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Part 4:
Thesis conclusions and appendices
‘If you want to know the end, look at the beginning’
African Proverb
‘The rule which forbids ending a sentence with a preposition is
the kind of
nonsense up with which I will not put’
Sir Winston Churchill
‘If your knees aren’t green by the end of the day, you ought to
seriously re-
examine your life’
Bill Watterson
‘The will to overcome a passion is in the end merely the will of
another or
several other passions’
Friedrich Nietzsche
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Chapter 15 –
Conclusion
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15.1.0 Summary
15.1.1 Part 1 – Eremophila longifolia: ethnopharmacology,
essential oil
chemotypes and cytogeography
With regard to the identification and delineation of essential
oil chemotypes of
Eremophila longifolia, it is now clear that the first such
chemotype identified in 1971
by Della and Jefferies, with an essential oil made up
predominantly of the potentially
hepatotoxic carcinogenic phenyopropanoids safrole and methyl
eugenol, is confined
to a small geographic region in Australia’s far west, in
central-west Western
Australia. This is important since although E. longifolia has a
widespread distribution
throughout the Australian landmass perceptions still prevail
that this single chemotype
reflects the constituents of all individuals of the species.
This is simply not true.
Further clarification reveals that this chemotype is an unusual
biotype with diploid
cytology.
In all, a total of three diploid populations were identified in
Australia, the other two
being geographically clustered in western New South Wales and
producing terpenoid
based essential oils via the mevalonate pathway. These ketone
rich chemotypes, as is
the case for the phenylpropanoid type, produce significantly
high yields of essential
oils, making them potentially suitable for commercial
development. The first of these
types is the isomenthone/menthone type (CT.A), which produces an
essential oil yield
at an impressive range of 3-8% g/g wet weight of leaves. The
second is the
karahanaenone type (CT.B), yielding at a range of 1-5% for
diploid specimens, or 0.3-
0.7% for tetraploid specimens. Both these high yielding diploid
types are good
candidates as cultivars for commercial plantations. Should such
plantations be
established and developed this would make a significant
contribution to Australia’s
essential oil industry. Essential oils and or/extracts from the
high yielding CT.A
isomenthone/menthone type could be used to make ointments and
lotions suitable for
topical, antifungal, aromatherapeutic and
cosmeceutical/aesthetic applications (Table
1). At present it is unclear how CT.B could be utilised, but
karahanaenone is already
in demand as a feedstock in the flavour and fragrance industry
and may also be useful
as a chemical scaffold for further drug development.
In addition to the five essential oil chemotypes of E.
longifolia identified prior to the
current study, four new types have now been characterised. One
of these new
essential oils, with dominant components of bornyl- and
fenchyl-acetate, is similar in
composition to the antimicrobial essential oil produced from
Eremophila
bignoniiflora. Traditional ethnomedicinal use of E.
bignoniiflora by Australian
Aboriginal people involved applications consistent with
antispasmodic activity and
headache therapy. Because essential oils rich in esters are
often associated with
antispasmodic and nervous calming activity, the essential oils
from E. bignoniiflora
may have contributed to this effect. The same essential oil
produced from the new
chemotype of E. longifolia, in significantly higher yields,
could be marketed for
treatment of headaches, nervous tension or gastrointestinal
disorders (Table 1).
Interestingly, another of the newly characterised chemotypes of
E. longifolia produces
an essential oil comprised predominantly of fenchone and camphor
(2-bornanone),
which are analogues of the previous mentioned fenchyl- and
bornyl acetate
respectively, after removal of the acetate groups. In the case
of fenchone and
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camphor, a ketone is in the place of the ester; however, in the
case of the other known
chemotype, dominated by fenchol and borneol, an alcohol
functional group is in the
place of the ester. Clearly, the oils produced by these three
chemotypes are of very
similar biosynthetic provenance.
The essential oils dominated by the alcohols, fenchol and
borneol, demonstrated high
antimicrobial activity against the yeast C. albicans, bacterial
species, such as
Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermidis, and the human pathogenic
fungal species
Trichophyton rubrum, T. mentagrophytes and T. interdigitalis.
Similar activity was
demonstrated by the fenchyl- and bornyl acetate oils against C.
albicans and S.
epidermidis. The fenchone rich essential oil is yet to be tested
for antimicrobial
activity.
The third new essential oil chemotype of E. longifolia is rich
in α-pinene, sabinene,
limonene and α-terpinolene. At first this essential oil appeared
to be consistent with
an earlier type reported in individual E. longifolia from Alice
Springs, in the Northern
Territory. However, it’s unusually high concentration of
α-terpinolene, makes this
new essential oil unique. The fourth new chemotype is dominated
by p-cymen-8-ol,
along with a host of other unidentified compounds.
Currently then, at least nine chemotypes of E. longifolia have
been characterised but
preliminary results suggest that others wait to be confirmed.
All essential oil
chemotypes occurring outside the small regions of the
safrole/methyl eugenol diploid
type, the isomenthone/menthone diploid type and the
karahanaenone diploid type
show tetraploid cytology. The karahanaenone and
isomenthone/menthone types also
exist as tetraploid forms but produce relatively low essential
oil yields by comparison
with the diploid varieties. Such tetraploid types appear as
randomly emerging
individuals in isolated patches throughout the range of E.
longifolia, probably
emerging as a result of sexual reproduction and assortment of
recessive allelic traits
related to biosynthesis.
Consideration within the context of proposals to cultivate
commercial scale crops of
E. longifolia species, quality control of plantations of
tetraploid chemotypes may
involve the elimination of karahanaenone and
isomenthone/menthone chemotypes
emerging in plantations from sexual reproduction. However, in
any case, this is not
expected to occur with any great frequency since this species
has a preference for
reproduction by root suckers.
With regard to the emergence of unintended chemotypes in
populations of known
chemotypes, one may consider the emergence of the safrole/methyl
eugenol type a
potential risk in a commercial scale plantation, particularly
since safrole and methyl
eugenol have been red flagged as potential hepatotoxic
carcinogens. Our research
indicates that the risk of this occurring is vanishingly small.
Thus far the
safrole/methyl eugenol type has not been demonstrated to occur
in tetraploid form.
However, even if this did occur, the parent chemotype would
produce essential oils
via the shikimic acid pathway, because emergent chemotypes may
not contradict the
biosynthetic origins of the parent chemotype.
With regard to the role of volatiles in the medicinal efficacy
of smoke or steam
fumigation rituals, using E. longifolia, both partially
pyrolysed essential oils and the
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more hydrophilic component ‘genifuranal’ are involved. Most of
the essential oil
components are present in the leaf tissue before heating, but
are accompanied with
other derived artefacts in the steamy smoke that is produced
when the leaves are
placed on hot embers for use in medicinal applications
consistent with antibacterial or
antifungal applications, as well as lactagogue activity. The
smoking procedure was
also used to prepare surgical tools, no doubt for sterilization
but conceptualised as a
type of exorcism ritual. The essential oils and artefacts were
also accompanied by
pyrolysed derivatives including radical essential oil fragments
and other phenolic or
benzoid constituents; together producing significantly enhanced
antimicrobial
activity, as demonstrated in our microtitre plate broth dilution
assays.
‘Genifuranal’ itself exhibited significant antimicrobial
activities, with mean inhibitory
concentrations as low as 100 μg/ml against some species. As we
were not able to
detect this compound in the leaves of E. longifolia without
heating it into a gaseous
state, we hypothesise that ‘genifuranal’ is the product of heat
induced cleavage of a
glycosidic bond. The proposed glycoside is geniposidic acid,
already demonstrated to
occur in the leaves of E. longifolia in previous studies, and
demonstrated to exhibit
cardioactivity.
In traditional fumigation rituals, ‘genifuranal’ and partially
pyrolysed essential oils
are delivered in warm air to the patient. Although the
transdermal absorption of
components such as ‘genifuranal’ are expected to produce
significant biological
activity, the first application with warm air is itself expected
to have enhanced
activity, relative to cooler applications. In this regard,
antimicrobial assays produced
in vitro have limited capability of capturing this enhanced
activity from warm air
delivery. Thus, antimicrobial activities produced in smoke
fumigation rituals are
expected to be higher than those demonstrated in the
laboratory.
15.1.2 Part 2 – Ethnopharmacology of medicinal plants used
traditionally by
Aboriginal Australians
The medicinal potential of the essential oil of E. bignoniiflora
has already been
summarised above. In other studies a dichloromethane extract of
the leaves of this
plant demonstrated calcium channel blockage that may be
consistent with a number of
traditional medicinal uses. Because the calcium channel subtype
was not clarified in
this earlier study, the results have implications for both
therapeutic activity related to
headaches and spasmolysis of the intestine. Because activity was
expected to vary
from leaves to the fruits, identification of the principal
active component may be
achieved by seeking to characterise components present in both
the leaves and the
fruits, but more concentrated in the fruits. Although the
essential oils could have been
involved in this activity, other important components may also
be identified.
Although essential oils from the fruit of Pittosporum undulatum
have already been
partly characterised in an earlier study completed in 1905, our
recent characterisations
enhanced and extended this earlier study. In our study we were
able to tentatively
identify the optically inactive compound referred to in the
earlier study, conducted
over a hundred years ago. We believe this was
bicyclogermacrene.
Unlike P. undulatum, Pittosporum angustifolium was involved in a
significant
number of traditional medicinal applications. The most common of
these to be
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recorded in the literature are related to the treatment of
coughs and colds, for
lactagogue activity and in the treatment of eczema. More
recently, a number of
anecdotal reports have surfaced related to ia cancer inhibition,
autoimmune conditions
in the intestines, antimicrobial activity. Previous studies have
supported potentially
anticancer activity, as well as possible antiviral activity,
particularly the Ross River
Fever virus.
Our study examined the chemical character of volatiles from P.
angustifolium,
demonstrating a degree of variation. Compounds with structural
similarities to
previously described chemosemiotic compounds identified in
mother-infant
communications, were also noted, including acetic acid decyl
ester or 1-dodecanol.
Accordingly, we hypothesise that these compounds are involved in
the traditional
application as a lactagogue, particularly because the modality
of usage involved
heating a compress of leaves to produce such volatiles, which
were then used to
fumigate the breasts of the nursing woman.
In our studies most of the essential oils from Geijera
parviflora and G. salicifolia
were chemically consistent with previous identified chemotypes;
however some
variation was noted and new potential chemotypes were
identified. One of these, from
a specimen of G. parviflora (NS374), exhibited an oil comprised
of a larger
abundance of bicyclogermacrene and trans-caryophyllene (and
unknown B), which
may be the first known sesquiterpene dominated essential oil
from Geijera species.
Following hydrodistillation performed on this specimen a
dichloromethane partition
of the hydrosol produced a residue that was rich in
pyranocoumarin xanthyletine,
furanocoumarin isopsoralen and methoxy coumarin osthole. This
hydrosol partition
has not been attempted using other chemotypes.
Here we also present for the first time studies on antimicrobial
and free radical
scavenging activity of essential oils from Geijera species. The
most active of these
oils is the green oil from G. parviflora, made up predominantly
of
pregeijerene/geijerene and linalool. Previous studies on these
components indicate
that this green essential oil may have applications as an insect
repellent (particularly
mosquitoes) as well as a topical analgaesic agent.
Smoke condensates from G. parviflora (chemotype 3) indicated the
possible
occurrence of an alkaloid in the qualitative pharmacological
test. This requires further
analysis for confirmation. However, the occurrence of alkaloids
in the smoke
condensate may have significance with regard to reported
psychoactivity achieved in
smoking the plant. Another possibly fruitful line of
investigation would be to examine
the pharmacological and chemical character of coumarins in these
smoke condensates
in the context of possible psychoactivity.
In further experiments aimed at simulating traditional use,
smoke condensates were
also produced from Callitris endlicheri and C. glaucophylla and
these were shown to
contain γ-lactones ferruginol and pisiferal/pisiferol, along
with a host of other
phenolic compounds, with high levels of antimicrobial
activity.
15.1.3 Part 3 – Phytochemical and chemotaxonomic
investigations
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Phytochemical investigations of Zieria species presented in this
thesis corroborated
previously published data on representatives of this genus. We
have expanded the
available information on this genus by, for the first time,
detailing the chemical
character of essential oils from the two species, Z. odorifera
subsp. williamsii and Z.
floydii. Considered within the context of the chemotaxonomic
approach undertaken in
earlier studies, the remarks of the discoverer of the species,
A. G. Floyd, now seem
somewhat prescient. ‘This is a quite oddity! This specimen does
not match any known
Zieria taxon. It appears to be allied to 3 closely related
species; Z. furfuracea, Z.
granulata and Z. smithii’. The former two species mentioned
there, being Z.
furfuracea and Z. granulata, produce an essential oil rich in
car-3-en-2-one. The
essential oil from Z. floydii was also dominated by this
component.
Although essential oils from Zieria spp. have been previously
examined for
antimicrobial activity, here we tested the essential oils
against a broader range of
organisms and also compared the activity of essential oils with
solvent extracts from
the same species. We found high antimicrobial activity in both
solvent extracts and
essential oils. We conclude that a putative essential oil
industry based on species of
Zieria would provide a novel range of essential oils, attractive
to the aromatherapy
community, as well as providing purified compounds useful as
scaffolds in
pharmaceutical development.
In a further chemotaxanomic approach we have for the first time
addressed existing
taxanomic concerns regarding the Phebalium squamulosum
heterogenous species
aggregate. The first species examined was P. squamulosum subsp.
verrucosum, which
was regarded by our esteemed collaborator, Ian Telford, of the
Beadle Herbarium at
the University of New England, as having greater morphological
alliance with the
Phebalium glandulosum complex. Essential oils of this species
were dominated by
dihydrotagetone at concentrations ranging from 95-98%. An
identical essential oil,
with the same yield g/g wet weight of leaves, was produced in an
earlier study from P.
glandulosum subsp. macrocalyx. In another study this was also
demonstrated to be the
case with P. glandulosum subsp. glandulosum. Here we have
characterised an almost
identical essential oil from P. glandulosum subsp. nitudum and
P. squamulsoum
subsp. eglandulosum. We have therefore concluded that
dihydrotagetone dominated
essential oils are a general characteristic of the P.
glandulosum subspecies complex.
In a subsequent study other members of the P. squamulosum
heterogenous species
aggregate were phytochemically investigated. We demonstrated
that all apparent
subspecies currently assigned to this assemblage have separate
individual essential oil
chemotypes. Interestingly, several separate chemotypes were
demonstrated from
specimens currently assigned to P. squamulosum subsp.
squamulosum. In this regard,
a notable chemical characteristic of oils from southern
specimens (collected near
Sydney and in the Hunter Valley) was the almost total
predominance of a tricyclic
sesquiterpene ketone; squamulosone. By contrast, northern
specimens were
characterised by essential oils rich in elemol/hedycaryol.
Our final study aimed at identifying a range of essential oil
types from select
Prostanthera species, has made a significant contribution to
resolution of taxonomic
problems in this genus. This study particularly emphasised
issues surrounding
taxonomy of P. rotundifolia, P. lasinathos and P. ovalifolia,
and clearly demonstrated
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the need for subsequent comprehensive chemotaxonomic studies,
complementing a
morphological and phylogenetic analysis, to delineate new
species.
Significant numbers of morphological subtypes are known to occur
in the three
species mentioned above, paralleling the existence of discrete
essential oil
chemotypes. Despite such variation essential oils from these
Prostanthera species
(series racemosae) were almost always characterised by a major
representation of 1,8-
cineole. However the differentiating factor is the existence and
relative abundances of
tricyclic sesquiterpene alcohols, such as globulol, ledol,
prostantherol and maaliol,
which are characterised by a cyclopropane moiety, attached to
either a decahydro-
napthalene or –azulene structure. Again, further significant
differentiating
components of some essential oils were the tricyclic
sesquiterpenes, but with
heterocycle substituents in place of the cyclopropane moiety.
Examples include cis-
dihydroagarofuran or kessane, also on a decahydro-napthalene or
–azulene structure
respectively.
As with other genera, Prostanthera essential oils were
considered within the context
of possible pharmacological activities. Here we demonstrate that
oils dominated by
the sesquiterpene alcohols provided the greatest antimicrobial
activity against a range
of organisms, most pronounced against some Gram-positive
species. Individual
components found in significant amounts in the essential oils
were related to this
enhanced antimicrobial activity, particularly prostantherol.
Maaliol was also found in
significant amounts in one specimen currently assigned to P.
ovalifolia. This is of
considerable potential pharmacological interest, given the
importance of maaliol in
the antinociceptive activity of a widely used Indian medicinal
plant species
(Valeriana wallichii). This antinociceptive activity is
therefore expected to be also
produced by oils from maaliol rich species of Prostanthera.
Again, Prostanthera
essential oils have a great potential as novel additions to
Australia’s aromatherapy
and/or natural product industry.
Table 1 - Possible commercial scale applications from essential
oil yielding flora in Australia
Species Chemotype Use
Geijera parviflora geijerene/pregeijerene (and germacrene D)
Commercial plantation: Insect repellent, topical analgaesia
(linalool content)
Geijera parviflora Osthole, isopsoralen, xanthyletine
Commercial plantations:
Zieria floydii car-3-en-2-one Commercial plantations: Chemical
scaffold for further drug development and antimicrobial
activities
Prostanthera ovalifolia maaliol Commercial plantations:
Medicinal applications consistent with the Indian Valeriana
willichii
Prostanthera rotundifolia
prostantherol Commercial plantations: Antimicrobial
activities
Eremophila longifolia isomenthone/menthone Commercial
plantation: topical, gastrointestinal for antimicrobial activities,
topical for muscle aches and pains, active in applications for
treatment of thrush (Candida)
Eremophila longifolia fenchyl-/bornyl acetate; Commerical
plantations: possible activity in gastrointestinal disease,
possible activity in aromatherapy for headache sufferers
Callitris glaucophylla NA
1) Bioactive γ-lactones; ferruginol, pisiferal, pisiferol. 2)
Occurrence of hydrophilic antibiotic highly active against S.
aureus and B. subtilis - requires purification and structure
elucidation. Medicinal applications consistent with the Japanese
species Chamaecyparis pisifera
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15.2.0 Suggested areas for further research
The demonstration of multiple chemotypes in E. longifolia
emphasises the chemical
variability expressed by this species, which may be an intrinsic
general character of
this genus. Thus, it is quite probable that other species from
Eremophila may
demonstrate this geographical chemical variability. The observed
correlation of
diploidy with higher abundances of secondary metabolites may
have more general
implications. Therefore it would be worthwhile examining other
species for both
chemogeography and karyotype. Perhaps this search should start
in E. deserti, as this
has already been shown to possess an abundance of essential oil
chemotypes with
high yields of essential oil. Another species, E. glabra,
produces no essential oil at all;
however NSW specimens are either hexaploid or tetraploid, but a
diploid biotype can
be found in far western WA. It may be worthwhile seeing if this
diploid specimen
yields any amount of essential oil. This may be a fruitful area
of investigation for all
Eremophila and its allied genus, Myoporum.
With regard to further investigation of species of Eremophila
for derivatives produced
in smoke fumigation rituals, no other species was as frequently
used for this purpose
as was E. longifolia, meaning that it may be less likely that
volatile therapeutic
compounds could be found in other species of Eremophila.
Although in Chapter 4 a
handful of other species were examined for the derivative
genifuranal, thus far it has
only been produced from E. longifolia.
Other species of Eremophila were in fact used, albeit less
frequently in smoke
fumigation rituals, meaning that it may be worthwhile to examine
for unknown smoke
artefacts in addition to genifuranal. Other species involved in
smoke fumigation
treatments were E. bignoniiflora, E. sturtii, E. mitchellii, E.
dalyana, E. freelingi, and
E. duttonii.
Derivatives or larger molecular mass compounds
produced/evaporated during smoke
fumigation methodology may alternatively be produced from
hydrodistillation.
However, due to the less destructive nature of conventional
hydrodistillation such
derivatives or larger molecules could possibly be distilled in
higher abundance at
shorter time-intervals if higher temperatures and pressures are
employed. In this
regard a modified pressure cooker, with a 15psi pressure release
valve positioned for
horizontal airflow into an adjacent condenser, could be used to
achieve this end.
At various stages throughout this thesis examination of solvent
extracts demonstrated
some degree of antimicrobial activity. This was not observed
using E. longifolia or E.
bignoniiflora, but Callitris glaucophylla and C. endlicheri did
appear to contain a
polar component with significant discriminating bactericidal
activity against two
Gram-positive organisms (Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus
subtilis). It would be
interesting to know what this component is and if it could be
used to treat antibiotic
resistant infections, such as VRE or MRSA. In addition, other
species of Eremophila
should be examined, particularly the highly aromatic and highly
regarded E. dalyana.
Because of the intrinsic chemovariability of other species,
another species worthy of
further examination is E. alternifolia, regarded as ‘highly
potent’ in some places but
not others.
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An interesting and unexpected outcome of this thesis is the
‘resurrection’ of
chemotaxonomy, which was utilised by botanists in the 70’s and
80’s before
molecular fingerprinting became possible and quickly grew in
popularity. Of course it
is not expected that chemotaxonomy could outperform molecular
fingerprinting and
phylogenetics in species delimitation, however it certainly has
proven to effectively
complement this method. Subsequently to this thesis the
phylogenetic approach has
been employed for results with a quick turnaround, to resolve
simple questions such
as ‘is this species the same as the one we collected
previously’? Already, our
collaborative botanists have been forced to examine voucher
specimens in closer
detail because the chemotaxonomic approach has compelled them to
do so.
In this regard, the question still begs an answer ‘how do you
define a species’?
Chemotaxonomy is challenged by the divide between ‘new species’
and ‘new
chemotype of the one species’. To complicate the matter further,
in Part 1 of this
thesis we demonstrated that a correlation could be made between
genetics (karyotype)
and chemotype, whilst the classical view is that chemotypes
result from differences in
soil climate. In the former, seedlings from one chemotype could
be transplanted into
different soil types and different climates without any serious
variation to the
chemical character of its essential oil. In the latter more
classical view, most certainly
there would be a difference.
The view that chemotype derives from soil type is borrowed from
Europe and Great
Britain, where cultivar selection over thousands of years has
caused a kind of genetic
uniformity across many species used in cultivation. However,
because this cultivar
selection was not a practice employed by Australian Aboriginal
people it is more
likely that unique soil types and various climates favour
certain biotypes – meaning
the plant itself is different and better suited to that
environment.
Over long stretches of time, geographically isolated chemotypes
may diverge into
new species, but again, the challenge lies in deciding exactly
what amount of
divergence warrants delimitation of a new species. Because of
the inherent ambiguity
in answering such a question, the best resolution for now is
that consistent
morphological differences should stand alone in defining a new
species, but
chemotaxonomy and phylogenetics may be utilised to demonstrate
that such
morphological variability is not merely a consequence of
naturally occurring
variability within the one species.
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Appendix A –
Consolidated list of references
Thesis Page 245
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Abbott, D. D., Packman, E. W., Wagner, B. M., & Harrisson,
J. W. E. (1961). Chronic Oral Toxicity of Oil of Sassafras and
Safrol. Pharmacologist 3: pp. 62
Abell, A. D., Horn, E., Jones, G. P., Snow, M. R.,
Massy-Westropp, R. A., & Riccio, R. (1985). The structure of a
stable serrulatane diterpenoid acetal from Eremophila rotundifolia.
Australian Journal of Chemistry 38: pp. 1837-1845
Adams, R. P. (1999). Systematics of multi-seeded eastern
hemisphere Juniperus based on leaf essential oils and RAPD DNA
fingerprinting. Biochemical systematics and ecology 27: pp.
709-725
Adams, R. P. (2000). Systematics of Juniperus section Juniperus
based on leaf essential oils and random amplifiedpolymorphic DNAs
(RAPDs). Biochemical systematics and ecology 28: pp. 515-528
Adams, R. P. (2007). Identification of essential oil components
by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (4th ed.): Allured
Publishing Corporation (ISBN 978-1-932633-21-4).
Adams, R. P., Morris, J. A., Pandey, R. N., & Schwarzbach,
A. E. (2005). Cryptic speciation between Juniperus deltoides and
Juniperus oxycedrus (Cupressaceae) in the Mediterranean.
Biochemical systematics and ecology 33(8): pp. 771-787
Adorjan, B., & Buchbauer, G. (2010). Biological properties
of essential oils: an updated review. Flavour and Fragrance Journal
25(6): pp. 407-426
Ali, J. G., Alborn, H. T., Campos-Herrera, R., Kaplan, F.,
Duncan, L. W., Rodriguez-Saona, C., et al. (2012). Subterranean,
herbivore-induced plant volatile increases biological control
activity of multiple beneficial nematode species in distinct
habitats. PLoS one 7(6): pp. e38146
Allen, J. G., Seawright, A. A., & Hrdlicka, J. (1978). The
toxicity of Myoporum tetrandrum (Boobialla) and Myporaceous
furanoid essential oils for ruminants. Australian Veterinary
Journal 54: pp. 287-292
Amri, I., Mancini, E., De Martino, L., Marandino, A., Lamia, H.,
Mohsen, H., et al. (2012). Chemical composition and biological
activities of the essential oils from three Melaleuca species grown
in Tunisia. International Journal of Molecular Sciences 13: pp.
16580-16591
Angioni, A., Barra, A., Coroneo, V., Dessi, S., & Cabras, P.
(2006). Chemical composition, seasonal variability, and antifungal
activity of Lavandula stoechas L. ssp. stoechas essential oils from
stem/leaves and flowers. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
54: pp. 4364-4370
Areche, C., Theoduloz, C., Yanez, T., Souza-Brito, A. R.,
Barbastefano, V., de Paula, D., et al. (2008). Gastroprotective
activity of ferruginol in mice and rats: effects on gastric
secretion, endogenous prostaglandins and non-protein sulfhydryls.
Journal of pharmacy and pharmacology 60(2): pp. 245-251
Asakura, K., Kanemasa, T., Minagawa, K., Kagawa, K., &
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