026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori

8/2/2019 026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori

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SerialNo.:026 WBSNo.150

WatershedTopicRelatedExtracts,(a collection assembled by EGSLP)

January2009

ProducedorReproducedby:

ForTheBenefitofRuralDevelopmentPractitioners


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NOTETOREADERS

ThewordWatershedcanmeanmanythingstomanypeople.Thatmanythingsorpartsofit,canprobably

informthedevelopmentpractitionerwhenapproachtodevelopmentisdelineatedbythewatershedconcept.

It is with this idea in mind that EGSLP is striving to reduce Poverty through Environmental Sustainable

LivelihoodopportunitiesandWellBeingforPoorRuralMen,Women,BoysandGirlsinSelectedwatersheds

InthepresentdocumentEGSLPproposestothereaderextractsfromdocumentsrelatedtotheWatershedso

that thoseconcerned withEGSLP,are informed from thesame documents environment. Hopefully thiswill

contribute to a shared vision between EGSLP Stakeholders, and thus make EGSLP implementation better

informedandefficient.

EGSLPdoesnotpretendthattheseriesofextractsiscomplete;northatisitwellbalancedevenifEGSLPtried

to.We leavetothejudgmentof individualreaderstodecideontheusageofthisdocument,butadamantly

encourageruraldevelopmentpractitionerstoreadthroughitisatleastonce.Wehavehighlightedsomeofthe

textsforthoseinarush,whenreading.

EGSLPhasassembledtheextractsfromtheperspectiveof:

1. SustainableAgriculture,togetherwithEnvironmentandRuralDevelopment Page22. MethodsofInquiryforRuralSystemsAppraisal Page83. LandDegradationandSustainability Page154. ManagementforSustainableFarmingSystems Page205. RuralDevelopment Page236. ProjectPlanning,MonitoringandEvaluation Page25


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FromPublicationsonSustainableAgriculture,togetherwithEnvironment

andRuralDevelopment

TheAgroecosystemOneresponsetothechallengeofcomplexityistoapplysystemsanalysiswithintheconceptoftheagro

ecosystem, which includes ecological and socioeconomic components (field, farm, household, village,

watershed, regional production area, national and international levels) and related livelihoods, such as

agroforestryandcoastalfisheries

Withintheagroecosystem,fourmanagementobjectivesareimportant

1. Agriculturalsustainability theabilitytomaintainproductivity,whetherof field, farm,ornation, inthefaceofchangingdemands

2. Productivityoutputofproductperunitofresourceinput3. Stabilityconstancyofproductivityinthefaceofnormalfluctuationsandenvironmentalcycles4. Equityevennessofaccesstoanddistributionoftheproductivityoftheagriculturalsystemamong

its

human

beneficiaries

(U4/2)

ParticipatoryResourceManagementResource conservation programmes such aswatershedmanagement, or soil and water conservation

projects, offer important opportunities to incorporate community participation. Rural people usually

understandtheirlocalenvironmentandtheinteractionsbetweencomponentsinagroecologicalsystems

far better than outsiders. Participation therefore allows people's resource management skills and

experience to be used to their full potential. Participation is also important in resource management

becausechanges inthe localenvironmentwillaffecteveryone inthecommunity.Fosteringbroadbased

participationisthereforeimportantforsustainableresourcemanagement,asitbringstogetherallthose

affected,andenablesthemtocontributetotheinceptionanddesignofconservationprogrammes.Thisis

animportantsteptowardsmoreamoreequitableprocessofdevelopment.

CommunityWatershedManagementCommunity watershed development programmes involve a more complex and comprehensive

programmeofruralresourceconservationwork.Ratherthanfocusingonaspecificresource,localpeople

cometogethertodecideonastrategytosustainthequalityofallcommunalresources(i.e.commonland,

surfaceandgroundwater,andforests)throughoutthelocalregion.Naturalresourcemanagementinthis

contextistackledsystematically,consideringalllinkagesanddownstreameffects.Suchprogrammesmay

entail major soil conservation work, extensive tree planting, andcareful water management systems.

What ismore,whilethewatershed 'boundary'mayberestrictedtoonepartofasinglevalley, itcould

extendtoincludeseveralconnectedcatchmentsfeedingintoagreatersystem.

Thus, community watershed management programmes may, in fact, cover a number of villages,

necessitatingwidercooperationbetweencommunities.Thescaleofactivitywilltoagreatextenthavean

impactonthedegreeofparticipationpossiblewithintheseprogrammes.Itwillalsohaveaneffectonthe

number and size of the institutions set up to manage the activities. Generally speaking, the larger the

watershedarea,thelessthe likelihoodoffullparticipationas largerinstitutionswilltendtoemergeand

thesewillcomprisethoseclaimingtorepresentthepeople.Thisrelationship isbynomeans inevitable.

AdditionaldiscussionofthistopiccanbefoundinNewHorizons:TheEconomic,SocialanEnvironmental

ImpactsofParticipatoryWatershedDevelopment.

SUSTAINABLEAGRICULTURESYSTEMSTorepeat;enhancingthesustainability ofagriculture involvesbothregeneratingtheagricultural system

itselfandrevitalisingruralcommunities.Theprioritiesforsustainability willvaryfromregiontoregion,but

willinvolveaddressingtherelevantlocalenvironmental, economicandequityconcerns.


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SAREDapproachescantherefore incorporateanarrayof initiatives,reflectingboththediversityof local

needsandthevarietyofresources,knowledgeandskillsfoundaroundtheworld.Ratherthanadoptinga

standardisedmodel,as in industrialagriculture,SAREDapproachesareflexible,andconstructedaround

the particular features of individual watersheds, communities and landscapes. These methods also

empower the individuals within rural communities,by reenforcing their roleas active decision makers

withintheiragroecosystems.

Oneofthekeyelementsofasustainableruraleconomyisdiversification bothonfarmandintherural

economy overall. Onfarm diversification involves the incorporation of multiple elements into the

production system, such as mixed cropping practices, treecrop combinations, livestockcrop

combinations,orotherstrategiessuchasaquacultureandsilvopastoralsystems.

SoilConservationandWaterManagementSystemsTheprincipaltechniquesdescribedforsoilconservationandwatermanagementinclude:

Conservationtillage Contourfarming Theuseofmulchesandcovercrops Theuseofsilttrapsandgullyfields Waterconservationmeasuresandharvesting Landdrainageforsalineandwaterloggedsoils Raisedbeds FishproductioninirrigationwaterForsuchprogrammestobesuccessfulandsustainedfarmersmustbeseenaspartofthesolutionrather

than the problem; local knowledge and skills must be at the core of these programmes and local

organisations reinforced through a process of participatory planning that is both interactive and

empowering.

Inresponsetothesetechnical,socialandeconomicfailures,recentyearshaveseenthegrowthof

participatory

watershed

development

programmes.

These

differ

from

conventional

approaches

in

that:

Localcommunitiesarefullyinvolved Theroleofexternalsupportorganisationsareasfacilitatorsofanalysisandacatalystforaction Farmertofarmerextensionisakeyprocessforinformationexchangeandscalingup Technologiesselectedandcropsencourageddependontheindividualneedsoffarmers Emphasisisonthesustainabilityandequityofimprovements.Theseinitiativestendtoaddressaneedwithinalargerregionforcoordinatedstrategiesbetween

communitiestoconservetheircommonresources;i.e.thesoilandwaterinparticularmicrocatchments.

Thismayincludereforestation,agreementsabouttheuseanddistributionofirrigationwater,andon

farmsoilandwaterconservationmeasures

Findings

Related

to

Joint

Watershed

Development

Technologies

Redirect incentives:Linking financialandfood inducementstopreselectedconservationmeasuresmust

cease. Incentives are effective only in certain situations when they are decided in consultation with

communities

Innovation: The capacity of individuals and institutions to innovate and experiment must be actively

encouraged.

Biologicalmeasures:Amuchgreateremphasisisneededonadaptingandapplyingbiologicalmeasuresfor

soil and water conservation, such as green manures, cover crops, mulching, composting and reduced

tillage.


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Participatorytechnologydevelopmentandadaptiveresearchshouldbecomeanintegralpartofwatershed

managementprogrammes.Onwatershedresearchwouldbeanappropriateapproach (usingonfarm

researchasamodel).

Processand

Methods

Farmertofarmerextensionandexperimentationshould be an integralpart ofwatershedmanagement

programmesiftheyaretobesustainableandaretoencouragescalingup.

Flexibility:External institutions must be flexibleand responsive, and ready to learnwith farmers. Every

farmhasitsownsignature.Athoroughlydesignedandpreplannedprojectisnotagoodproject.

Confidencebuilding: The pace of programmes and projects must be slow in order to build motivation,

confidenceandrapportamongstallthegroupsinvolved.

Decentralisation: The villagebased management of programme funds and planning are important pre

requisitesforsustainablewatershedmanagement.

Impactsand

Indicators

Adaptationversusadoption: Impact indicatorsshould focusonadaptationoftechnologiesandpractices

byfarmers,ratherthanonadoptionoftechnologies.

Equity.Muchgreatereffortsareneededtoaddressequityissuesifthepoorestandmostmarginalisedin

anysocietyarenottobemissed.

Selfevaluationenrichesthe learningprocess in institutions.It leadstogreaterhonestyaboutwhatdoes

anddoesnotwork,particularly if localpeoplesmeasuresofwhatconstitutessuccessareused.What is

neededisawidespreadtransitiontowardslearningorganizations,usingimpactanalysisastheimpetus

forimprovement.

InterInstitutional

Arrangements

Widespread training and competence building is needed to encourage and sustain a participatory

approachtojointwatershedmanagement,especiallyinbureaucraciesanduniversities.

Jointapproachesincreasethecontactsandlinkagesbetweenfarmersandexternalinstitutions,improving

thelikelihoodofpoliciesandpracticesemergingthatsatisfyallstakeholders.

Clear roles: There is a need to clarify the roles of the different institutions, such as governments and

NGOs,involvedindevelopingjointwatershedmanagement.

Intervillagefederations:Sustainablewatersheddevelopment requires thedevelopmentofstrong inter

villageinstitutionsorfederations.

Policies

Policyreform:Mostnationalandinternationalagriculturalandruralpoliciesdonotprovideafavourable

climatefortheimplementation oftheapproachestowatersheddevelopmentdescribedhere.

Appropriate support: If authorities are to hand responsibility for complex, costly and conflictridden

problemsbacktolocalpeople,thismustbeaccompaniedbyadequatefinancialandinstitutionalsupport.

Equityandlivelihoods.Thepolicyfocusshouldnotbesolelyonnaturalresourcemanagement,butshould

alsoencompasslivelihoodsecurity,equityandinstitutionaldevelopment.

ChallengesfortheFuture.

Soilandwaterconservationpracticesbasedon imposed technological interventionshavenotdelivered

the environmental or economic benefits they promised. The practice of designing and implementing

interventionswithoutinvolvinglocalpeoplecanonlysucceedwithcoercion.Suchenforcedresponsesmay


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appear technically appropriate but are commonly rejected by local people when external pressure is

removed.

Community watershed management approaches are not, however, without disadvantages. Onedrawback

is

the

danger

of

marginal

or

weaker

groups

within

these

communities

being

excluded

from

the

decisionmakingandmanagementprocess.Theinterestsofthesegroupsmaybeoverlookedincollective

agreements,andtheymaysufferasaresult.Also,differentcommunities,orevengroupswithinthesame

communities, may have different resource management concerns and requirements. This may require

carefulnegotiationandbargaining.Ifnosettlementcanbereached,itcouldbenecessaryforanexternal

(i.e.regionalgovernmentorNGO)institutiontoresolvethedispute.

Finally, it is the responsibility of state, provincial and national governments to ensure thatwatershed

management arrangements do not come into conflict with wider regional objectives. Especially in the

context of river systems, governments should ensure that downstream areas are not overadversely

affectedbycommunities'actionsinupstreamcatchments.

Participatory

Watershed

Development:

It

is

in

response

to

the

technical,

social

and

economic

failures

of

manypastefforts insoilandwaterconservation,Participatorywatersheddevelopmentdiffers fromthe

conventional approachinthat:

o Local communities are fully involved in the analysis of their own soil and water conservationproblems.Decisionsaremadewiththeiractiveparticipation.

o Theroleoftheexternalsupportorganisationisasafacilitatorofanalysisandacatalystforaction,buildingonthelocalknowledge,needsandopportunitiesofthecommunities.

o Farmertofarmerextensionisakeyprocess.o Project staff does not take a blueprint approach. Technologies selected and crops encouraged

dependonthe individualneedsof farmers.Theoverriding featuremustthereforebe flexibility

rightthroughfromtheplanninganddesignstagetotheexecutionstage..Theemphasisisonthe

sustainabilityandequityofimprovements,ratherthanonshorttermbenefits.

DefininganAppropriateScale(Thewatershedscale)Whilepoliticalandadministrativedecentralisation isessentialforsustainableplanning,theyareonlypart

of theprocess.Decentralisation isalso aboutmaking planning more relevant to local agroecosystems,

and thus more in line with the needs of rural people. Planning must therefore occur at a scale where

community/resource interactionscanbelookedatholisticallyandsystematically. Thismeansshiftingthe

focusofplanningfromarbitrarypoliticalboundariestonaturallydefinedgeographicalregions.

Onesuchgeographically distinctareacommonlyused,asalocusofplanningisthewatershed.Watershed

management impliesthemanagementofruralresourceswithintheparametersofacatchmentsystem.

Dependingonthesizeofthewatershedboundaries,planningatthisscalemayincludeavalley,amicro

catchment,astreamsystem,oranentirewatershed.Mostlikely,itwillentailsomecombinationofthese,

withoverlappingscalesofplanningactivity.

The most crucial level of watershed management is at the community and microcatchment levels.

Communities need to be aware of the impact of their actions on neighbouring people. For instance,

deforestationtomeetfuelwoodneeds inonecommunitymaycause increasedsoilerosiononhillsides,

leading to siltation of local waterways and negative impacts on downstream users (i.e. by clogging up

irrigationcanalsorincreasingthesedimentcontentinwatersupplies).Similarlyexcessnitrogeninputsto

thesoilfromagricultureorlivestockcanleadtonitratepollutioningroundwater,threateningthequality

of localdrinkingwaterandharmingaquatic life inregional lakes.Bydevelopingaplanningprocessthat

looks at these interactions systematically, communities can work together to decide on a strategy to

sustain the quality of communal regional resources, including land, surface and groundwater, and

forests). Watershed planning therefore involves a comprehensive programme of rural resource

conservation work, in which natural resource management is tackled systematically, considering all

linkages.


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Integral to this is the involvement of local people in the design and implementation of resource

management programmes. The scale of the watershed system will have a considerable impact on the

degreeofparticipationpossiblewithintheseplanningstructures.Itwillalsohaveaneffectonthenumber

andsizeoftheinstitutionsrequiredtomanagetheprogrammes.

Generally speaking it will be the case that, the larger the watershed area, the less the degree of

participation (as larger institutions will tend to emerge, run via representatives speaking on behalf of

largergroupsofpeople).Howeverthisisnotinevitable.Thewatershedbasedplanningapproachrequires

strengtheninglocalinstitutional capacity,soastocreateaplanningagencycapableofunderstandingand

dealingwiththecomplexitiesofthewatershedecosystemanddeterminingtheneedsformanagement,

labourandotherinputs.

ManagingWatershedsFocusonpeople. Watershed management is often defined biophysically: planting trees, building check

dams,stabilisinggullies,controllingtorrents,managingrunoff.However,watershedproblemsarearesult

ofhuman disturbances in efforts to earn their livelihood. Therefore,people must be the focal point of

watershedmanagementprogrammesandinnovationsshouldbeplannedwiththeirneedsinmind.

Accountabilityofprojectworkers.Projectworkersaregenerallyaccountabletotheirsupervisorsforcrop

failuresorcheckdambursts,butnottofarmers,whohavecontributedsignificantamountsoftime,faith

andresources.

Stakeholdersperspective. The key to success is to involve farmers as stakeholders. Their involvement

should not be limited only to problem identification, but should also include implementation and

evaluation.

Quantifiable indicators are often physical and generally do not relate to the watershed as a whole.

Forestersareevaluatedforthenumberoftreesplanted,agronomistsforincreasesinyield,engineersfor

thenumberofcheckdamsbuilt.Alltheseareeasymeasures,visibleandappreciatedbybothdonorsand

supervisors. However, the number of trees that survive is more important than the total number of

saplingsplanted.Storagefacilitiesmustaccompanyyieldincreases.Improvedvarietiesbringinnewpests

sopesticidesmustbemadeavailablelocally.

Need for social expertise. Technicians often dominate programme staffs. It is crucial that a staff

anthropologistorsociologistbeinvolvedintheplanningprocesstoaccessunderrepresentedgroupsand

encouragetheirparticipationandensurethedistributionofprojectactivitiesandbenefits.

Holistic approach. Some donors finance only limited activities, such as irrigation or agro forestry, but

watershedprogrammesneedaholisticapproach.Forexample, farmers inWestNepalwanteddrinking

watersuppliesintheirvillageandrenovationofleakingschoolroofs.Theyrefusedtoparticipateinproject

activities unless these issues were included. The funding agency must be flexible to accommodate

unforeseencircumstances.

Indigenous knowledge. Local people are often not consulted for their expertise. While the goal of

watershedmanagementprogrammes is longterm,projectsaregenerallyshortterm.The firstphaseof

the project must produce tangible results. Fastgrowing tree species replace slow growing locally

availableandadaptedtrees.Highyieldingvarietiesreplacelowyieldingbutstablelocaloneswithgreater

market andstoragevalues. Indigenous systemsmay notwork ineverysituation,but the integration of

localandexternaltechnologiescanresultinappropriatesolutions.

Project evaluation. Evaluation methods currently used by many governmental, bilateral and non

governmental organisationsmustbereconsidered.Directorsareoftenevaluatedonthebasisofmoney

spentand/orthenumberofnewprojectsstarted.Bigscaleprojectsmay lookeconomicallyattractive,

butsmallscaleprojects,ifimplementedcarefully,maybemoreequitable.


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CocoordinatingNationalPolicyInordertoestablishtheprinciplesthatwillguidepolicyoverthe longterm it isvitalthatgovernments

have a clear concept of what sustainability means for their country that can also offer suggestions for

specific

courses

of

action.

Within such strategies, governments need to state which activities will receive support and which will

incur penalties or costs. This means setting out policies for sustainable development, applicable at

national,regionalandlocallevels.Bydoingthis,governmentsaresendingoutsignalstopublicemployees,

privatebusiness,localcommunitiesandothers,thattheyarecommittedtotheprinciplesofsustainability

While national policies are central to the success of SARED, many of the challenges facing rural

communities find their root in local or regional issues. For this reason, it is important that a coherent

national framework and strong leadership is complemented by devolution of power and a political

environment that supports local initiatives. Analysis of decisionmaking activities also needs to be

nested by scale. This clarifies the connection between action and impact at all levels from field, to

farm, to village, towatershed, to state, to nation. In turn, this allows the vertical integration of policy

analysisandactionatalllevels.


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FromPublicationsonMethodsofInquiryforRuralSystemsAppraisal

Agroecosystems maybetakenasusefulunitsofstudyfortheanalysisofagricultureandtheassessmentofits sustainability. Before we can discuss the methodologies for agroecosystems appraisal we need to

revisewhatanagroecosystemisandwhatitcontains

o Itselementsandcomponentso Itishowitbehaves,theinteractionsandpropertieso Itisthestructuralarrangementsandcontext,thewatershedorregion

Agroecosystemsdefined

Asystemmaybedefinedasacollectionofinterrelatedcomponents(subsystems)whichsharecommon

purposesorfunctions,andhaveacommonboundary.

Partsorcomponentsofasystemincludethefollowing:

o context/environmento boundarieslimitso componentso elements

Interactionbetweencomponents

o inputs/resourceso products/impact

Interactions'havebeenhighlightedbecauseitistheinvestigationofthesethatdistinguishthoseformsof

enquirythathavea'systems'oragroecosystemsfocusfromotherscientificwork.

An

ecosystem

is

a

collection

(temporal

and/or

spatial)

of

physical

and

biological

components

that

act

as

system.

Anagroecosystemisanecosystemmanagedbyhumankindforanagriculturalpurpose(s)orfunction(s).

Hence,whenweconsidertheagroecosystem,asdistinctfromtheecosystem,weexplicitlyemphasiseits

human components and, consequently, the social, cultural and economic aspects of agroecosystem

management. Here, the interactions between the components are of primary importance and these

includecollectiveactionandconflictbetweeninterestgroups.DavidWaltnerToewspaperhelpsuswitha

morecompletedefinitionofagroecosystems. Agroecosystemsareregionallydefinedentities,managed

forthepurposeofproducingfood,fibreandotheragriculturalproducts,comprisingdomesticated(U1/1)

Hence,wemayconsideranagroecosystemtobeafieldwhereaparticularcroprotationispractised,orafarm,orawatershedthatcontainsseveralfarmsandcommunities.(U1/3)

Fromtheinteractionbetweenthecomponentsoftheagroecosystem,betheyindividualplantsortrees,animals,people,farms,orwatersheds;thereemergesaglobalproperty.Thenatureoftheglobalproperty

inalllikelihood isnotpredictablefromwhatweknowofthecomponents.Theemergentpropertyhasa

feedbackimpactuponthebehaviorofthecomponents.

This tellusabout the wayweshouldappraise anagroecosystem' sustainability that It is impossible to

appraisethesustainabilityofanagroecosystembylookingatitscomponentpartsinisolation.Wehaveto

lookatthewholesystemand,moreimportantly,theinteractionsbetweentheparts,howtheimpactsof

thedifferentcomponentpartsaffecttheglobalstructure,andhowtheemergentpropertiesfeedbackand

affectthebehaviorofthecomponentparts.


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Aswemoveuptheagroecosystems'hierarchy,forexample,fromcroptofarmtowatershed,andlookatchanges over time (a week, a year, a decade), the complexity increases. To implement changes in

agriculturalandnaturalresourcesmanagementtowardsacertaingoal isanenormouschallenge.When

the goal is multifaceted and its attainment signifies making difficult tradeoffs, as is the case with

sustainable

agriculture,

the

challenge

takes

on

Herculean

proportions

Toachievethechangesnecessarytoimprovethesustainability ofagriculture,theconceptsofwhatisand

what isnotmoresustainablehave tobeexploredbythedifferentactors (stakeholders) intheprocess.

Consensusastowhicharetheimportantissuesofsustainability needstobereached.Thisdoesnotimply

thatagreementhastobefoundovertheresolutionofeachissue,onlythattheimportantissuesshouldbe

identified,categorizedandrankedintermsoftheirrelevancetodifferentgeographicdimensions,thetime

scaleoverwhichtheyoperateandtherelationshipofoneissuetoanother.Collaborativeexperimentation

intotheissuescanthenbecarriedouttofindsolutions.

Twoofthemainsocialgroups involvedasagentsofchange inagricultureandnaturalresourceuseare

farmers and enquirers, both social and technical. A requirement for coherent attempts at change is a

mutualunderstandingoftheperspectivesheldbybothsectors.Mechanismsbywhichthiscanbebrought

about do not abound. However, within the rural development initiatives of less developed countries

various systems of rural inquiry have been proved to be successful in the characterization of agro

ecosystems, research priority setting, and the participatory development of appropriate technology.

Theseexperiencesmightusefullybetakenadvantageof,inanumberofways,byfarmersandresearchers

elsewhereworkingonissuesofagricultural sustainability.Theobjectivewouldbetofacilitatetheflowsof

informationandknowledgethroughexistingnetworksandnewonesthatmightbeestablished,sothat

crosssectoralattemptscanbemadetoevaluatechangesintechnologies.

Theattainmentofasustainableuseofnaturalresources foragricultureandotheractivitieswillrequire

negotiationbetweentheownersofnaturalresources,theusersandother interestedparties. Inquisitive

dialogue, which is the key component of appraisal, has the potential to inform the arbitration process

amongst stakeholders that is required for decisions to be taken about agricultural change and natural

resourceuse.Pivotaltotheengagementorinteractionbetweeninsidersandoutsidersiscommunication.

Dialogueisrequiredifasynergybetweentheknowledgeofinsidersandthatofoutsidersistobesought.

(U1/8)

Perhapsmorethananyother issue, linkage emergesascentralto thequestionofhow institutionsandorganizationscanstructurethemselvestobestfacilitatesustainableagriculture.Thisispartlybecauseof

thenatureoftheproblem,thatistosay,thesystemicnatureofthewaythat,agroecosystemsfunction,

and the way that the sustainability of one farmers field is linked not only to the functioning of the

watershed, but also to government price policy. Therefore in order to respond to the challenge of

supporting the individual farmer in adopting, adapting and continuing with more sustainable practices,

andtocreatemarketconditionsandserviceprovisions in linewithsustainability objectives, institutions

andorganizationsmustbepreparedtooperateonseveraldifferentlevels.

Whenwelookedatthedifferenttypesofinstitutionsandorganizationsthatoperateinthisfield,wesaw

thatinrealitythisoftenmeansthatoneinstitutioncannotberesponsibleforeverything,sorelationships

betweeninstitutions linkage isanimportantfactorinsuccessfullycarryingoutthiskindofwork.Aswe

haveseen,oftenthiswillmean lookingathow institutionsandorganizationsrelateto localpeople,and

evaluatingandadaptingmethodsof inquiry. Italsomeans lookingathow institutionsandorganizations

learn from other sources, and how they disseminate information. Finally, it means examining how

institutionsandorganizationsparticularlylargeonesworkinternally,andhowtheyaremanaged.

ClassificationofAgroecosystems.Eachregionhasauniquesetofagroecosystemsthatresultfromlocalvariations in climate, soil, economic relations, social structure, and history. Thus, a survey of the agro

ecosystemsofaregionisboundtoyieldcommercialandsubsistenceagricultures, usinghighorlowlevels

of technology depending on the availability of land, capital, and labor. In tropical environments it is

possibletorecognizesevenmaintypesofagricultural systems


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1. Shiftingcultivationsystems2. Semipermanentrainfedcultivationsystems3. Permanentrainfedcultivationsystems4. Arableirrigationsystems5. Perennialcropsystems6. Grazingsystems7. Systemswithregulatedleyfarming(alternatingarablecroppingandsownpasture)LandscapeEcologicalConceptsandAgroecosystems.Landscapeecologyprinciplesareincreasinglybeing

applied to many agricultural planning issues because of the relevance of this regional approach to the

planning process in landscape design and to improve the ecology and variety of the landscape, the

dispersalofspeciesthroughthatlandscape,andthecoordinationofnaturalconservationandagricultural

management. The following concepts of landscape ecology have much relevance to the design and

managementofagroecosystems:

HierarchyinLandscapes.Landscapesoperateatdifferentlevelsinvolvingcomplexesofdifferentelements.

On the one hand, one can study a whole catchmentorwatershed or, on the other hand, within that

landscape

one

can

examine

structures

such

as

an

agricultural

field,

woodland

and

its

surrounding

land

coversandtheirrelationships.

Gradients. Landscapes involve gradual changes and ecotones. It is recognized that many ecological

elements donot showsharp boundaries betweeneach other; rather, they grade gradually in time and

space.

Biodiversity.Withthe increasedpressureonseminaturalhabitats,therehasbeenmuchconcernabout

biodiversity.Itisabasicconceptinthemanagementoflandscapesandinplanning.

Metapopulation.Thisrepresentstheconceptoftheinterrelationships betweensubpopulations inmoreor

lessisolatedpatcheswithinalandscape

Resources

commonly

found

in

an

agro

ecosystem

are

into

four

categories:

NaturalResources.Naturalresourcesarethegivenelementsofland,water,climate,andnatural

vegetationthatareexploitedbythefarmerforagricultural production.

HumanResources.Thehumanresourcesconsistofthepeoplewholiveandworkwithinthefarmanduse

itsresourcesforagriculturalproduction,basedontheirtraditionaloreconomicincentives.

CapitalResources.Capitalresourcesarethegoodsandservicescreated,purchased,orborrowedbythe

peopleassociatedwiththefarmtofacilitatetheirexploitationofnaturalresourcesforagricultural

production.

ProductionResources.Productionresourcesincludetheagriculturaloutputofthefarmsuchascropsand

livestock.Thesebecomecapitalresourceswhensold,andresidues(crops,manure)arenutrientinputs

reinvestedinthesystem.

EcologicalProcessesintheAgroecosystem.

Energetic Processes: Energy enters an agro ecosystem as sunlight and undergoes numerous physical

transformations. Biologicalenergy istransferred intoplantsbyphotosynthesis (primaryproduction)and

fromoneorganismtoanotherthroughthefoodweb(consumption).Althoughsunlight istheonlymajor

sourceofenergy input inmostnaturalecosystems,humanandanimal labor,mechanizedenergy inputs

(suchasplowingwithatractor),andtheenergycontentofintroducedchemicals(manures,fertilizers,and

pesticides)arealsosignificant.Humanenergyshapesthestructureoftheagroecosystem,Biogeochemical

Processes:Themajorbiogeochemical inputs intoanagroecosystemarethenutrientsreleasedfromthe

soil,fixationofatmosphericnitrogenbylegumes,nonsymbioticnitrogenfixing(particularlyimportantin

rice growing), nutrients in rainfall and runof water, fertilizer, and nutrients in purchased human food,

stock

feed,

or

animal

manure.


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The importantoutputs includenutrients incropsand livestockconsumedonorexportedfromthefarm.

Other outputs or losses are associated with leaching beyond the root zone, denitrification and

volatilization of nitrogen, losses of nitrogen and sulfur to the atmosphere when vegetation is burned,

nutrientslostinsoilerosioncausedbyrunofforwind,andnutrientsinhumanorlivestockexcretathatare

lost from the farm. There is also biogeochemical storage, including the fertilizer stored and manure

accumulated, together with the nutrients in the soil root zone, the standing crop, vegetation, and

livestock.Inthecourseofproductionandconsumption,mineralnutrientsmovecyclicallythroughanagro

ecosystem.Optimizationofbiogeochemical processesrequiresthedevelopmentofoptimalsoilstructure

andfertility,whichdependson:

Regularinputoforganicresidues,

Asufficientlevelofmicrobialactivitytotriggerdecayoforganicmaterials

Conditionsthatensurecontinualactivityofearthwormsandothersoilstabilizingagents

Aprotectivecoveringofvegetation

Hydrological Processes: Water is a fundamental part of all agricultural systems. In addition to its

physiologicalrole,wateraffectsinputsofnutrientstooandlossesfromthesystemthroughleachingand

erosion.

Water

enters

an

agro

ecosystem

asprecipitation,

run

on,

and

irrigation

water;

it

is

lost

through

evaporation,transpiration, runoff,anddrainagebeyondtheeffectiverootzoneofplants.

SuccessionalProcesses:Succession, theprocessbywhichorganismsoccupyasiteandgradually change

environmentalconditionssothatotherspeciescanreplacetheoriginal inhabitants, isradicallychanged

with modern agriculture. Agricultural fields usually represent secondary successional stages where an

existingcommunity isdisruptedbydeforestationandplowing,andby maintainingasimple,manmade

communityatthesite.

BioticRegulationProcesses:Controllingsuccession(plantinvasionandcompetition)andprotectingagainst

insectpestsanddiseasesaremajor problems in maintainingproduction continuity inagro ecosystems!

Farmershaveusedseveralapproachesuniversally. Thesearenoaction,preventiveaction(useofresistant

crop varieties, manipulation of planting dates, row spacing, modifying access of pests to plants), or

successive

action

(chemical

pesticides,

biological

control,

cultural

techniques).

Ecological

strategies

of

pest

management generally employ a combination of all three approaches, aiming at making the field less

attractive to pests, making the environment unsuitable to pests but favorable to natural enemies,

interfering with the movement of pests from croptocrop or attracting pests away from crops.

Scientists that perceive the agro ecosystem as a result of the co evolution between social and natural

processes state that the above ecological processes run parallel and are interdependent with a

socioeconomic flow,as the developmentand or adoptionof farmingsystemsand technologies are the

result of interactions between farmers and their knowledge and their biophysical and socioeconomic

environments. It is the understanding of this co evolution and pattern of parallel flows and

interdependencies that provides the basis for study and the design of sustainable agro ecosystems.

(R1.1/315)

LowExternalInputSustainableAgriculture(LEISA)approachpresupposesaworkshopenvironmentthatallowsformultidisciplinarilyandreducesprofessional biases.Theanalysisismadeaccordingtopatterns

discerned in time.Space flowsanddecisionstobeable finallytoqualify thepropertiesof the landuse

system(atvariouslevels.includingcrop,farm,watershedandvillage),productivity,sustainability,stability

andequitability,whichareindicatorsofitsperformance.Itisnecessarytostressthedifferencebetween

ecological farmingat farm levelandecological farmingat landscape level,thisbeingunderstoodasthe

wholeofsocialformsoffarming inabiogeographyunit.Onmanycurrentfarms inEuropethatclaimto

practiceecologicalfarming,emphasisislaidonthesubstitutionofconventionalinputswithorganicones.

Reflected.e.g.inthedefinitiontheUSDAusesfororganicfarming.

Organic farming is a production system which avoids or broadly excludes the use of synthetic

fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and additives in the concentrates. As far as possible, the

organic

farming

systems

are

based

on

crop

rotations,

agricultural

sub

products,

manure,

legumes

plants,greenmanures,organicwastes,mineralrocksandbiologicalpestcontrol,inordertomaintain


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P a g e |12

theproductivityofbothsoilandcrop,tosupplynutrientstotheplantsandtocontrolinsects,weeds

anddiseases(USDA.1980)

This interpretation of ecological farming, however, is not sustainable on a landscape level, where the

aggregatedandsynergiceffectsofeconomicandagricultural individualpracticesbecomevisible.Atthe

sametime,thisinterpretation ofecologicalagriculturepermitscapitalistproductionstructurestoenterin

ecologicalfarming,whereastheseparadoxically, areattheheartofthecurrentenvironmental crisisashas

been argued by Gonzalez de Molina and Sevilla Guzman (1993).) One farm may produce ecological

horticulturalproductsusinganimalmanurepurchasedinthearea,butifallfarmersweretobasetheirsoil

fertility on purchased manure, in many cases there would be not enough of it locally if there is no

communicationbetween,thefarmers,sothatadependenceonnutrientsfromoutsidetheareawouldbe

created.Forthisreason,theagroecologicaldesignofa farmshouldaimatdevelopingaselfregulating

capacity with respect to pest control and flows of nutrients and energy, while at the same time

acknowledgingtheneedforanadequatecoordinationofcomplementaryactivitiesofcolleaguefarmers.

(R2.1/xxx)

Attheoutsettheidentificationofsystemsandtheirboundariesissubjectiveandtentative.Thebiologicalandchemicophysicalboundariesareoftenfairlyclear.Thericefieldisboundedbyadyke,thevalleyby

the extent of thewatershed. But the cultural and socioeconomic boundaries are more extensive. For

example, defining a farm household solely in terms of the farm itself, the land that is cultivated or

otherwiseexploited,isfrequentlyinadequate.Amemberofthefarmhouseholdmaybederivingincome

fromfaraway;thesaleofproducemaydependondistantmarkets,andthefarmer'sgoalsandvaluesmay

beinfluencedbypoliticalorreligiousmovementsofacomplexorigin.

Transects are particularly useful in defining system boundaries and in identifying problem area. In theanalysisofNortheastThailandagroecosystemstherecognitionoftheminiwatershedagroecosystem,its

subdivisions pinpointed the role of the upper paddy as generators of instability in rice production

(R7.7/66)Addiagram

Overthepastdecade, the inadequacyofsoilandwaterconservation (SWC) initiativeshasstimulatedasearchforalternativesthathavecenteredonparticipatorywatersheddevelopmentcommoninthepast.

However,theprocessofseekingappropriateandeffectiveformsoffarmerparticipation iscomplexand

timeconsuming,requiringmuchskilfulfacilitationanddevolutionofpower.Theserequirementspresent

aseriesoforganizational challenges,sinceplanning,funding,implementation,andevaluationofactivities

needtobemodified.Thepolicyenvironmentinwhichsuchchangestakeplacealsoinfluencestheviability

of approaches that are more farmercentered. Will the effort that is needed to make this work be

worthwhile, and lead to more sustainable, environmentally sound, and socially inclusive forms of

agriculture?Assessing themeritsofparticipatoryapproaches tosoilandwaterconservation isdifficult.

Thecomplexityofbiophysicalprocesses,thedifficultyofassessingexternalities,andthefuzzinessofthe

notion of participation make monitoring and evaluation an arduous task. The range of factors that

influencethesuccessofaparticipatoryprocessmakescausallinkstenuousatbest.Thechoiceofpotential

indicatorspresentsaveritableminefield.How,then,toknowwhatworks?(R9.3/211)

Forexample,intheVictorGraeffwatershedinRioGrandedoSui,Brazil,theclearingofforestsandcleantillingofagricultural fieldsreduced infiltrationratessixtimestoonly0.2mmperhouranderosionrates

stood at 5.8 tons per acre (Busscher et.aJ., 1996). The loss of resource base is generally being taken

seriouslybygovernments,asprovenbythemanyexternalinterventionstheworldoverthathasfocused

ontheconservationofsoilandwater.(R9.3/212)

Fundamental Shifts: But progress has been made in redefining soil and water conservation. There isincreasingrecognitionthat,forexample:

o engineeringbased soil conservation deals with symptoms and not with causes of landdegradation;

o imposedSWCprogramsrarelyhavealastingimpact;


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P a g e |13

o Soil conservation is not usually perceived by rural people as their most pressing problem, butdecreasingproductivityoftenis.

Thealternativeapproachestoparticipatorywatersheddevelopment,or"totalcatchmentmanagement"

(Martin,1991),thataretakingrootsarecharacterizedbythreesignificantdifferences:

1.Adoptingthe(micro)watershedastheunitofanalysisandintervention;

2.Placinglocalmenandwomenatthecentreoftheinterventions;

3.Focusingonsoilandwaterconservationastheinteractionofsocialandbiophysicalsystems.

Consciouslycreatingopportunitiesforfarmerstohaveasayinthedesign,implementation,maintenance,

andevaluationofcatchmentplanningisperhapsthemostsignificanttransformationinSWC.Butallthree

features are closely related. Adopting awatershed perspective creates the imperative to work with,

groups of farmers and/or communities in a coordinated manner. And working with farmers requires a

solidunderstandingofsocialprocessesinwhichtheiragriculturalactivitiesareinserted(Cornwall,et.a/.,

1993). Itmeanspayingattentiontoboth localandexternal institutionsandsocialstructuresthatdesign

implementandmanagetheinterventions. This,inturn,callsforanintersectoralapproachtocatchment

managementandpolicychanges(R9/allpagesexcellentreadingonwatershedmanagement)

ConventionalApproachestoEvaluationofSoilandWaterConservationConventionalevaluationapproachestoSWCviewtheirobjectlargelyasabiophysicalprocess.Astheyare

not imbuedwith theprinciplesofparticipatorywatersheddevelopment, they ignoresociopoliticaland

institutionalprocesses. Impactstudieshave tended to focusonerosionproductivity linksbut theseare

notoriouslydifficulttoestablish.ThreecommonconventionalevaluationapproachesappliedtotheSWC

sectorinclude:

1. 'With/withoutcomparison',whichcomparesproductionorproductivityofareaswithSWCmeasures,tothatofareaswithoutmeasures;

2. Measurementoftheeconomicbenefitsofdownstreameffectsinwithandwithoutcases3. Multicriteriaanalysis,whichallowsvariablesorcriteriatobeexpressedintheirownunit,

ratherthanforcedintoacommonquantitativeunit,resultinginatypeofpairwise

comparisonofthedifferentcriteria.

Thesethreeapproachesrequirelargeamountsofquantitativedataandconsiderableeconomicexpertise.

As thiswill inevitablyexcludenoneconomists, theseapproachesare thereforeof limitedvalue inmost

situations of selfevaluation. The object of valuation is generally determined by outsiders (often

economists) and must generally be quantifiable. Only a narrow spectrum" of causal relationships are

assessed,oftenbasedontenuousassumptions.Qualitativecriteria,suchasincreased localmanagement

capacityorfarmers' increased independencefrommonopolymarkets,playnorole insuchassessments.

These approaches focus on the biophysical aspects of SWC, and do not usually include the social

structuresandinstitutionsthatsustainmeasures.

Conventionalevaluationsareinadequatefor assessingparticipatorywatershedprogramsbecauseof:

1. Objectivesunhelpfulforlocallearning,insteadfocusingonaccountabilityneedsofexternalactors(eg.funders);

2. Inappropriatetimingastheyarenotcarriedoutregularly,thusmissingopportunitiestoadjustactivities;

3. Inadequateindicatorswhichfocusonshorttermbiophysicalmeasuresandsomeoperationalaspectsexcludingtheprocessofcommunityparticipation.

4. Wrongimplementers,withevaluationcarriedoutbydonorsordonorinitiatedexternalexpertsthuslimitingtheextentoflocallearning

5. Exclusivemethodologiesbasedonwrittenformsandquestionnaires,notconducivetotheinclusionoffarmersinthecrucialanalysisstage.

6. Limitedfeedbackofevaluationfindingsandrelateddecisions,thushinderingthespreadofessentiallessons.

Few SWC projects emphasize farmercentered processes as essential for project success. Nor do theyemphasizethisinevaluations. Inconventionalprojectimplementation andevaluationalike,theproductis


15/26

P a g e |14

the focus and is divorced from the process. Assessing participatory watershed development requires

paying attention to the process itself, and that is best carried out with those who are involved. The

experiences from Latin America presented here are rooted in this principle: the necessity for social

processesoftransformationbethey individualorcollective, inresourcemanagement.SWC isembraced

as an integral element of sustainable agriculture and rural development strategy, rather than as a

separate,technicalelementinapolicyorresourcemanagementstrategy.(R9Continued)

ParticipatoryEvaluationofWatershedDevelopmentSelfevaluation and participatory monitoring (PME, 'Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation', and PIM,

Participatory Impact Monitoring) are alternative approaches to conventional evaluation. Their point of

departure is improving the internal learning process and the planning and implementation of

interventions.Evaluationinthiscontextmeansemphasizingitsvalueasatoolfororganizationallearning,

rather than the control and accountability it is usually associated with. Monitoring becomes an

opportunitytoreflectandadjust. Researches inawiderangeofcountrieshavefoundthatlearningwas

generally weak. Selfmonitoring experiences take a fundamentally different approach to conventional

approaches to monitoring. If the object of evaluation changes, as in the shift from erosion control to

participatorywatersheddevelopment,evaluationapproachesneedtobeadjustedaccordingly.Translating

this to the SWC sector means redesigning the monitoring process to take into account both thesocio

political and biophysical systems in which measures are nested. It means involving stakeholders in the

monitoringandevaluationdesignandanalysis,andseekingawiderrangeofindicatorsofsuccessbeyond

those ofproductivity andexternalities. Itcalls forensuring that findingsare passed to thosewho have

been involved and can benefit from them. However, participatory monitoring and evaluation of

participatoryprocessesfacesmanypracticalandconceptualchallenges,partlyduetothecomplexityand

diverseinterpretationsoftheterm'participation'. (R9Continued)


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FromPublicationsonLandDegradationandSustainability

FAO(1977)Guidelinesforwatershedmanagement.ConservationGuideI,RomeU4/10 It is impracticable to estimate mean soil loss by erosion over large areas with any accuracy by any

feasible programme of experimental work. In the United States, an empirical model (RUSLE) gives

reasonable longterm prediction for very small, uniform areas. Processbased models should be

appropriateworldwideandbemoreeasilybeadaptedbothtothewatershedscaleandtothestudyof

single storms. Their development, as exemplified by WEPP has proved frustratingly difficult. In the

meantime,theoriginalUSLEstillprovidesausefulchecklistoftheenvironmentalfactorswhichinfluence

theincidenceofsoilerosionbywater.(U5/17)

Allproperty institutionsrepresentdifferentwaysofhandlingthe 'externality'problem.Anexternality isthe outcomeexperienced by others of the actions of someone else. For example, one person may cut

down trees on a steep watershed and cause landslides and gullying

onagriculturallandbelow,inflictingcostsonthosewhoworkthatland.

Governmentpolicyandpastoral landuse insouthwest Iran. JournalofAridEnvironments,Vol 4,pages253267)tracestheeffortsoftheShahof Iran'sgovernmenttomanageandcontrolthepasturesofthe

Qashqu'aipastoralists.Landreform,privatisationoflargetractsofcommonpastureforirrigationprojects,

huntingpreservesfortheShah'srelatives,watershedprotectionandotherschemesallencroachedupon

theirpastoralCPRs.Theauthoritiesdisruptedtheprinciplesofreciprocityandlocaldisputesettlementby

fixingtheidentityandnumberofhouseholdsusingeachsectionofthepastures.Theyalsodestroyedthe

flexibility of the previous arrangements which allowed a variety of migratory patterns in response to

variableecological,economic,politicalandsocialconditions.(U15/12)

Thetopographiccatchment/watershed,withthepeople itcontains,hasgenerallybeenstatedtobethelogically optimum unit for programme planning, and for demonstrating the effects of technical

recommendations. (U18/16)

Boserupgivesexplicitattentionto environmentaldegradation,but insuchawayas tosuggest that insomecasessoilerosionactuallyinducesdesirableagriculturalinnovations.Inhermostrecentbook(1981:

50) she gives examples where the destruction of top soils in the reaches of a watershed, through

population'pressureleadingtodestabilisingagriculturalpractices,hadinducedintensiveagricultureinthe

valleyfloorswhichhadbeenfertilisedbytheremovaloftopsoilsfurtherupvalley.Shequotesexamplesof

environmentaldeteriorationinChinaforexamplewhichstartedtobeacutebetweenAD,15001750and

which induced long distance transport of nightsoil, labour intensive digging of river silts, widespread

terracing, and recycling of residues and wastes. The ability of modern technology to cope with the

problemofsoilerosionissummarisedthus:'Growingpopulationsmayinparthavedestroyedmoreland

thantheyimproved,butitmakeslittlesensetoprojectpasttrendsintothefuture,sinceweknowmore

and more about methods of land preservation and are able by means of modern methods, to reclaim

muchland;whichourancestorshavemadesterile.'(Boserup.1981:22)(R1.2/12)

In1984 thepopulationofNepalwas inexcessof16millionpeople.Two thirdsof these live in thehillyregionswhere thecarrying capacity is lowand theconsequentpressureon landhas inevitably ledto

mismanagement of natural resources. Man induced erosion caused by over grazing and deforestation,

coupledwithmasswastingduetothenatural instabilityof theunconsolidated rockmaterialandsteep

slopes, has advanced the degradation ofwatershed conditions. The fragile state of Nepal's ecological.

state is well recognised and only through the coordinated efforts of government projects

anddepartments,usingcomprehensiveresourceinformation,cantheproblemsbeaddressed.(R2.6/87)

Slope is the only levelthree object, merging climate, soil, and management information with atopographic description.The slope is the level ar which erosion is computed, and is a complete site

description roughly equivalent to that produced by RUSLE 1.04. Levelfour objects include slope

comparisons and combinations. These are awatershed (a, combined set of slopes, each weighted in

proportiontotheareaitrepresents),terraces(aseriesofhydraulicallyseparateslopesononelandform),

and

a

spreadsheet

of

slope

(R5.2/272)


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P a g e |16

The world's average yield of sediment and solutes by rivers is equivalent to a lowering of the earth'ssurfaceby3cmevery1000yearsor42tJ(km2yr).Thedenudationratesare27,35,45,63,96,and600

t/km2/yr)forAfrica,Europe,Australia,SouthAmerica,NorthAmerica,andAsia,respectively(Gregoryand

Walling,1973).Globalmapsoferosionrateshavebeenpreparedbyusingthisapproach(Fournier,1960;

Strakhov,

1967;

Walling,

1984).

This

type

of

global,

or

regional,

rate

of

erosion

is

computed

by

using

the

techniquesofmeasurementsofwaterrunoffandsedimenttransportinstream,rivers,andlargedrainage

basins.Thebasicprincipleinvolvesmonitoringsedimenttransportratespastapointintheriverchannel

atthewatershedoutlet.(R5.3/185)

DickinsonWT,WallGJ&RudraRP(1990)forModelBuildingforPredictingandManagingSoilErosionandTransport. InSoil Erosionon Agricultural Land endsBoardman J, Foster IDL& Dearing JA, Wiley, pages

421423

OtherCausesofSalinization:Soilscanbemadesaline intwootherwaysthatarenotdirectlyconnectedwithirrigation.First,incoastalorestuarineareas,seawatermayencroachintothesubsoilwhenexcessive

usewellshas loweredthe(fresh)watertable.OmanandYemenaresufferingfromthiskindofproblem

and, according to Mark Speece of the University of Arizona and Justin Wilkinson of the University of

Chicago:"Theaquiferbecomespollutedwithsaltwater,soilsbecomesalinized,thelandlosesitscapacity

foragriculturalproduction,andthedesertmovesin.AlongtheBarinahcoastinOman...datepalmgroves

aredyingbecauseofsalinizedwater,eventhoughthedatepalmisarelativelysalttoleranttree"(Speece

andWilkinson1982).Thesecondtypeofproblemoccurswherethedeforestationofwatershedsleadsto

saline seepage. Replacing trees in upland areas with crops like wheat (which have a lower

evapotranspiration rate)reducestheamountofwatertransferredfromthegroundintotheatmosphere,

andcauseswatertobuildup inthesoil.Someofthiswaterwillrunoffunderground,but indoingso it

dissolvessalts (suchassodium.chloride)outofthesoilandbecomessaline.Lowlandareasnowreceive

morewaterthanpreviously,andwithoutadequatedrainagetheycanbecome increasinglywaterlogged

andsalinized.Theriversintowhichthesalinewatereventuallyflowsalsobecomesaltier,and croplands

irrigatedbywaterfromtheseriversarethereforeatriskofsalinization.Salineseepageisamajorproblem

inAustralia,increasingthesalinityofrivers(R6.2/93)

The reasons why theseclaims may have widespread substance are that transnational companies oftenhavesuperiortechnicalknowledgebothoftheareainvolvedandoftheloggingindustry.Theirnegotiatorshavevery largepersonal stakes in the matter it' pays them to be well informed andnegotiate in the

strongestpossiblemannertomaximizeprofits,toretainmaximumcontroltodothisandmaintainitinthe

future. They face government bureaucrats who do not have direct personal gain (or loss) as an extra

motivation,whosesystemofadministrationmaybe'imperfectlyopen'(Leslie1980)inthatinconsistencies

in government policies and incomplete information face the government negotiator. Incomplete

information upon the actual volume of timber of various types, upon the probable costs to local

inhabitantsandtoothersinthesamewatershedsthroughreducedproductionasaresultoffloodingand

siltation,andtheinabilitytocoordinatethenegotiator'sposition(R9.3/174)

Thereareothercircumstancesinwhichaccumulationpossibilitiesmaybethreatenedbysoilerosionandtheseconcernhydroelectricandirrigationschemeswheresmallfarmersintheaffectedwatershedsmay

acceleratesiltationofreservoirsandthedesignofturbinesandeventhedamstructureitself.Ifthisisthe

case, then it is the interests of the industrial bourgeoisie who will use the electrical power, and other

farmers (in thecaseofa canal irrigationproject).Many examples arecitedbyGrainger in Java (where

slashandburncultivatorsthreatentheirrigationcanalsintheSoloRivercatchment),inthePhilippines(in

theAgnocatchment),inIndiaandPakistanwherealargenumberofdamsforpowerandirrigationhave

sufferedseriously fromsavage floods,siltationand reduced livesof reservoirs (CES1982),and inBrazil

particularlyfortheTucurnihydroelectricschemeto provideelectricityforproposedaluminumsmelting

operationsatTrombetas).Herethepoliticalcalculusismorecomplexthaninthecaseofatransnational

companybecausethereisnoquestionoftransferringcapitalelsewherethedam isbyitsnaturefixed in

locationandalargefixedinvestmenthastobemade.(R9.3/145)

ThelongertermpotentialofPRAcanalreadybeindicatedbypracticalapplications.Anillustrativelistcaninclude:

Participatory

watershed

planning

and

management

(including

rapid

catchment

analysis

(Pretty,

1990),Degradedforestassessment,protection,nurseriesandplanting,Identification ofcreditneeds,

sourcesandinterventions, Healthandnutritionassessments,Planningthelocationofwatersupplies,


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P a g e |17

Assessmentsofbiogaspotentialsandactions,Selectingpoorpeopleforaprogram,anddeselectingthe

lesspoor,Rehabilitation ofsmallscalegravityflowirrigation,Preparingvillageresourcemanagement

plans(NES/undated),Participatorytrialsofcropvarieties,Identifyingnonagriculturalincomeearning

opportunities,Investigatingmarketsandsmallholdermarketingpotentials,Assessinganddealingwith

emergencysituations,Empoweringwomen,Orientationforstudents,NGOworkers,governmentstaff,

anduniversityandtraininginstitutestafftowardsacultureofopenlearning,andParticipatoryevaluation

ofprogrammesandplanningthenextphase.(R11.2/225)

ExtractfromaparticipatoryimpactstudyandselfevaluationofthecatchmentapproachoftheMinistryofAgricultureofKenya(1996).RecentstudiesfromKenyaandelsewhere indicatethatwhereparticipatory

approachesareadoptedbygovernmentsandnongovernmentorganizationsincatchmentorwatershed

management for soil and water, conservation, then significant economic, environmental, and social

benefitscanbeachieved(cf.,Hinchcliffetal.1995;Bunch1990;Campbell(Campbell1994);Hudsonand

Cheatle 1993; Lobo and KochendoerferLucius 1992; Pretty 1995); In Kenya, evidence is growing that

these kinds of impacts result from the Catchment Approach. For example, a recentcomparison of two

catchments inTransNzoia,oneplannedwiththeCatchmentApproachandPRAandtheotherwiththe

T&V Approach, found very significant differences (Ekbom 1992) (Table 1). Crop yields and returns per

persondayhavegrownmorerapidlyonthefarmsinthecommunity(R11.3)

So it is with soil. The value of soil depends on the supply and demand for a little more or less soil inspecific locations,atspecifictimes.Akilogramofsoil forapottedhouseplantmaycostseveraldollars.

BillionsoftonesofsoilmaywashoutoftheAmazonbasintotheseaandnotmakeanydifference,except

tofish.Asthisexampleindicates,erosionmayincertaincircumstancesbebeneficial.Peoplewhodonot

liketheAswandamprotestthatitstopstheflowof'rich,sedimentladen,floodwaters'ontoagricultural

land. In addition to the fact that the 'rich alluvial plains' that feed most of the world were created by

geologicalerosion,agoodpartoftheagriculturallandinmountainousareasofAsiahasbeencreatedby

sedimenttrapsandsedimentdepositionthroughirrigation,sometimesabettedbydeliberatedestruction

ofgroundcover inthewatershedtoacceleratenaturalratesoferosion.Asagoodsceptichasobserved:

Soilerosion isanaturalprocesswhichmerelyreflectstheremovalofwaterandsoil fromuplandsites

wherebothare,atbest, indifferentlyusedandtheirredeploymenton lowlandsiteswherebothcanbe

utilizedmoreefficiently.(authorunknown,citedinSoemitro,AnwarandPawobo1983)(R13.2/85)

Wateryield.Conventionalwisdomisthattheyieldofwaterfromawatershedwillincreasewithclearingorthinningofforests,aconversionfromdeeptoshallowrootedspecies,orachangeinvegetationcover

fromspecieswithhightothosewith low interceptioncapacities.Localsoilsandclimaticconditionswill

also have an effect. Experiments have shown that a given (10%) reduction in the following kinds of

vegetation cover could produce the following increases in annual water yield (in mm.): conifer and

eucalyptforest40(range2065);deciduoushardwood25(range6(0);andshrub10(range120)(quoted

in FAO, 1987). These results illustrate the potential effects on downstream water supply from such

actions as afforestation. It should, however, be noted that most of them have been drawn up in

temperateconditions,hencetheneedforduescientificcautionintheirwiderapplication.(R13.2/18)

Onsiteandoffsitebenefitsfromwatershedconservation Onsiteeffects:

o Avoided losses in crop yields from soil, erosion, loss of soil depth and fertility, or loss of landthroughgulleyerosion;

o alternatively, savingsinfertilizertomaintainyieldsonerodedsoil;o Valueofwoodproductsfromtreeplanting(timber,poles,fuelwood,forage,fruit,etc.);o Value of enhanced livestockproducts from rescuedor improved pasture, or from fodder from

trees(meat,milk,wool,dung)

o Increased crop yields from 'ecological' benefits of a managed mixed regime (increased soilorganicmatter,moresoilmoistureretention,shading,etc)

Ofsite:o Irrigationbenefits;valueofcropspreservedthroughreductionofsedimentationinreservoirsand

channels;


19/26

P a g e |18

o alternatively, reducedcostofmaintainingandcleaningreservoirs,channelsandworks;outputssavedfrompreservingexistingwaterregime;

o Hydroelectricpowerbenefits;'byavoidingreservoirsiltation,extendingthelifeofahydropowerscheme,especially itsability to generatedryseasonpower; oravoidingcostof raising levelof

dam,withallthatimpliesforextrainundation;

o oravoidingcostofalternativegeneratingcapacity;plussavingsinrepairsandcleaningofturbinesandintakeworks;

o Flooddamageavoided;alternatively, savingsincostoffloodpreventionworks,orreducedcostofroadsandbridgemaintenance;

o Gains to fisheries; less silting and turbidity in reservoirs and rivers and morelevel1 yearroundflows.

o Avoideddamagetoproductivityofcoastalwatersandmangrovesystems;o Navigation benefits from more predictable river channels; or reduced dredging costs, both in

riversystemandininshorecoastalwaters;

o Benefits to domestic water quantity and quality; avoidance of need to resite intake worksthroughriversiltingandchangesinchannels;

o Tourismandrecreationbenefitspreservedandenhanced.(R13.2/76)

Theactualandthe ideal,hereaselsewhere,willrarelycorrespondexactly.Butan idealsoughtbysomePRA practitioners is a process in which people, and especially the weaker and poorer, are enabled to

collate, present and analyze information, making explicit and adding to what they already know. This

happens,forexample,throughparticipatorymappingofawatershedwherethemapisusedbyvillagers

to plot current conditions and plan actions, and is retained by them for monitoring action taken and

changes;orthroughmappingandsurveyingdegradedforest,decidinghowtoprotectitandwhattoplant,

andthenmanagingtheresource;orthroughmatrixscoringforvarietiesofacropwhichenablesthemto

specify the characteristics of a "wish" variety they would like. The aim is to enable people to present,

share,analyzeandaugmenttheirknowledgeasthestartofaprocess.Theultimateoutput isenhanced

knowledge

and

competence,

an

ability

to

make

demands,

and

to

sustain

action.

Instead

of

imposing

and

extracting,PRAisthendesignedtoempower.(U14.1/266)

Policyreformfornaturalresourceconservation:Irrigationandpesticides:River impoundmentshavehadvaried and serious impacts. Reservoirs have displaced whole communities, flooded valuable crop and

forest lands, threatened critical ecosystems, and wiped out ariadromous fish populations. Below the

dams,thedownstreamflowofsedimentsisinterrupted,affectingerosionratesofdeltasandriverbanks.

Although storage may reduce seasonal variations in river flows, disturbance of upperwatersheds and

irrigationdiversionscanalso increasefloodingandreduce,lowflows,whichconcentratespollutantsand

allowsseawatertomovefurtherupstream.Changesinoxygen,nutrient,mineral,,andsediment'content

of impoundedriversallaffectfishpopulations,eveninoffshorefisherieswithdeltaicspawninggrounds.

Many of these environmental effects are complex and exceedingly, difficult to predict in advance, and

theyhavegenerallynotbeenadequatelyincorporatedintoprojectplanningorthecalculationofexpected

economicbenefitsandcosts.Theenvironmentalimpactsandperformanceproblemsofirrigationsystems

areconnected.For example,moreefficientuse ofwater would reduceexcessiveseepage intoaquifers

and risks of waterlogging. More efficient use would also reduce the apparent need for additional

largescale, increasinglycostlyexpansions,andtheenvironmentaleffectsof further river impoundments

anddiversions.(R14.3)

Everyyearmorethan11millionhectaresof forestsarecleared forotheruses,and inmostdevelopingcountriesdeforestationisaccelerating.Inlastcentury,theforestedareaindevelopingcountrieshasfallen

byhalf,withsevereenvironmentalconsequences. Inthe tropics, forestclearance leavesonlydegraded

soils that are unsuitable for sustained agricultural production. Inwatersheds, deforestation increases

erosion, flooding,andsedimentation. Insemiaridareas, itrobsthesoilofessentialorganicmatterand

shelterfromwindandwatererosion.Moreover,inthetropics,lossofforestareasthreatensthesurvival

ofuncountedspeciesofanimalsandplants.(R17.2)


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P a g e |19

One of the most widely recognised environmental problems in the humid tropics is the loss of forestresources, with consequent watershed degradation, soil erosion and nutrient depletion. Strategies

intendedtoconserveforestshaveincludedregulationoflogging,reforestation,banningforestsettlement,

andprohibitingshiftingcultivation.However,continuedsettlement intheuplandsbysmall farmershas

made

it

necessary

to

seek

environmental

sustainability

within

a

context

of

agricultural

land

use.

As

a

result

research and development projects in the uplands are now trying to work with farmers to improve

croppingsystemsandresourcemanagement.(R17.7)

Astudyofthereasonforthesuccessorfailureofsoilconservationprojects:oneisthescaleoftheprojectTherecordsuggeststhatprojectswhichhaveasignificantcomponentoftechnicalassistance,tendtobe

more effective when small. The reason is that one or two international experts find it easy to work

themselves into the local institution, whereas projects which have a large international staff tend to

remainmore independent,moreseparate,and lessapproachable intheeyesofthe localofficers.There

areexamplesoftechnicalassistanceprogrammeswhicharesoheavilystaffedwithexpatriatesthatthey

dominatethelocalagenciesandinhibittheirgrowthanddevelopment.In1973theWorldBankannounced

new directions for agricultural lending specifically to target the poor which automatically led to a shift

towardsagricultural lending.Howeverthemain instrumentsselectedtohelpexecutethenewstrategy,

area development and integrated rural development projects, have a poor performance record. The

Bank'stwelfthauditreportsthatthiswas largelybecauseofoveroptimisticassumptionsaboutavailable

technologiesforrainfedsmallholderagriculture. Theredoesseemtobestatisticalevidencethatoverthe

six years 19801985 the success rate of Bank projects has declined as the average size of projects has

increased. The present move away from multipledonor, multiplepurpose, multiplesector projects

reducestheaveragesizeofprojects.

Anotherissueaffectingthescaleofsoilconservationprojectsiswhethertheyshouldbeapproachedona

catchment (watershed) basis, or should the emphasis be placed on the individual farm and farmer, or

shouldprojectsbeplannedtocoincidewiththeadministrativeboundaries?Thisquestionwasaddressed

atthePuertoRicoWorkshoponConservationFarmingonSteepLands,1988,whereallthreeviewswere

supportedbydifferentparticipants. Afewyearsagotheconceptofwatershedplanningwasverypopular,

andsomecountries,forexampleLesotho,decidedthattheirwholesoilconservationprogrammeshould

be implemented through the catchment approach. Today support is more restrained, but as Sanders

pointed out: "In conclusion, it should perhaps. be said that if emphasis is placed on biological and

agronomic measures, rather than physical practices, to achieve soil and water conservation, these

approachesneednot.bemutuallyexclusive.Theaimmayultimatelybetotreatawholecatchment,but

thismaybestbedonebyworkingprogressivelyfromtheindividualfarmunits"(Sanders1988).(R17.8)

ASubSaharacase:Appropriateunitsforconservationplanning.Thetechnicalrangeandspatialscaleofconservationinterventionsinagivenlandscapemustbedeterminedwithcare.Thetechnocraticlanduse

planning which governments favoured in the 1960 and 1970s was rightly rejected in favour of a

conservation approach which stressed the on farm concerns, indigenous skills and local resources of

individual farmers.Butthismayleaveseriousgapsinoff farmresourceconservationwhichthreatenthe

gainsmadeinfieldsoilprotectionandcropproduction.Anyreturntocatchmentplanningorconventional

watershed

management

should

be

viewed

with

caution.

The

starting

point

should

remain

interventions

,

normally on crop land which directly affect rural people's income. Nevertheless, it will often be

appropriatetoselectotherinitiativesincommunalpropertymanagementtocomplementonfarmwork,

andto identifyotherunitsof interventionsuchasvillagegrazingareasoradministrative territories.This

requirementreinforcestheneedforcareful,extendedlocalplanninginconsultationwithresourceusers.

It emphasises the importance of understanding local resource management institutions. In the Sahel,

thesestructuresforvillagelandusemanagementmustoftenberevitalisedorcreatedanew.Elsewherein

subSaharanAfrica, indigenousinstitutionsmaycontinuetoofferaworkableplatformfornewinitiatives.

(R18.5)


21/26

P a g e |20

FromPublicationsonManagementforSustainableFarmingSystems

Agro ecosystems are less complex than natural systems in both structure and function, especially inmonocultures. Their structure is usually simpler both above and below ground, with fewer species

present. Despite this agro ecosystems are still very complex and in some ways more so than natural

ecosystems.Additionalsourcesofcomplexity?

o Consider awatershed which would naturally be forested. When converted to agriculture it isunlikely that all the forest will be felled and much of the diversity within the forest may be

preservedintheunfelledremnants.Also,itisunlikelythatallthefarmlandwillbeplantedtothe

samecrop.Eachfieldmayhaveasinglecrop,butarangeofcropswillbeplantedoverthewhole

watershed.Annualcropsandperennialplantingssuchasorchardswouldaddadditionalspatial

andtemporaldiversity.Fieldboundariesandhedgerowsareanothersourceofdiversity.

o People are an integral part of the agro ecosystem. Without them it could not persist. Humanmanagementdecisionsareafactornotfoundinnaturalsystems.Socialrelationsandinstitutions

havetobeconsideredinanalysisofagroecosystems.

o Economic factorsareanother forceatwork inagroecosystems,which doesnotaffectnaturalecosystems. Changes in prices of commodities directly affect what is produced and forceschangesinagroecosystems.Economicviabilityisanessentialcomponentofsustainability.

Thecomplexityofagroecosystemshastoberememberedwhenplanningchangesandnewdevelopments

infarmingsystems.(U3/3)

Soil productivity reflects the ability of the soil to tolerate intensive use without physical, chemical orbiologicaldegradation.Itisderivedfromacombinationofseveralotherindicators.Theseare;

o Nutrientholdingcapacityandcontamination,basedonphysicalandchemicalcharacteristicso Erosionratesdependonthemanagementoftheagroecosystemandtheamountandintensityof

rainfall.Erosion rates reflectawide rangeofmanagementpractices (e.g. thecroppingsystem,

conservationmeasuresemployed,useofcovercrops).The topmost layersof thesoilnormally

contribute

the

most

to

productivity,

having

better

structure,

nutrient

holding

capacity

and

most

biological activity. They are the first tobe lost by erosion. In principle, the rate of soil loss by

erosionshouldnotexceedtherateof formation,butwithcurrentpractices itveryoftendoes.

Soilerosionmayalsohavenegativeeffectwherethesoillostisredepositedassedimentfurther

downthewatershed.

o Themicrobialcomponentofthesoil isessentialforthemaintenanceofsoilfertility,drivingtherecyclingofnutrientsandactingasanutrientpool,especiallyfornitrogen.

SoilconservationtechniquesthatweresuccessfullyintroducedtotheVictorGraeffwatershedo (a)Soilconservationtechniquesusedwere

notillage improvedinfiltration

terraces

with

grass

covered

walls

covercropstoprovidemulch,protectthesoilfromwinterrains, andincreaseorganicmatterinthesoilleadingtoimprovedstructure

o (b)Amongthenontechnicalfactorsthatcontributedtothesuccessoftheprogramwere itwasbasedonanecologicalunit,awatershed there was support and involvement of the wider community, notjust farmers, and

everyonebenefited(egfromcleanerwaterandimprovedroads)

therewascooperationbetweenneighbourswhichfacilitatedefficient implementationoferosioncontrolmeasures(egterracescrossingboundaries)

institutional backingwasprovidedfromthebankswhichprovidedfundsforinvestment andpoliticalsupportwasgivenbythelocalgovernment

o (c) There has been diversification from row cropping into a more balanced production systemthatincludescattle,poultry,pigs,forestryandfisheriesenterpriseswhichshouldaddstabilityto

thesystem.


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P a g e |21

o (d) The main, conclusion is that erosion control measures (and farming systems) have to beevaluatedandadaptedto localconditions.Probably,therearenosolutionsthatcanbeapplied

acrosswholeregionsorcountries.(U5/A5.6)

But

there

is

a

limit

to

what

individual

farmers

can

do.

They

are

affected

by

their

neighbours

actions

at

leasttosomeextent.Coordinationofactionsoveralargerareaisoftenneeded.Thewatershed(anarea

drained by a river and its tributaries) is a natural physical unit for management and an integrated

watershedmanagementplanmaybethebestwaytotackleproblemsofirrigation.Ifitistoworkwell,this

requires involvement and cooperation within and between communities and must consider the both

ecologicalandsocioeconomicenvironment. ItoftenneedssupportfromCentralGovernmenttoestablish

the legalbasisforsuchactions.TheMurrayDarlingBasinInitiative inAustralia isonerecentexampleof

thisapproach.However,adetailedlookatintegratedcatchmentmanagementisbeyondthescopeofthis

text.(U7/A7.5)

Consideragroecosystemsatthescaleofwatershedsordistricts.Howhasthecreationoftheagriculturallandscapeaffectednaturalecosystems?Youmayfindithelpfultothinkaboutyourowncountryorregion

and use this as an example to demonstrate more general trends. In general, three processes affecting

naturalecosystemstakeplacewhenanareaisconvertedtofarmland.

o Thepotentiallymostproductiveareas foragricultureareconverted first.Thismayaffectsomespeciesmorethanothersandupsettheoverallbalanceoftheecosystem.Forexample,treesand

plantsgrowingonalluvialplainsnexttoriversmaybenearlyeliminated,alongwiththecreatures

thatdependonthem.Theeffectcanbequitesubtle,ananimalorbirdmayuseanareaforonlya

shorttimeeachyear(e.g.forbreeding)butbeunabletosurvivewithoutit.

o The conversion to agricultural production often leaves patches of the original vegetationuntouched.Thisfragmentationofhabitatcanleadtoproblemsofsurvivalforsomespecies.

o The final result may be that the remnants of the original ecosystem become degraded, eitherthroughusebypeoplenearby(e.g.forcommonpastureorforhunting)orbecausetheyarenot

largeenoughtosupportviablepopulationsofplantsoranimals.(U9/13)

GLASOD soil scientists point out that stopping or reversing moderate soil degradation requires actionbeyond the scale of a farm. Watershed management, installation of catchment basins, and other soil

conservationmeasuresaretypicallyadoptedonaregionallevelbygovernments.(R5.2/11)

Froman intensivemonitoringprogramof28watershedsinOklahomaandTexas, it isclearthatreducedand no till management of both sorghum and wheat reduced N and P loss in runoff compared to

conventional tillageThelossofbioavailableparticulateP,asdeterminedbyNaOHextraction(Sharpleyet

al.,1991a), was also lower from conservation compared to conventional practices, although tillage

managementhadnoconsistenteffectonsolubleNandPloss.However,notillmanagementofsorghum

and,toalesserdegree,wheatreducednutrientlossesinrunofftolevelssimilartothosefromunfertilized

nativegrass(R6.5/92).

Manyvariationsofwaterharvestingarepossible.Waterharvestingsystemscanbeclassifiedas follows(Reijntjes1986b):

o 1Systemswithanexternalcatchmentareaforcollectingrunoffwaterorfloodwaterfromsmallwatersheds

(i)Agriculturaluse,withoutanyspecialarrangements,ofnaturaldepressionswhererunoffwaterorfloodwater isconcentratedtemporarilyandwater infiltration isrelatively

high(traditional in,forexample,WestandEastAfrica).

(ii)Simpletechniquesforwaterspreadingand infiltrationbymeansof low,permeablebunds (ridges) ofstones,bundled sticks,crop residuesor fencesof livingplants along

contourlines(traditionalin,forexample,Mali).

(iii) Water pockets or pits: holes for seeding, collecting runoff and managing organicmatter(zaiinBurkinaFaso,covasinCape

(iv) Halfcircular or Vshaped ridges used mainly for tree planting and rangelandimprovement(new).


23/26

P a g e |22

(v)Watercollection:gradedbundsorfurrowsdivertrunofffromcropland,village landand wasteland to tanks located at a lower level; the water is used for supplementary

irrigation in dry periods or as full irrigation (traditional in India; new in, for example;

WestAfrica).

(vi)Runoff farming:runoffwater fromtreated (e.g.bysprayingchemicalsorclearinggravel stones to increase runoff) or untreated catchment areas is diverted to lower

lyingcropland(traditional in, forexample,IsraelandTunisia,

vii)Runonfarming:runoffwaterandsiltfromsmallwatershedsiscapturedbydamsinseasonal stream beds or diverted to cropland. In front of these dams, the silt forms

terraces which are used forfarming. The infiltrated water makes cropping possible

(traditionalin,forexample,IsraelandTunisia,jessour,

o 2Systemsforstorageandagriculturaluseoffloodwater(floodwaterfarming):makinguseoftherunoffconcentratedbynaturalwatershedsinseasonalorpermanentstreams.Thefloodwater

isdivertedfromitsnaturalchannelbydamsorbarragesandledtothecroplandwherethewater

iskeptimpoundedbyearthendamsaroundthefields.Theinfiltratedwaterisusedforfarming

(traditional in,forexample,theNileDeltabeforetheAswanDam;northIndia,aharsandkhadits;

southPakistan,sailabasandkurkabas).

o 3Systemswitha'withinfield'catchmentareacalled'insitu'waterharvestingor'microcatchments':

(i)Negarim: runoff fromasmall plot (micro orwithincatchment) iscapturedat oneside,whereitinfiltratesthesoilanddirectlycontributestotheavailablemoistureinthe

rooted profile of an individual productive tree or shrub (traditional in, for example,

Morocco;newin,forexample,Israel);

(ii)Contourridgesorbunds:thesamesystemas3 (iii),butinsteadofsmallplots,stripsareused.Cropscanbeseededinfrontofthebunds

where water infiltration is concentrated (relatively new in, for example, India and

Africa);

(R7.3/182)


24/26

P a g e |23

FromPublicationsonRuralDevelopment

Run by and paid for by rural communities, villageextensionists in Gujarat, India, offer services suchaswatershedplanningwhichareinhighdemand.Theserviceorganization,inthiscaseanNGO,actsasalow

profilefacilitator,providing initialtrainingandcapacitybuildingsupport,seedfundingformicroprojects

andlinkswithwidernetworksoftechnicalandresearchexpertise.1tisenvisagedthatsomeoftheseroles

willultimatelybetakenonbyafederatedbodyofvillageorganizations. (R1.4/198)

TheWorldConservationStrategy (WCS)waspreparedby IUCNwith financeprovidedbyUNEPand theWorldWildlifeFund.Itwaspublished in1980 inthenameofthesethree.Organizations. (IUCN1980).It

hadbeenpresentedtoFAOandUNESCO,andpublicationhadbeendelayedtoincludetheiramendments

(McCormick1986a).ItwasendorsedbytheEcosystemConservationGroup(IUCN1980).Inthewordsof

the Chairman of the WWF, Sir Peter Scott, the WCS was intended to show 'how conservation can

contributetothedevelopmentobjectivesofgovernments, industryandcommerce,organized laborand

the professions, as well as being the first time that development was suggested 'as a major means of

achievingconservation,TheWCSidentifiesthreeobjectivesforconservation;

o First, the maintenance of 'essential ecological processes' (Section 2). These are governed,supportedorstronglymoderatedbyecosystemsandareessential for foodproduction,health,

andotheraspectsofhumansurvivalandsustainabledevelopment'(par2.1).Theyarecalled, in

thenonecologicalshorthand adopted, 'lifesupport systems', and includeagricultural land and

soil, forests, and coastal and freshwater ecosystems. Threats include soil erosion, pesticide

resistance in insectpests,deforestation andassociatedsedimentation, andaquaticand littoral

pollution.

o The second objective is the preservation of genetic diversity, both the genetic material indifferentvarietiesoflocallyadaptedcropplantsorlivestockandinwildspecies(Section3).This

geneticdiversityisbothan'insurance'(forexampleagainstcropdiseases),andaninvestmentfor

thefuture(eg.cropbreedingorpharmaceuticals) (part3.2).

o TheWCS'sthirdobjectiveis'thesustainabledevelopmentofspeciesandecosystems'(Section4),particularly fisheries,wildspecieswhicharecropped, forestsandtimberresourcesandgrazing

land.

Theseobjectivesarethenbrokendownintoalistofpriorityrequirements(Sections57).Thesearedrawn

uponthebasisofcriteriaofsignificance(how important is it?),urgency(how fast is itgettingworse?),

andirreversibility (Section5).ThesearelistedinTable3.1.

Thefirsttwoobjectives,toconserveecologicalprocessesandgeneticdiversity,havearelativelymodest

fiveprioritieseach.Thefirstofthesebasicallydemandstherationalplanningandallocationoflanduses:

givingcropspriorityonthebest land(butnotonmarginal land),andsettingasideandcontrollingareas

such aswatersheds and littoral zones for appropriate management only. The conservation of genetic

diversity demands sitebased protection of ecosystems and the timely creation of banks of genetic

material.PerhapsundertheinfluenceoftheMABProgramme,anumberofthefamiliarneedsofnature

conservation for protection of the habitats of rare and unique species and typical ecosystems in

appropriatelyorganizedsystemsofreservesappearhere.(R12.2/30)

WorldBank'sforestrypolicy.Inits1978ForestryPolicyPapertheemphasisshiftedfromindustrialforestryand timber utilization toward social and rural development issues and environmental forestry. This

followed from the recognition of theproblem of timber undervaluation, acommon policy distortion in

many developing countries, as the source of deforestation and inappropriate land conversion. The

problemofencroachment inforests,associatedwithpovertyanddegradation,wasalso identifiedinthe

1978policypaperalthoughthiswasnotemphasized.Thismajorchangeinsectoralprioritiesledtoefforts

at"newstyle"forestryprojectsthatincorporatedwatershedmanagementandenvironmentalactivities.

The 1991 World Bank forest sector policy paper (World Bank 1991b) shifted the focus further and

identified the relationship between deforestation and poverty and population pressure as the primary

resourcemanagementconcern.(R12.6/89)


25/26

P a g e |24

Externalitiesarerecognizedasexceptionstotheefficiencypropositionsofeconomictheory.Recallthatthebodyofthistheoryisbasedonindividualagentsmaximizingtheirownutilityorprofits,withoutregard

totheimpacttheiractionsmayhaveontheutilityofothers.Indeed,itisassumedthatindividualactions

onlyaffectthesatisfactionofothers inaneutralwaythroughthepricemechanism. IfpersonAbuysa

pineapple,

this

does

not

stop

person

B

buying

a

pineapple

at

the

going

market

price,

although

if

many

peopledecidetobuypineapplesatthesametime,thepricemayrisetothedisadvantageofallconsumers

inthemarketforpineapples.

Thisfeatureoftheworkingofthemarketeconomy,wherebyinteractionsbetweenindividualstakeplace

entirely within the price mechanism, can be referred to as the internal nature of market exchanges.

However,thereexistsacategoryofeventsinamarketeconomywherebytheactionsofoneindividualor

enterprisedirectlyaffecttheutilityofothers,withoutreferencetoexchangeorprices.IfpersonAcreates

abonfireinhergarden,herneighborsincurthedisutilityofchokingonthesmokeasitdriftsacrosstheir

territory.Likewise,when the removalof forestcoveratawatershedcausesmore frequent flash floods

down river, the livelihoodsof farmers in thevalleybottomareadverselyaffectedwithout reference to

marketpricesorcosts.(R13.3/135)


26/26

P a g e |25

FromPublicationsonProjectPlanningMonitoringandEvaluation

FAO(1977)Guidelinesforwatershedmanagement.ConservationGuideI,RomeU4/10 Thereisneedforassistancetothefarmerstorecoverthegulliedareasthroughpracticalmeasuressuchas

wattling and staking. This work should be combined with an education campaign about the risks in

cultivatingsteepandunstableslopes.Themagnitudeoft

026 - Watershed Concepts Consolidated Extracts-Ori

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