
5.3 Material Flow Analysis
*
Source: Brunner P.H. and H. Rechberger 2004. Practical Handbook of
Material Flow Analysis. Lewis Publishers USA)
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
Identification of depletion and accumulation of materials in
society; forecasting of resource scarcities and ‘secondary’ sources
(recycling, landfills)
Example: natural resources are transformed to ‘anthropogenic’
resources; stocks in landfills become important for future mining
of substances
5.3 Material Flow Analysis
Resource study: Copper cycle in Asia
Copper cycle in Asia The units are Gg Cu/year;
Lith=Lithosphere
5.3 Material Flow Analysis
*
(Source: Graedel et al. 2004. Multilevel Cycle of Anthropogic
Copper. In Environ. Sci. Technol. 2004, 38, 1242-1252)
5 – Environmental Assessment Tools
Applications of MFA; environmental management
Identification of existence, size and fate of hazardous substances
in a region
Identification of hotspots and control points
Identification of problem shifts
Example (hypothetical): “A Material Flow Account of a harbour
watershed shows a large flow of mercury in wastewater. Laboratories
are relatively the largest contributors. In wastewater treatment
plants, absorption and deposition to sludge are a major removal
mechanism for mercury. When mercury flows in wastewater are
restricted by means of imposing advanced treatment technology to
wastewater treatment plants in the region, then mercury outflows to
landfills are likely to increase.”
substance
source
5.3 Material Flow Analysis
MFA discerns between flows of ‘goods’ and ‘substances’
Important because substances cause environmental problems, while
flows of substances can only be controlled indirectly via flows of
the goods that contain the substances.
“It is not the good leachate of a landfill that imposes danger to
the groundwater. The danger resides in the cocktail of hazardous
substances in the leachate of the landfill.” (Brunner and
Rechberger 2004)
MFA can identify appropriate recycling options
Elemental composition of materials determine whether a material is
appropriate for recycling
MFA identifies side-effects of recycling
Accumulation of heavy metals in soils when sewage sludge is used as
agricultural fertilizer
5.3 Material Flow Analysis