shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.inshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/13941/9/09_chapter 01.pdf · CHAPTER I 8 Social Stratification Railwayrnen were not juat a section of' the emerging

CHAPTER I 8

Social Stratification

Railwayrnen were not juat a section of' the emerging industrial prolate•

riat. They wore recr.uited from a c~oes-section of the population of' the empire.

In their social af"f111ations they were integrate~ into the urban middle cle.eaao

and the petty bourgeoisie, the indust:dal and rur~l labour force, th~. migrant

peasant and the tribal. lrt the railway ~.abour process they ware dJ.str1buted

among a myriad of categories, fitted like cogs in an impersonal profit making

2 enterprleih They ware employed by British railway companies. They worked in

aevoral dapertmentsa loco-running, traffic, mechanical end engineering. Within

each department eevan general divisions exieteda managerial, supervisory, cleri•

cal, skilled, unskilled, art1t1cera and the m1ecallaneoua.

The ra~lways 1n colonial India employed, in the pre and inter-war years,

e highly stratified workforce. This stratification was baaed .on skill, educe•

tional qualit1cat1ona• technical, supervisory and administrative BxPetiance.

In the early years ot railway conatruetion and maintenance in India indigenous

skilled labour and qualifisd railway personnel was not available. Tha companiee

recruited f:uropaan skilled labour - workshop mechanics, drivers, firemen, -------2 fn 1919 there weJ:f! numerous r.eilway companies, howauttr tile important oneo

•are as tollowct North-Western Railway (hereafter N.w.R.) • Oudh Rt~h.Ukund Railway (he~aef'ter O.R.P.,.), Rohtlkund and Kumaon RaU.way (hBreafter R .• K.R.), Great Indian P$n1naul Railway (hereafter G.t.P.R.), Bombay Batoda and Central. Indian Re!lwey (heraatto~ 9,8. A C .t.R .) ,. Madr'iU! and Southern Mahratta Railway (hereafter M. A S.M.R,.), South lndian Railway (hereafter S,.I .R.) t Bengal and Ncrth-Wactsrn Railiaay (he,.-(;iatte:;- &. Ia N.W.R .,) , Bengal Nagpur Railway (hereafter a.N.R.)t East indian Railway (hereafter t.f.R.), £.aat Bengal Reilw!ly (hereafter e:.,e.R.}, and the Asearn Beng;nl Rai.lway (hereafter A.a.R.). for a chart or cetegor1eo employed 1n the railway labour force in the hierarehic~l order~ sem Table n. I.

~able II

Table 95. Nunber of Upper Subordinates I!lnployed by Departments drawing pay between Ps.250/- .-md Rs. 75/-

( Class I 1\ciilways ) _ __._._....._. --..-.- -----·---·--

Depart- .1924-25 ,1925-26 1226-?7 .1227-2~ 1928-_?2 .12..S2-30 103o-31 19_31-32 2.2.3.?-.3.J 1933:-.3~: ~~93~+--:.3.2 .:!.2."3..2.:3£ 12.JU'l m.ruJ.t.L

Agency. 82 85 100 98 101+ 109 114 107 96 <)lf. 100 100 96

Accounts. 479 468 l.e-48 l~lt-O t~5'1 l}13 418 lt09

&nginee- 1,325 1 ,~15 1,525 1 '520 1 '5'57 1 '')28 1,456 1,356 1,287 1,225 1,190 1 ,1f38 ·1 J t80 ~~in g.

Transpor- 2' 52.3 2,222 2,150 2,20'5 2,335 2, tt-Bo 2,379 2,257 '1 j 1'15 2,099 2,137 2,107 2,025 tat ion. Commer- 162 169 145 162 ~58 164 149 139 135 141 119 '121 '178 Cial..

Mechani-~al. Engi-

2,699 3,224 33,291 3,3.:,5 3,~26 3,lr88 3t489 3,305 31320 3, ~1.~3 3,237 3 ;172 3,2lt-1

neJring ··--~-

Stores 138 151 1511- 154 1'73 175 179 1?9 1 '73 1.77 "171 '165 165 Depart-ment.

Other 893 907 933 1,012 1 Qll6 , 59>+ 603 583 57) 610 595 5911- 5116 Derart .. ments.

._

Ra11wa& 122 131 218 229 219 2l+1 2'14 205 216 226 230

Board other offices.

Total. 7,822 a, 173 8,420 8,617 9,017 9,?,..,6 9,056 8,685 3,11-15 8 '2t~5 8,1'78 8,091 8,0?0

------·-··-·--·--- ... ---- ..... - ..... ·----------------·-------·

~tv(-~·. !r:A. ~o-t~ ~~~ ~~~ ~ev..~ ·~ ~"- 9 l "'f(, . co :>

station-masters and guards --on a covenant from England. The companies also

attempted to train qualified ra1lwaymen in Inddia, through an apprenticeship

system, in railway affiliated technical institutes. The operating department

employed the largest section of the essential technical categories -- drivers,

firemen, guards and signallers. Each ot the railways engaged a very large

clerical staff. Lsstly, the railways maintained a very large subordinate

&uperviaory $'taft, who controlled, i'&gulatad e.ancl sup3l."vised in detail all

r,ailway Operations. Racruf.ted primarily from the oonoAsian strata these super-J

visory categories· were re:spone;ibla to the rail\IJBY bureauci:'aay.

In all the departments of all railway companies, tha crucial aerviceaa

1.9. r the managerial, supervisory, clarical ond skilled wsre manned by the

wh! tes - l\uropeans and .~nglo•lndlans - till 1922. The managerial, supervisory

and clarical grades with pay above fls. 250 wa:rG raxclueivsly held by tho covo-

4 nanted £uropeans. In the skilled gradss teo, with pay above Rs. 75, the cove-

r. · n.!lnted Europeans predominated.;~ Howettsrt by 1914, the Anglo-lnd:f.ans wero

Bllerging as the "intarmediata community" on the railcu:~ys, occupying 46 par cent

. 6 T of the total posts or scalae ot pay betwt~an Rs• 7!J and Rs:. 250. ha nativoa

) This etratitication 1n tha workforce has been discussed in dota11 in tho following pag~oas. ror e cotagorywisa division of' the t~Jorkforce eee Tablo n. 1.

4 t..A. Nateean0 State Management and Control of Railways in India• P• 265. All crucial rail~y cparetions in the pre 1922 yea~a were manned by Euro­peans. lQdian Railway Committee Report, 11 P• 58, also aea department• ~ies details of wages gtven for the rasarved posts Of non-Indiana in &11 t'Bilway eetvic:ea. Thto eepact is anourn in greater dett~ils in Table n. V whara p~:omction linas oi' ths N.w.r.. staff' are tabulatad. ror dataila ot thoSG employed ea suborcU.natos, ,A.U T~ t'. II..

' Sea Appendi• <F>• 6

As will be ovi.cient from the t<lble the n,.m-.-1.-siu.tic str-ata, coven<l.nted 2u.ropei:l.Ds, uncovenanted 1!.\lrope':i.ns c1.nd .tl.nglo-Ind.iuns held u. neu.r monopoly of tt.e crucLti su:rerviso:-y pc.st:> till 1929. sl f"Jrt1'.dr l;)rea.% d·..J'ri~ 'Jf th•.: fit_'U.res ,t t th•1 ·.torkshup level on the ElR sho'J s tha.t ut J <.-\l.'l.::ilpur, ::.ud:nc'd carriage und 'W<.J.gon shops and Tatanagar there were no Ind.i..inS i!1 t:·.e supel"risory stra. ta.

12 7 worked on pay-scales below ~. 75 the majority getting only •• 30 or below.

The superior railway bureaucracy, supervisory and managerial stratum

end a large percentage of the uppe~ eubordinateo on all the railways were of 8 non-Asian origin. This fact was brought to the notice of the public by the

Indian Railway Committee Report, 19211

At the_ date of the last report there wore employed on the railways at India about 710 1000 persona. Ot these, roughly ?001000 were Indiana and only 71000 Europeans, a portion of just one per cent. But the 11000 were like a thin tilm ot oil on the top ot a glass of water, resting upon but hardly mixing with 700 1 000 below. None ot the highest poets ware occu­pied by lndi.ens, vary few even ot the higher. Tho pooition of a 01etrict Engineer, District Traffic Superintendent or or an oeeiatant Auditory is, with one or two excoptiono• the highest which Indiana havo hitherto attained. The detailed figur•s••• shOI!J that on principal railways of th* country out or 1, 749 claesitied as superior, 182 ot rather more than two per cent ore filled by 1ndiano.9

Following recommendations by the Public Servicao Commiaoion the propor•

tian of Indiana in the superior re,lway services and upper subordinate grades

showed e continue! increaao.10 Howevor, thio increase was offset by tho groa-

ing employment ot domiciled Europeans end Anglo-Indiana at all echelons of

railway ear vice. Oetallad tiguraa era available ot the supervisory and lowor

managerial etaft employed by the railways in 1925 and 1929.11

1 For details ot break up of railway staff till 1928•19291 aee Appendix (E).

8 Sao Table n. Ill.

9 Indian RailwaY Committee Report, 1921 1 P• 58.

10 ~· Proga, B. Npvamber 1919, n. 1656/2•20, "Vieao ot·tho companioo' raib.Jayo on the recommendations or the Public SoJ;'vice Commission in ro• gerd to more~oxtended employment of Indiana in the superior branches or rallway oorvlca." An attempt wee made to employ Indiana in auporlor jobo but the "higher railway atatt waa to bo tor aomatiGte prepondarcintly European"a Aloo see R.E,, Prooa. Bn §eetemb8F 1922, n. 214/7•28, "India­n1zat1on. of superior aervicee on the tailwaya in India•"

11 ror details of the community-alae br•ak-up of the supervicory staff on the railways, see Table n. III.

Sta. tement showing number or posts or ·each co.dre and percentage of the staff, wJ1o h...1.ve no chances f'o.-. further pranotion, in different clu.sses of r-u.ilwuy services on the North western ~~ilway in 1929. Class or staf.:." Pay li'Unber Percentage of Class-Of St<J..ff.--Pay Nunher_.......,_ __ Percent"age_or_

or staff who have or staff who have no posts. no chance for posts. chance for prcmo-

·~fayundWorks _____________ Q!.J!!!..Q.t'iQ.r.l!...------·- ------ ·- ···----.-~., .. --··-- --~- --· .tt.o_r).. ____ -~---·--

Permanent way lnt>pf.lccora

:-'ub permanent way Inspectors " (11 terate)

-do­Sub-Inspector of works.

Loco.

Sh,~d m:.:.n lV -do- III -do- 11 .. do- I

Drivers lV -do.. III -do- II ... cto... 1

Snuntort~ lV -do- III -do- II ... J.o .. ll -do- I

---~·--

625-2)-69"5 2 5)0-25-600 475-25-c;'OO 123 4{)o-25-1f5o 1?0-10-300

135 5 60-2-90 168 45-2-75 13

70-3-100

~~~=~~=~68 1~ 60-5-95 2? ;o-5-75 L

14<:!-10-220 213 , 15 .. 10-175 41•

3B-3-50 69 31-3-46 580

120-10 ... 130 27 90-10-100 15

0-1 ; ... Rs.1/1 61 0-13..0-15-0 637

100 percent

97.5 If

Heserved for Zuropeans & n.nglo-Indi:tn s

-do- 93;: -do- 79. 5}; -do- 60.9~

98.5%

Reserved for Europeu.n s & l'l.nglo-Indians.

13.~

Fir3':1et1 IV -do- II I -do- II -do- I

T~nsporta.tion

St"ltton '-hstel"

"sst. s. ;-fa ..;ter Signallers

Trctin Clel'k s

Ouct.rds

Trd.n Sx.-.1!!1 inor -o:.n.

-do- !I -do- I -dowCl ,rka ..

-:io-

80-10-100 60-10-80 0-12-0-·111-0·- 9-0~·11

210-250 150-10-190 110-5-1it>O 78-1 ~-90 45-5-CO

15G-10-190 110-5-140 75-J-78 45-3 .. 60

150-10-190 10 5- t}-1o.tD 66...lt--')0 33-3-t.O

125-10-185 75-5-105 4o-3-60 30-1 ... 35

260-10-350 1 '50-10-250 ·7~-c;"- 1 ~0 6 -'-dO 39-3-60

125 69 :->5

265?

1 17

'1276 1069 15&f~

10 31 92

697 2

18 51

525 253 392 613 94

19 42

195 , 2lr

·- --·----·----------~--- ... -:--

Rn'i.oPved tor Ang~.o Indians &: Europeans

?6% vho

76 "I.;.J; 93.2% 31.7%

100~~ 69% 66% 74. 2/~ 100~ 88.')~ 6lh 7'i> 9 2. 3/'~ itener·vod ror :\nglu­In<lictn :J & ~~ropeans 90~

5f:'1 /I

7'1. r;y, 100% 96%

""

Table

Sta te!tlent or apprentices accorc!ing to Cla.s~-I Railways in 1928-29. -

departments under training on

-----~..._-

.ahropeans Hindus ;{usltms Anglo-Indians Other..Cla ssas .,._.._ .... '-~

Engine- Class'~"I "8 8 1~3>) 161+ ~: 35 70* 84 12 14. orin g. Others. - 1 1 1* 164 6 18• 2'1 10 5

Total 8 9 334- 328 37 4-:1 88 105' 22 19

hattie Class-I 2 - 2 .... 2 - .. Others 2 2 153° 238 20 42 2 8 ~ 10 Total 2 -2 155 238 22 42 4 8 10

Com me> Class-I - 16 8 - 4 2 1 -c1a.1~ Others· - 113 95-:--18 8 - 5 6

Total - 12.<) 103 18 8 lt 2 6 6

Trans- Class-I lt-7 38. 490* ' ltll-5 3?0 3~ 111 116 -48 ~2 porta- Others· 15 12 ~2·1. 241 9lt- 2020 151 ,~ 59 tion. !otal 62 50 11 686 464 '+25 313"' "" 267 1 3 '111

Meehani- Class~ I -- 1·1~Cl 98 548• ~2 133 ~3 286 240 12'7 134 ea.l. Others 2 2149• 1 37 ~~ ::;; '1 3~

l}$ ??0 ~~ total 117 100 2697 2419 674 288 )l~o? 3,

Grand Class-I 170 1lt6 '1227- 1215 536 ?06 ~~ 1~6 196 211 ·Total Others 21 17 .2942 ~6~!! ?<::<5 637 230 335 28l

Total. 191 163 4169• 1331 1193 777* 696 531 1+9

---·-- ....... Q...._ _ ___........._,.. __ ,.,,:_,.

0 'l'bis table ~1ves revised !'igures or tha <:.pprentice-s under training on the r~ilvay~. In thti prs 19: pha.se c:lass-1 apprentices were u.ntirely .ma!mi"d by the non--..siutic. .:..r-ter a eontinuil deb:1.te in the LagisLtive ... sse·:ilily for sever<tl years the lndLns vere al~ included in the Class-I C-1-tegory ot apprentices. ·

15 The predominance of non-Indians in crucial supervisory services gavo a

distinct claae and social character to the railway administration. This iden-

tity ot the administration wao buttressed by the presence of non-Asians in

crucial operating and mechanical categories in each of the railway departments.

ln the loco-running• superior gradoa of drivers, ahedmen• end firemen, in the

traffic• superior grades of station-masters, eaeietant station-masters, guarda

and other inspectors, and in the workshopa the superior grade mechanics, wero

12 Europeans and Anglo-Indiana. Similarly in the apprenticeship ayata of

various railway companiaa superior grade appranticea were non-Indiana. The

superior gtade poets in the operating categories were filled by tho non-Aoian

apprentices. The appranticeahip system was ao structured that it aloo blocked

promotions of the lower grade Indiana to higher jobs in the operating cata-

1J gorieth

(a) Superior Grades, Europeans;

n.rst rung of tha railway labour force was the covenanted Europeana.14

They were employed unde:r a special sarvioo agteement with apeciel pay and tho

prospects ot quick promations into the administrative scala which urould h!!IVB

not been available in England or elsewhere. They waro teQtuitad eo engino

drivero, guards, otation-maatora and tnachanico h'om England on a covonant. The

initial causo ot recruitment of Europeans tn the operating eections wao to

meet tho non-availability ot skilled raUwayman in India. These men woro

expected to train the lner oubordinatoa in the skilled operationo.15 Moro

12 ,, 14

1S

Refer to tabla n. IV.

ror the community.eiaa braak•UP of the apprentices across the railways, see Table n. v. <

No exact details ere available of the Europeans employed in upper end lo"'or subordinate Joba. Available figures of tha Europeans alao include the senior railway bureaucracy and supervisory steff. tvan department- · wise break-up of European work torce is available tor the years 1881• 1898 only. See Appendix (6). .

N. Sanyal, I'dian Rallwavs, PP• JO:J-1'J Also see R,E, Proga. A, Ju[!! ~ n. 817 1•5.

16

important aspect of this pol1cy of covenanted recruitment wee to co-apt such

personnel as foramen, euperviaore, 1,nepectore etc., ~rom the operating ceto­

goriee into ths lower but c.rucl~l runge of the supervising ftnd admin!etrative

16 steff. So recruitment to the covenanted grades r.equtred hi9h level ot tech-

nie"l ability but also a geed. chare.ctel:, tffh!ch tuas Jut19ed from the references

17 of the amplcyee~,.

In the loco-7:unn.ing, tl'affie end mechat'!lt:al departmants 1 the bulk at

the Eu~gpe~ns smployed mere 1n ths crucial eperating gredesz in the loco-

running, the;· wcrkad ae drivers, l!lnd fbamen of th:o rescn•ved category, with

exclusive pay grad~~;: and ath~r benef'1ta .. 19 In tha traffic1 atation-maatera

and assistant station-tnastars at' the important stations, guards of the main

paessnge~ train$t 1n~poctars or t!sket colla~tion fly1ng.aquada, talagraph

supa~intendenta and haad-clarka in chorga of booking, goads and parcel wore

the non-Asiana.19 Similarly 1n tho mechanical department, ~n major workshaps

spread all over India, tho European mechanica, fitters, ~illwrighta, ~urnaro,

moulders, blacksm!tna 0 and chargomen, wars employed in the axcluaivo pay 2Q

gradae.

Position of the turopaans, in th; !:'&illllay t<Jvreaucracy was maintained

16 R .E u p;roga. A.· feb£!18£Y 3911 t n. 96-10). "Grievances of Engine dri. .. wars appointed trom England tor Indian Rail~~taya.u

17 lb!ft Green, a locomotive dri~ter, before he .ues emplcyed on the e:.a.R., produced cert1flcatao or g.ood character of tour years of employment on the l.a.rw:aah1ra and Vorkahiro RaU,.u:ay, ot 9 yaara on the: Central South Atricen AaJ.liiay .os driver, and of a year sa a snadma~r: and as a driver­ln-eheJ:<gth T111o di'l.vora on tha E.B.R. had 1110tk. exper1enct of tour yo~ro on the l..ancaohire ~nd Yorkahlre Ratlw6ys, eight years on the South Atri­cen Rail111ey and 11 year• on tn• North taatorn Railu~y. So U: can bG eeid that the men •mployad on a covenant w&r& highly skilled men Gith yeoro 9t railway ••per1anco.

18 ro~ dateila or the comparative wage-atructuro or various catagorieo ot ra11"aymen, oae Chapt.et lla Also eee Appsndb~).

19 lb&d• Aloo aee J.N. Westwood, fi~ilw&XJ e[ lod18t 1974, PP• 80.84.

20 !S!dt

17

tlll 1922. However, their importance in the crucial operating categories in

the loco-running, traffic and mechanie:tl departments was daclining by 1914.21

There wee several reasons for this dacline: F"irGt, Eu:zopeans of the skilled

grades were recruited in England o~ a COV$n~nt. Thsy came in search af a

well paid job with security, fQr making rtuicJt money and t'eturrring home attar

the expll'y of tha covenants hence thRY did not ccmstitute u very stable work

force. Secondly, the poor European workers may have tmen dll'awn to the Brltloh

Indian railways by the grandeut's of the RaJ; but onef: in In.Zh ell such lllu--

siona ware shattered. In India they were still the poor raUu:ayman workln.g

according to the tyranny of the clock. Oisltatist!Gd with th~»ir col\dit.iona ot

work and living, the skilled Eur-opean rallwaymen arg>~niasd th9mal91vea in 1897

under the tnfluonce of tha Amelgamf!ted 30C1ety o'! f1ai1way Servants of Britain

(A.s.R.s.).22 They aleo formed the A.S.R.s. of' Iooi.a •lnd Sttrmfh this quae1 ..

union conducted saveral strikes an tno weste~n and suuthern ~ail~mys eulMinat•

lng in 19U in a general strike on theM.& s.n,R., s.t.R., G.t.P.R, and B.B. i

c •. t.R. 2' On the eastern railways too, there &;jere strikes cf' EUX"opEli:U'" loco­

running staff durin9 the Swadeehi ~gttatian end efter. Secondly, dt!ring thio

pheee there UJGra alao several strikes of Indian loco-running end traffic cato-

gorlcs. DUt'lng theoe strikes, the only social group ~a'lho remainad loyal and

acted ao ·black lege ii,iiJ'J the Anglo-Indiana. ' '

1909 and thiB gon$rlll. t~ttike of 191:ft a cona"nsus tn t.evour ot the extended

employment at the A~lo-lndiane may hewe emerged.24 Antec~dente at thia policy

--------------·~ 21 Appindix (9h Aleo refs~ .ta N. Sonya!, $2.ftp1tu ~,. ;oa.

22 F"ot> a history ot tha A.S.fhS· of Britain ~aa P.,S • Gupta, Ra:Llwlly Yrede Unionis~ in Btiteint c. 18B0.1900t Sconomi& H1itO£X R81(LeW• 1966.

2J ror details of thase strikes sea Chapt~l' IU$

24 The Railway 8oard constituted the Volunteer Carps and made it nearly coalpulaory ror aU Europoana ~nd, Eurasian workers to ba mnbara of thio

18

had distant historical roots in the relationship or the colonial state with

the dom1c1U .. ed Europeans and Anglo-Indians and other peripheral communit1ea.2'

I I Anglo-Indians, .lnterftladiota commynity

Railway companies had a four f"old classtficaUon af its servicea -

superior, subordinate (upper and lower). interior and menial. ln tho eerly

etages bulk of the euperior and upper subordinate cadre in all railway depart-

mente, were filled by European recru1te. The recruitmant bese or &.!pper and

lower subordinate railway pereon..,el 1n lndie was confined to t.~ose with eamo

degree of' lit~reoy in Engliahe The domiciled Europeans and Anglo-Indiana

located in presidency ~owno benstittod moat from the employment' opportunitieo

oftorod by the early railways.26

The early railway companies had no special pref'aronce tor the Anglo-

Indians. All those with e minimal knawledge of English end adequate skill

found ~cese to railway employment. Given the pecul1ar1t1es of reea-relationa

in late 19th century companies preferred these with cultural pro~imity to the

Cont'o•~ r,n. 24 para-military torcot and adQpted a policy of' increasing the nu~t~ber of Anglo-Indiana in strategic posta on the rei~ll!eya. Memorandum Anglo• Indian and Otm'11Ciled EurOpean Railway Employees• Ro C 1 ion Laboh!rt 19)0; Vllt, Pute I li ,IJ• Wt~ttan and Oral Evidence,. hereafter R.c.L •• utu, I); Alao sao P b c W rka a tma t (hereafter P,w.o.), Raiwav Traf' e ha ... e tt r A T . 1 f;e,ge,. .ft., .. JaauerK 1.!P.1• n. 6J-105. Thia policy ltJIIO continued thtc::ugh ou'h the coloniel period, ln 190J1 tho nai.l•ay Dr.partmeent tseuad ~ not.lf!oation thet "the preponderance of" car• tai.n c!aeaes of' native employees on J"ail~Uaya waa to bs balancad by more eY:tendnd emplo~ll'nent ot Anglo-Indians. tt q,g; .. , Pa~.u. P,z.:g:u,_At Jylx 12.Ql. n. 11-25. tn 191~; tht~ £u~opean Aesoc:i.~tion, Calcutta, suggsstsd that th(lb ahould b.s a defirlite parcentege of" An;lo-tr.cU.arts or; the rail• 11!8)'11 in I.ndie.. R1E:u i)f9gl!h Ae fabtU!!!I'l J9t.2. fle "71 .. 7~,

25 This ralatlonship ~f "l'ihe colCitlial etet~ ~it.h tha A.ni'flo-lntlien& oorn::aal• ed aomt~ getnel'al prinoiplea. Th& eolonlal atate in India co~tinually gevo patronage to pel.'iphoral groupo and communities - Anglo•lndians, Paraeeo, lnctian Chriet.ia.na - aa to csurtter&ct the process or lndianization advanced by the nationalist agitation. In ita early ategaa on the rail­waya the Anglo-Indlans were eubotitut.ed fer the &uropeans1 who though technically sldlled~t~~ere found to b3 an unreliable! categor-y. F'or 8 do­tailed ravtew ot the relationship of' the Anglo-Indiana and the Raj eae, R,J., PlDQB• 8, Seetem9!F 3932, n. 609/1•11.

26 J,N, Westwood, opecit,, PP• S0-84.

19 superior peroonnal, such as the Pareeee, Anglo-Indiana and Indian Christiano.

The Anglo-Indiana could meet all the requirements of early railway employment

-- literacy in English, right sort of contacts and patronage.

Thue there was emerging in the pores of colonial India, a new community

-- the Anglo-Indiana -- centred around Calcutta and other presidency towno,

and brought up and nurtured ln the phase of conservative imperialism.. Oppo-

aed to the liberal and reformist personality of the indigenous civil society,

anathematic to the growing spirit of a now nation (implicit in thla idee wac

alao the notion of the dioaolution of the Raj) this hermaphroditic phenomenon

fattened itself on patronage, privilege ana racialism. By 19001 they woro

baing promoted by the imperial railway bureaucracy end bueineso ee the only

elternaU.ve to tho claae-consctoue European railwaymen and the natives fight•

1ng for equality on tho railway in India. On the G.I.P.R. afte.r the Guards'

strike .or 189? and the Signalloro' strike of 18991 the Public Works Department

issued a diractivea

•••• calling attention to the large and tmportant field open to all of that nationality (Anglo-Indiana) on the railwayo in India. Though looking at the commercial character ot railway buoinoea when the market price of' labour rules payment to their work• men, the companies era asked to weigh the advantage ot having thoaa who from eelf•intereat are 'oat inti­mately bound to the rulers of the country,2

Though the Anglo-Indiana began aa an appendago of the covenanted Euro-

peana, they had acquired a position of aignif'icanca by 1914. Ordinarily tho

Anglo-Indiana occupied positions inferior to the Europeans. They too felt

21 1p Auaupt 1829• circulat letteJ: n. 15051 P,W,O., R, T • Proaa. 8, January 1900, n. 6,_105, A directive wao issued calling for the adoption of' certain mecauree to prevent the organizat1flln of strikes, i.e., by more extended employment of Anglo-Indiano and Europeans. The Railway Traffic Conference, 1899 advised that the prov1a1ona or section so ot the Indian Post Oftieo Act ot 1898 be made applicable to the railways) thus legally prohibiting voluntary withdraw! from duty without permission or due notice. R1 T,, P:rg9s. Ae Janysv 19Q6, n. 3-4,

20 discriminated against in pay and laavo rulea.28 Still the Angl~lndiana ac­

quired prominence by their av01J8d loyalism, black legging, and projection of

themselves as the arms of law and order of the colonial state. Here wao thio

peculiar colonial formation, separated frOfrJ the Europeans by sactional1am1

sectarianiam, by trade union traditions and in standard& of remuneration. In

their conditione of work and pay they were closer to the Indian clerical,

supervisory, upper and lower subordinates; but here too these men defined their

identity 1n opposition to the non-white colonial railwaymen. They never auppor•

29 ted any form of labour protest of the latter. In fact they vehomently oppo-

sed the prevailing nationalist sentiments. The companies had nurtured this

loyal stratum by giving it a privileged position in promotions and in tho

apprenticeship eyatem.

The Anglo-Indiana wero trained in the workshop and technical inatitutoe

attached to the railway companies. In fact till 1922 these institutes wero

bsing exclusively run for the domiciled Europeans and Anglo-Indiana. Patronage,

favouritism and a workable knowledge of English placed the Anglo-Indiana in a

comfortable competitive position vis•a-via the natives. This institutional

bias in tavoUl' of the whites not only debarred other Indiana from qualifying

for the more skilled and higher-Paid jobs but also blocked all opportunitiea

for promotion in this monolithic entarprisa.'0

28 R.Eu Prpgs. B, September 1922, n. 609/1•11. "lndianJ.zation of the atarf of' the Railwayea Representation from the Angle-India and Domiciled European Association."

29 lb&d:

)0 ln England, a cleaner, through years of hard work, could aspire to bo a fireman and attar 20 years of railway service even become an engine dr1v•r• No &uch pr~otion linea were open to the native firemen. On the contrary if upward mobility was rare, dowmuard mobillty wao a dis• tinct possibility. A ,native goode guard or a passenger driver ,or a nativl\1 fireman, on tailing to pasa the medical examination cculd find himself demoted to a gateman or a coolie after 20 yaere. According to service conditione, e railway eervant could be dismbsed or demoted by hie superior oftJ.cer on e month's notice for inettic1ency, carelaaaneaa, or subjected to heavy tines which tor years and even lite-time tied hira to the clutches of a money lender. The native railweymen were the woret

21 Sa by 1919 there had emerged in the railway labour force a stratum that

wao constituted from the domiciled European& and the Anglo-Indiana who had

found employment on the railways not only by merit and skill but also through

patranage and loyalty to the Raj. Asserting 1ta claims to the railmay employ•

ment the Memorandum of the Anglo-Indiana and Domiciled Europeans Association

statedt

•• ., todey Anglo--lndi.ens and Oomtcf.lad EuropGans form the backbone of the reilwayt telegraph, customs nnd ellisd se~vicaR. They constitute the Auxilary rsrc~. There ere a pnrG~annnt resert~a and :r.e!nf'orcemant of' law and , 1 order.Rapaatodly they have saved meny an ugly situation ..

In fact as the number of covenanted Europeene declinsd the Anglo-Ind1ana

improved their position in the lowor aupervioory and operating posts. During

the strikes of 1919·1922, th9y represented themeelvee ao tho arms of law and

order and were active in broaking•up atrikea.)2 Hollff!ivar, with the demand for

1nd1an1zat1cn or the ra11u;eye the 4\nglo-.lndiana in the upper and lower subor­

dinate posts had bagun to be troubled about their future proapecta.

Cont'd••• t.n. JO victims of the Leviathan-- the mhiteman'e railway in India.

J1 .R.Eu .Prqga, Be Septemb3r 1922, n. 609/6-11,

)2

"""")=

lbide The Anglo-Indiana played a crucial role in breaking up otrikeo by acting ao blaeklaga and ao mambara of the lndion Aux.lU.ary rorco. lbidu P• 6.. f1oaor1t~l of the Anglo-Indians and Oomiciled European Aoeo­c1stion U,P, to the Agent t,t,R,, Calcutta. "The Anglo-Indiana had coao to the rescue or the E.l.R, in a cristo ot the greatoet and h~d at groat personal danger, end na small inconvenlanco to themaelvoa Joyt;:lly carried out duties of the moat monial nature." logian Rail!Q~~azott, 2 June 1922, "lncU.an Railway Af'faira•a Also refer to l..attor h:om tho General Secretary European Aaooctation, Calcutta to tho Secretary., Commorce and Industry Department, Simla, May 1922 in tho ·aama tile. ThO

; Anglo-Indiana waro alec roqulred to bscome a part of the Volunteer Corpe · - e para military organization - stationed at key point• on thtl 'poU­

tical linea•. This torco wao used ao a po11ticel police during agita­tions by raile~cymen or by other induatriel eror:kers. 1n 1922, dUring tho E,I.Re atrike, member.ohlp ot the Indian Auxiliary rorco waa mado ca:apul­aory for all whites on the ta:J.l~aye in accordance with tha nem nerviee agraament. R,Eu fxoga1 A-. Septem~ar 1922, n. 29)/1•16!t However, tharo wao ptotoat from tha European G~t,P.R. employees "against their being required to join the Indian Auxiliary rorce and do military duty 1n caso of atr.ikea by m.f.ll ... hands occurring in their area." R_.E,, Psoglh e, Auoua~ 1926, n, 2778/1-4. l1LcJ~)

~X: q .~f+ '~2> 1:~

22 (a) lnpiani.zatJ.on.. ~

F"ollow!ng recommendations or the Pt.abU.c Service Commission, Acwcnrth

Commit~e Report and quetiee in th" Legiale.tiva Assembly and Council ot State•

the lndletnizatlon of railway aatvicas, especially superior eatago:riee of the

labour force wae seriously considered. JJ However, the Govarm~~ant of India

aaeured tne · Angla-lnaian C(lfMitfnity that ita pos1tion in the railway services

will be mairitainedt

Aa 1e well-known to all railwey officers, the Anglo­lnd1an and dGmleUed EUI'opaan Cemmt.tnity nave recently been rut.tcn perturbed in connectiDn wltn their future employment in ra1lmaye.

Thia community haa submitted two memorial& to the Secretary of State ••• The present position may be euMed up ao follOVIet

'.tndianization' -The Angla-lndien and domiciled £uropean has fer thia putpc;se the legal status of a native or India and is eligible tor appointm$nts reserved for natives of India ( vlde Home Dapartlne.,t Resolution No. 164/28 tats., dated Simla, 12 Septem­ber, 1928).

The ra~lw«sya may and atill therefore continua t.o re• cruit auch Anglo.Inaiano and domiciled Europeans of suitable edUcation and other qualities as requiredJ if necessary natainl!iting such against the )) !)at' cant, reserved for minority communiU.ea where recruitment· is by meana of c0111pet1 tiva examinations ..

The Railway Board have received definite instructions 'rom the Gov~trmtent of lndia that !n tha prepat"ation of achemaa tor recruitment to the aubordinata railway aervi.cea, ce'fte must b!) taken net to imposa conditione (of education, et~.) • .n!ch ~~u!d tn effect seriously l'.eat.J.Oict th.a eppcrtunltlea ot employment on the Indian

J:J Amba Prasad, Irusiap RaU:!•XSb pp. 304-)09. The issue of Indianbation of' rai1UJey ssrv1cos da f'1rat raised in the pre-war period by the nat1o­nal1ata. aut then the problem wso only oeClln ae one ot employment ot Indiana to tho eupor-ior poet~ on the railways. Thia issue cuea again tekcn ·Uf' in thM Legislative Assembly aftaf' 1921 as· a P3t't of a general discussion rege+d1ng tht:i etate-tDon&Qt#nent of the tai.lwaya, t'OilllJGy budget &nd native rsilmay labour. Indianhation of .railway ••tvicea came to mean the end o1' the t11scrira1n46tory colonial structuro or the railway work f'orce e&ptiJG1ally after the 1922 t.I.R. Gtt.lka.

railways which Anglo-Indians at present enjoy. These iAetructions must be duly observed.J4

23

In the 1920s the Europeans and Anglo-Indiana had been employed by the

railways in some of the crucial operating and supervisory categorise, such eo

guards, drivers and ticket collectors or the higher gradaJ firemen, station-

masters, traffic inspectors, carriage and loco-inspectors, yard and assistant

yard-masters, controllers and technical workshop staff. Recruitment to thaeo

cetegorias, except in ease of t.}U&rds, dtivere and ticke·t colle~tore, \'!188 mado

mt rJirsctly but tnrough promotions from th\1: lower grach!llSI• In the subordinate

graclfltlt rising to Rs. 250 ana over·, the Anglo-Indiana, in 1926 and before, held

46.6 petcent of such poets on thli state anti oompan; • managGd rsil.waya.'5 ,~·out­

evsr, the figu,ra declined_ to 42.2 perc;;nt in 1931. ' 6 In the gazetted poe to on

state-managed reilwaye in 1926 tho Anglo-Indians held 8.4 percent of tho posts

and ?.6 percent of the poata in 19)2. ln March 19J), the Anglo-Indian pet.cent•

age in the off1ee: grade wac as tollowaa'1

Railay Pcu•cant&ge Railway Percentage

A.B.A. 26.6 G.I.P.R. 1$.9

a.a •. •c.z.•~. .,;.:7.8 M.&s.MeR• 18.6

o.&N.w.tt. 18.2 N.kl.R. 11., fJ.N.R. 22.4 Railway Soetd 19 .. 2

E .B.A. 15.4 ft.& K .R • N11

E.I.R • 28.4 s.t.R. 1;.1

In the upper $ubordinata poate_,.t.n the looomoUv• dopartmttnt tn the cate­

gory ot drivers (tigures are available t.cr tho E.B.R. and N.w.R.}, tha Anglo-

J4

'' R.£,.

)6 !!,itJ.

J? !bid a

TAeU: VI

Statorrent s~c1.eing r, .. ,mber of po~'t3 ~ 43 ~ d ':y ·~t--·a

or the subordinate 3t?~f 0~ the s~~~c-}"o~~~~d

~. ·.;q £ : ~ - 'T :' ·~ ------Porc:e~t

1 :!'·~} Tot&l Ste-ff r,·n<Jlo-J ndi'1"S

612 124 20.26 246 1e,1a

Jriv~rs

i\n£lo-Indians

Firemen Anulo-1 ndienn

Tct3l Staff .·.:.n;l:--InGie.ns

Sign<'! Staff /mglo-I ndians

p • ,J • I • * Anglo-Indi.ans

Traffic

Tot;;,l Staff Ar:glo-Indians

Higher Grades Anglo-Indians

Lower Grades Anglo-Indians

Tr.Jn~portetion ( power )

Total Steff Anglo-Indians

Higher GNdes .;n;lo-I ndiana

Lowor ':;rados Anglo-Indians

60

99 62

179

62.6

24 n. 5

76 16 21.05

8 i 12.5

2435 143 5.8

14} 46 32.2

394 86 21.8

612 124

137 74

85 50

20.7

54

58.8

* Permanent way inspector.

117 11.7

822 51 6.2

300 34 1 i • .,

81 10 11.1

450 123

334 87

116 36

6448 6095 202 3.13 514

305 485 66 21.6 234

507 491 108 21.3 261

1353 246 18.2

)69 140 }7.9

262 99 37.8

2718 424

4S6 242

233 153

328 27.3 84

H6 20 54

94 31 Z2

~321

8.3 3:.7

}90 48.2 202

, 76 53.1 128

1698 15.6 495

662 5:5.7 264

260 65.6 H:J

Sourca 1 Railway Labour Pro•:JS• Octocer 1934, n. 660/4-16.

. .

2~.6

23.4

6.7

51.8

72.7

29.1S

}9.9

62.7

24

25 Indian percentage was below 15 per cant but in the category of shunters and

~ce_

firemen their presence was or signitic?• As in the category at dl'ivers the

superior grades we~a held by covenanted turopeana, the non-Indians held a pro• 38

dominant position in the crucial operating categories in the pre-1937 years.

Thie position waa buttressed by their further predominance in the tran~

portation and engineering departtnenta, as shown in the adjoining table. ln the

transportation departments in the category ot station-masters, aaeiatant ata­

tion-maatera on the E.I.R. and G.I.P.A. the Anglo-Indiana ware manning about

half the posta.39 In the lower grades of this department on the G.I.P.R., oo

much ao 12.1 per cent of such paste ware held by them.40 Similarly in the

transportation department, in the lower branches the Anglo-Indian presence was

significant. Even in the way and works, civil and engineering brancheo of rail•

way eervico the Anglo-Indiana held poets of aignal-inepactora and aesietent

permanent way inopectora in large numbara. 41

So even a curcory review of the figures of Anglo-Indian employment in tho

railway services revaale their predominance. This observation further needs to

be substantiated by other factorel first, the railway commercial, edministre•

tive and technical operations, by theb rhythm and intensity• created mtrvo

centres where the work-force woe concentrated in large numbers. Railway ota-

tiona, railway junctions and railway workshops ware the places where the bulk

of the technical end supervisory sections of the workforce wao employed and

housed. Europeans and Anglo-Indiana occupied important jobs in these crucial

oactora of railway aperat1ona.42

J8 ror details of the Anglo-IncUan presence in r.atlway services in 19)4 and before, aoo Table n. \tl,

)9 lbid.

40 Ibid,

41 Ibid,

42 Sao Tabla n, Ill, showing the distribution of the lower managerial and supervisory staff,

26

By 1921t Kharagpur on the B.N.R., Lillooah, Jamalpur, Lucknow end Kanpur

on the £.l.R., Lahore, Karachi and Rawalpindi on the N.w.R., Bombay, Nagpur,

Jhanai and Poona on the G.I.P.R., Bombay, Baroda and Ahmedabad on the a.a.AC. t.R. and Madrea, Hubli and Nogapatam on the s.I.R. and M.&s.M.R. had emerged.

eo the centrea where the no,.....lAdiane predominated in crucial railway operatione.

As these places ware also the commercial and political fmc! of the Raj, the

mhi.te railwaymen ware integrated, culturally and otherwise, into the ruling

community. Aa a percentage of the total workforce the Europeans and Anglo­

tncU.ana weare just about two per cent; 43 but they controlled end manned all the

crucial operations on all the railways.

(b) Pol.lticel runction of Anglo-Indiana

Thie section of the workforce had a function other than technical. Tho

Government of India and the Railway Board evolved a policy of giving employment

to the Anglo-Indians through a policy or .reservation of jobs for the minority

corc:aun1tiea.44 The Raileay Board also caw the importance of the Anglo-Indiana

tor oecurity purpoaaoa

••• it ia rather tor internal oecurity purposes that the raproeantat.ion of Anglo-Indiana and other ca:~~munitiea acquireo special importance, In tho event ot a railway · strike it may certainly be or considerable advantage to havo omployaea of-different communities, but 1 think that the Government of India's propoaalo regarding Anglo-Indiana ••• should ouffice tor such requirement, both ao regerdo internal aocur1ty end defonco.4S . . . '

Th~ Government of India had propoe~d to fix 8 per cent of the eubol'dinate

grade jobs on the railwayo for the Anglo-Indiana through a system of direct re­

cru1tmont. This policy of reservation was part of o general railway policy of

Indianizat1on of the railway servicee through giving weightage to the minor1t1ee

43 See Appendix (E) for the section and commun1ty.w1sa break-up or the rail­way workforce.

44 ~t. 1,Proga. A, October 19~4, n. 660/4-16; Also refer to Report Minoritx Communttiea, 19321

45 ",E,,Proqe. A1 October 19!4, n. 660/4-16,

27 who ware to be given J,; per cent or the total jobe on tha re1lwayo.46 Tho

. . . Muslims were to gat 25 per cent and other minorities• Sikhs, Pereeea, Indian

Christiana and the Anglo-lndiano (who were given tha atatua of otstutory

Indians)_, \Vera to be given aj. pa~ cent or the total government jobs. Th-e I;Obooo . ~ .

ject or including the f'nglo-Indians ao(minority community in the reserved soc"'"

tion wao to " ••• prevent any rapid displacement of' the comrnunity tr0111 Oapart• . 41

menta in which they were principally employed•"

The reservation of Jobs rat the Anglo-Indiana aa an "intermediate commu-

nity" was directed towards arresting tha process or tndianization ot the railway

aezovlce.

F'ollowing the Acworth Committee Report, 1$ per cant of the euparior poets

were to be held by lndiano. 4S In 19)4 the position was aa follonl 64 por cent

Europeans, 1 per cent Anglo-Indiana and 29 par cent Indians. It weo hoped that

as the European representation would ba decreasing ta 25 per cant the Anglo-

Indians would, through protftoticna and direct recruitment, compensate for this

decrease •. the reservation ot 8 per cent tor Anglo-lndiane was mada eo as to

ellow them to hold 15 per cent or tho superior end subordinate jobs. 49 lt wao

hoped that es the £utopean percentage was to decline to 25 per cent of the

suparin end upper aubo.rdtnate jobo the Angla-J.fldiane would continue to ba pro•

dominant in crucial: oparetiana.'0 .

Tha Anglo-Indiana ware to ect as ~ buftar against the drive towat'do

Jnd1onizat1on ao well aa the defence corpo ot the colonial state in times ot

railway strikes. Thlo dilemma of the intermediate COIMIUility wae aummed up b)'

Col, GidAOYt ropraaantative Of the Anglo-Indians in the Legislative Assembly,

46

47

48

49

!!..~ae£1 M!!lu~X C;ommYDJ.tys, 1932.

Ba.Eu .Progs. A1 Os\obet tU!\t n. 660/4-16·

Imllan Railway Co~~~mittea Raoort, PP• $7-58.

!).E .. Progs. A;. October 191!, .n. 660/4o.-16.

Ibid • .......

28

TA6LE VII

3t:?.t,:;men~ of 1ppr":-1ticss unr:::r tr'1ir~irt~ .... 1CCS:-'i~~·:=;l tc E-'";Ch r'iiL 'Y on 813e's-I Ihil :,~ys i'l InJ.i 3 in ·~ l~-2~. ; \ .. /

----?.'3il\·;1y :uro.;:F~ns Hin,:u~ i"l...:.~lim~ '::~l c -lrH.!i <ms t.:th~r-•:.tJs~ :>.; l ~2 <; 'J.-'J ! 11.8" '2Jt 1'\l.'\ 'L. 't l • ; l. ·~

L --B~~~'.·l I 10 g l ?3 ~ :.> --II 21 1S

BN I 24 25 2'?1 219 C)'J M: ~5 2~ ?C :-'9 •)

II 4 6

BeP~ I 21 15 32 33 1C ~~ I' ,.,. 7 13 "' .. ...,._ CI II 1 1 234 1S6 27 ..,-;;

51. -,~

03 ·>c: .cc.. .... -· t:...; - '--

~B I I 5 63 57 6 6 ?.3 2i 4 t;; ... " II 231 205 125 117 7

'~ 10 15 -·

~~I I 66 6::? 2~9 232 2/.,-3 ?•""' 79 63 0 3 ~ I )

II 14 12 63c 574 11 ~ 1 ~ 6 67 54 1!) , 3

GIP I 5 5 C'l1 116 17 1S' (r-. L,6 50 55 ..;.._

II l 7~3 654 ?~6 ') 7 ~ 12 15 1 5·~ 1 35 •- .. ) I

' M&S!J! I 15 12 01 95 l. 6 .3(' 95 1 5 7 .. ' .... l T 2 1 ~ll 70/ 136 117 109 96 ~s· Q7 • ..I. J.)

N.\\" I ?.7 21 i 81 '?.07 1C2 1()7 (0 67 h~ 1::? /-

II 4 2 95 9t 25 1 <:"· 7.? :c ? 6 ... -

R~d<: I .11 5 5 II 7 10 4 5 11

SI I 3 ?.7 20 II

2 1 16 :\) .., 3

Tot1l! 170 146 1"27 1'15 536 5C6 l.';~b L66 106 21 , II 21 17 2942 ~590 795 6S7 2:31 230 335 2'15

Grsnd tot9l 191 103 4169 3314 1 :n~

..... •...!' 1193 777 696 5<'1 J..C6 ---

as early ao 1926.

The tragedy o·f our duel position is th!s. Gove!'nmsnt on the one hand demand that we should run a level race witn the r&st of Indians, but, when occasions arise the Anglo­Indian- statutory Native of India - ia converted into an European British Subject and is placed in a poa.f.tinn of diract conflict with the other communities or India, an unenviable position and one that is sure to nact to our detriment on the harmonious relationship that should exist between the Anglo-Indians and Indian employees of every l'&ilway • An additional point for Govarnmant to nota is, that, whereas, tha European le a b!:r.d f)f' passage., the Anglo-Indian and Domiciled European are born, ~ad and die in India. Although the Anglo-Indian as a reiltuay amployee is classed as a Statutory l'fatJ.ve of India, he is onlisted in the Aax111ery rorce aa an European British Subject.51

2B

However, the govunment taok the loyeltty of the Anglo-Inr:U.ans for granted.

The railways undoubtedly have in the Anglo-Indiana, a la~ge loyal element and th~tr behaviour during the strike (E.I.R. strike or 1922) wao all that could be desired. F'or ouraelvoa we mode no comment on thJ.a, because we take the loyalty or the Anglo-Indiana as a .!.!!:!& .S!:!!. Jl.9!!&.52

(c) Apprantice-oh1p Syet.am

The railmaye recruited its technical workforce through a system or appre­

nticeship. Each of the railway c:ompaniea e1 ther maintained 1 ta technical inati•

tutee or had affiliated technical collages where workmen wero trained in mecha­

nical skills, for the operating grades and lower subordinate jobs. SJ The major

mechanical workshops were the training centres where workmen were recruited ea

apprenttcea. In the pre-war yeue continuing till the mid 1920s, the non-

Asians, Europeans and Anglo-Indians, usually in F'OSaession of higher levels or

11toracy, akill and pat~anage found access to these class I Jobs without little

competition from the lndiana.'4 ·As the crucial jobs on all the railways were

held by the whites, institutio~~l preference tn the selection of epprent!cea wac

51 R,,., Pt998• e, Auaust 1!,2,?, n. 4615/2-4.

S2 R ,E u P£oaa• Be seetembarnl92a, n. 609/1•11.

5) r.,c, PJ;99B• B, January 1928, n. 624/6-88,

S4 R;C,L,, VIII, I, PP• 646-11 R.£;, Proas. B, January 1928, n. 624/6-BSJ Also. ses table VII.

30

in favour or the Europeans and Anglo-Indiana.55 As the class I apprenticoa on

completion or their training were directly recruited into higher technical jobo

on the tail~~tays, the non-whi tee continued to be excluded from higher technical 56 jobs till the iesue ~eo raisod in the legislative Aeaumbly in the 1920s.

Only after 1928 an attempt was made to remove anomalies, in the mode or

selection of apprEinticea, differential rates ot stipend tar the whites end the

57 Indiana, and unequal hostel facilities and maeaing allowance. On savoral

railways; eapacielly those company-owned and managed, B.N.A., M.&s.M.R., a.e.

lcC.I.R., no facilities existed for the training of the Indians for the higher

skilled and supervisory jobc in the locomotive and transportation dopartmenta. 58

Existing ina~itutee end technical schoolo wero exclueiv~ly reserved for tho

Europeana. end 'Anglo-Indiana.. Only after tne Acworth Cammittaa Roport or 1921

ateps w&ro taken to etart institutes or include natives in tha eXisting eppro•

nticeahip pragrammea.59 Only in tha mechanical workshops the Indians could

qualify for the post of apprentices. Hera too it was not necessary for them

to ba employud by ~,a railway after th• corupletion of ttaining.60

ihe work tnganb.ation 1te the rail111ey shops 1\ad ita peculiarity. ln each

shop the head mschsnio aupetviaed the conduct of work. Under hia auparviolon

SS Ambe Prasad, .!2.t.SJ..1:.t PP• MI?..08J fitC;L•fl V.tU, I, P• 65,, Statement All lndie Reilweymen'* federation; Aa.eociatlon of Csrriaga and Wagon lndi.an A~renticee!J B,B.&C.I.R., PP• 4)0•4)1J t.t.R. Union, L111a,oehl! P• 4?81 E.e.R, Indian Employeee' Aesociatian, P• 526; s.N.R, Indian Labour Union, .PSh 532; s.o. Kancharftpfirs RaHway Workmen• e Unf,on, P• 531.

56 !!.t.~.·· frgas,.t...,,B 11 Jes~ry J!Z!t n. 624/6-BS. "Elim.!neticn or Racial Oiscr.1• minatione on the Reiluuayst Quaatlcn in ths legt.slat1ve Aeat~mbly by f~•"• Joeht."

51 lft!Sa..

58 ltJ&de

S9 !P.M.t. 60

31 worked a group of skilled artisano and unskilled workers. The recruitment,

promotions and leave of the unskilled and sem1•sk1lled depended on tile white 61 labour aristocracy. Beside being the master ... creftsmen the Europeans and the

Anglo-Indians ware also a part of the management. Complaints of corruption,.

bribery and rude behaviour were frequently made by the workmen. 62 A atata of·

constant friction existed between chergemen- the whlteo- and tho mistr1ea

--the natives.''

The existence of workmen's institutes, recreational clubs, whose mambor•

ship was the monopoly of the whites, further isolated the nativeo from tho non-

whites. In the railway workshops, the £uropsan and Anglo-Indian operativeo

WGt'o the l!nch pin in the work operations. Separated from the net1.voa in condi-

t1ono of service, remuneration and lite conditions, they formed a separate

association at a national level. Tho National Union of Raileayman of India

and Burma, founded in 1919, catered to the demands of the covenanted and non-64 Indian raechenico.

The apprenticeship system on the railways was affective in keeping a

section of the native skilled work torca on temporary basis tor years. Thio

Cont'd••• f,n, 60 Houoe at Commono was raised regarding the existence of racial discrimi­nation in the recruitment ot .apprentices on the railwayo in India. B.&..s.• Progs. a. Hay 192S, n. 1666/1-4.

61 Qotatled figurao ot tho shop•tlitor labour aristocracy and natives aro avoi.lablo only for the E:.I.R., oea Table n. txa Also sao R1Eu Prega. a, :Januery 19281 .n. 624/6-88.

62 ReC•Lat VlU, I, E.t.R. Union Moradabad1 PP• 476-4171 t.I.R. Union Lil­loooht PP• 4??-4?8J All Indian Railwaymen•a rederation, P• 635.

63 Hqma Political! Deposita repruary 1920t n. 366-?2. In contrast, tho native workman aharod common a~periance of group worka In Moghalpura, Jamalpur and Lillaoah travel by the opecial workmen•a trains every morning and evening further reinforced these incipient group ties, In Kharsgpur eo the bulk ot the ak,llod natives wero housed in the roilway colony, claoc solidarity as well ae communal tensions could also grow.

64 Memorandum National Union of Rellwayman ot India end Burma1 B,C.L; 1 VIU, It PP • 458-61.

32 had ito economic explanation to 1t. To these apprentices the railways

ware not eJCpectad to pay provident fund, gratuity or ather benefits such

ea housing or uniforms. At the same time .in timee of fluctuation· in tho

intensity of IDork these epprenticea could be retrenched. Mora so dUring the

labour agitation this section could be dispersed off and new hands recrul•

ted with little or no effect on railway operetions.65 ·

(d) Inferior Position of Natives

The work force on the railways was highly stratified. In its labour

process it was segregated in departments and in them in categories and fuJ:ther

in hierarchical grades. tn the labour process the main divisions were tach-

~ical. The operating categories - drivers firef!lsn, guards, station-maatere

and signallers - were the crucial section of the workforce. In each of the

operating categories, the grade divisions also signified class dietinctiona.66

More so on the British railways in colonial India• grade divisions· in tho

operating categories eleo existed along community U.nea. All the superior

gradeo of the crucial categories in the locomotive• traffic, engineering end

mechanical departments were non-Indians or- the whites. In contrast the inta•

rior grades were the natives. The category •native' concealed technical• tell•

6S An .attempt was made by the employer -the railways -to uae ita mono­aonistic control of the labour market as to keep en unstable work• force. The view that the employer urae really striving to tl'ain an industrial skilled 111ork force seams tu bs partially cornet. Tho mode of tre1n1ng of the railway aork force wac very erbitrery. The railways strove to secure e trelned European and Anglo-Indian strata -a superior skilled datum -on whom it could rely; lte attitude to• wards the rest of the workforce was one of commercial end adminia• trative expediency • The employer was not the socia.U.s:t bureaucrat •com3ltted' to industrialization end hence striving to train en industrial workforce. The empl9yer in the colonial situation opera­ted under existing contingencies --such as fluctuations in the in­tensity ot railway IIIQl'kt cyclic sh1fta .tn rates of profitability and strike movemanta.

66 The wage structure of the labour force amply demonstrates this as­pect of stratification prevalent on the railwey.a. f"or deteile of' wage structure eee Chapter U.

TABLE III II

Technical Division 1n the Th11 lway work f'orco in 1925 ------- --~*--~-----------------·---. ---·-

Gangmen Loco-shed Horkshops In':"erior G:.ctenen · --------- ~·-~-:l:Ji.t.:f... ___ . _____ ·-·-·····---------

tUR 29,797

EIR 23,015

GIPR 21 '218

MSt{R 13,569

SIR 9,592

ABR 4,353

BUR 20,192

BB&CIR 13,958

13,661 & 4,743

15',379

6,606

4,82lt-

1,946

1

11 '702 & 12, 51t-q

20,029

30,394

18,518

12,426

5,878

2,580

10,291 5,833 1,539

11~. 'i 1 .31+

9,~26

'l ,930

5,339

8,130

17 565

811)8

555

2' 771+-

9,226

7,930

5,339

o These ftgures include d1'ivers, guards, Ass' st·.1nt St.;~ti. m '·f ~sters and Std.tion }-lasters.

1 " These f"lgures 1ndic.tte thos~ employed on

3 J 01 ~}

1 t 530

1,374

159

34

gioua, regional, caste, oooio-cultural and political ties of the lndi~~o . 61

mark torc·O.

In the labour process of each or the railway systems it was in the

traffic and locomotive departmento that there was a heavy concentration cf

Europeans and Angl.o-lndianot In the traffic dapertment, they were employed

ao superior grade ataUon-maatsre1 guarda, signallers, clarke (goode and book•

1ng) and ticket collactoraa while the nativao usually occupied poato in in-

farior grades. of etat.to~astero1 guards, eignallara, clarke, pointman, ohun-

tara, porter a, cebinmen, waterman and ameepell's. l n the locomotive end macho-

nical departmento the non-Aoiano worked so superior grade drivero1 l·OCOI'IIotivo

ahuntera, firemen, mechanical enginooro1 overeeere and foramen. The native

worked ao interior grado - fireman, fitters, machinaman, moulders, welders, . 68

turners, carpentora, blackomitha1 painters, mistriaa and masons.

II

U I Workahopman

The natives were employed directly by the railway cornpanioa in cato•

gorlea end in them in h1erarch1cal grades. The largest aeotion ot tho uneJd.l­

led workmen eeo employed in the enginoering department in the maintenance or

tho permanent way and 1n the mechanical workshops. The t~attlc and locomotive

departmanta elao ~loyed gate-keepere, portere, waterman, oweepera and

coolies. Sbeoble por.centage or the skilled labour worked in the ~ailway 69

~arkahopc. Theso workshops were located all over Indies Lillooah, Jamalpur,

67

6B

69

Over the course of years on the railways the native workera acquired ek1l1 and began to compete for higher skilled and supervisory posta. The latent tenaiono in the work force structure began to eurtace, epaciti­cally in the mechanical and locomotive departments.

Very little evidence 1e available regarding sociological background at the indigenouo technical peroonnel in the operating categoriea. Canaya of lnd1a 0 1921 giveo aoma datailo at the race and caste backgrou.,d of the workohopmen.

Oata1lo ot the total labour torce and ito catagorywioa break-up ore given 1n Table n.- VUt.

35

Aoanaol, Oftdal and Ghad.abad on E.I.R., Saidpur and Kancharapara on E.a.R.,

Kharagpur on the B.N.R., Pahartall on A.B.R., Gorekhpur on B. & N.w.R., Alam­

bagh, Charbagh lilnd Lucknow on o.R .R., and Izatpur on the R.K.R., Lahore, Aawal­

p1nd1t Kalka, Sukkur and Karachi on N.w.R., Ajmar, Oohnd, Parel and f'tatunga on

a.a. I& c.t.R., Jhansi, Nagpur, Patel end Matunga on G.I.P.R., Parerabur and

Hub11 on M.s.M.R., Arkonam, Podanur, Nagapatam, Trichinopoly end Golden Rock

on s.I.R. Colleriea, electrical departments, gaa factories and printing praaaoa 10

alao engaged a· section of' the unskilled and skilled railway worktarcs.

The engineering department employed nearly one third or thfl totel work

force. The bulk or the work rorco were the gangmen and the gatomen. Gangmen

organized in, 10 to 20 corked on .a track-length heeded by a mete. An unskilled

category or aorkman, they UJere r.ecruited by permanent way inapectora from tho

neighbouring villages on a da!ly or a monthly rete. A rragmentod and a aproad

out work force, often 1te rorme of protest etemmad mora from the social milieu 71 in which it originated. lt wee only on the a.s. A c.I.R. end "· A s.M.R,

where the gangmen 110re recruited through jobbers, that aome form or unionize•

tion and atrikao occurred, Though a very 4Jl!J:il category living in tho v1Uagea 1

whon conditione were crcetod ror labour unrest lt generated a very violent

labour eg1tet1on.12

The ~orkahopa oppraxlaatod to tho ractory-condittona or work. The mana-, <

gBlllant of the ahope wao in the hands or the European& end Anglo•lndiano. In

contrao~ the akllled end tho unckilled l~bour torce wao entirely Indian • Tho

10

91

'12

f"or details of the railway labour forcfil aee Teble n. rx •. ~ .

Dtp~ah Chakraborty, ·"£~rly Railweymen in Jndiae •oacoity• and 'Ttain-wraclcingt (c. 1860•1900), £paexp tn Hony ot Prgt. s.c, SarkatJt 1976,

During the gangmans• atrika ot Juna 1920 on ths M. 6 S•'"•R•• there woro several ina:tancaa or detallment as a result or the removal ot Flsh•platea and trackca. On ? October, 1920t the derailment or tha Own Banglore Mail :resulted .tn an accident with 13 peeeengers killed and 18 injured. ttome e,g~it1cal 1 Proge, .B. Noxamb!r 1UP• n. 21.

Offcers

Up;_)er Su~­orJ.in~tes

Lc.,c>r Sub­or•Unates

Skil Hd ·::orkmP.n

i:n!! ki 11 ~d '\'c rkrnPn

'·r~r~'>nticr.-~ l"'t. Cr·de

A? ·rt:>'I'J.tiC'~"S •1 r1 Gr'1-J<>

7

41

59

?.?

7:

14

,C) 259

6691

32?5

22 6~

5l.O

Up.)f>r sutorJin1t~s include Lo ... ~;~r ~uborJin~t~ include Skill ;-od ·::ork~on i:;<"luie ~n~kill~d ~orkMen inclu1R

~(lr Europe!'ln ~.I.* ~~~lo-lnji,n~ r;:a Indi•ms.

TASL£ I:<

6 2 3 ~ 1 ? L

19 9 3 9 10 .., 4 2

12 . 32 62 10 31 4 ~6 41~

?9 6l~ 2652-

76b ? 1 !..30

14 '7 2

1 25

- In!~Prtor·,?cr~~en,~~~irt1nt ior~~en, Spaci~li~:: - St~?"'l S"1:>lt~r-:, ;.~ec::·;r:i:·~, Gh"lrt;r.:m"':1 1 Ch'•cc;eh··~~ds,Gu:tn~rs - UJ cl'1sees ski}.1;;.~ l'lboJ.r - Ul cl~~·s~~ t:'1S:.:i} 1,->j l>~ .. :;.ut·.

1 ·t

47b

261..

?~

12 3

S97

2 ·u.e-~

692'7

1 ,J 1

65!.

cv en

37 cuperviaory skilled g~~dea, the foreman, inapectora,aasiatant foreman and tho

operatives -steal amelt.ere, 1118Chan1co1 chargemen, gunners -mare the ' ,,

Europ•ane racruitod on a covenant. The .grade I eppranticea waro largoly

the 111httoe recruited on a difforential allOlUance eo contrasted mith the no­?4 tivsa. So similar to the operat1ng categories in the workshops too there

existed a labour at-iatacracy. lnauleted aa it !lias tram tho rest. or tho work•

shopmon this cate~y defined tte identity with greater proximity to the highor

echelons or power. ln contrast, the workahopmen - unskilled and al<illod -..

were recruited ttu:·augh local agencias and ~t2.-a part ar tho populace.

(a) &aate and Religious Olviolona

The r.e1lway tuorkahopa in Bertgel employed abOut 191000 workman. Nearly I .

one halt Qt them t~orked in tha engineering and allied trades as skilled men

in th& workshops. Ons fifth of the workahcpmen were bricklayers, carpenters,

masons, paintarc and aawyers. The rest were employed in miecellanaouo t8aka

au.ch 80 d~ivere, englnetnan, foreman, turnacemen, t.f.ttarman, rapackers end

t."Jheol•tappere. The Shpilcha, who ware Mualime and aa 8 casta group conotitu­

tod ona fifth or the total worktor#a, •re most prcmi.,ent. in the workahcpa.

Brehmitaa ware the second largaat eaats group, with a gra~ter concentration

amongst the okilled ettieana. 79 .In the akllled trades, ceataa auch sa Kemar,

Goala, ~ayasthat Se.dgop; Chasikai'barta, t..ohar, Kurll'll and Rajput caatoa also

found employment. Amongst those employed the tradtt.t.onal crt.t.sans cama tl'O!I

Cha~lkaibarte• Jaltaka1barta, Sutradhar and Pod Castes. Jn the skilled and

cem1•akilled trades only one third ot the workforce was from Bengal,. the ~eat

?J Sea Teble n. IX f'ot detaila of' tho woJ:kf'orce in the wcrk.ahopa on the t. I.R.

74 IbifLt.

75 Cenaup Q.Llndia, 1921, Bengal, Industrial Stat.t.atiea, v, u, Table n. XXU·0 pp.· 429-29.

38

ware migrants tram Sihar, Chotta•Nagpur plateau, Orissa, United P'rovincea and

Madras. The largest contingent ot migrants were trom the United Provlnceo

toblOUJed by South Bihar and Madrao.76

The unskilled workahopmen numbering nearly 10,000 ware concentrated .in

f!Udnapare, Howrah, 24 Pargane, Rangpur and Surdwen. The predominant caato in

the unsidlled workf'Grce was also the Sheikh. The ·rest of l;he litarktorce aao

from the Goala, Kurmi, Chamor, Gour 0 Brahmin, Tali, Moch1, AaJput, Tant1, and

. 77 Ko1r1 cest:aa. Surprisingly, only a traction was recruited r:ram tho district

and other adjoining districts. Intact the bulk or the workforce mao mlgranto

from North end South Bihar, Oriesa and Madras. The larg~et contir~ent wee tram · 1a

the United Provinc:oc.

In Punjeb·majorlty or the ra11waymen waro Muelima. Only one thir:d of

them were hom Punjab and the :teet UJCire from S1Adht Saluchioten end Kashmir •

. Evan halt or the .Chriatlane and Peroaoc mare tram outaido Punjab.19 Tho "ork•

ohapa in Punjab omployod about 1'1.,000 workmen, diaperaed in Lahore (12 1183),

Rawalpindi (:S1826) 1 Ambalo (4J4) 1 filahawalput (161). Nabha State (128)• and

Gurgaan.80

A majority of the skilled workman uno tound emplcyf!tont. in tho mork­

ehOpo wore tram the Atain, ~ohal't Terkhan and Shel.kh castes. Rejputa and

Srahmlna were to be found tn tho t~orkehopa. The largest sect len ot them un:~re

tho titters (and b!Jilet>-meket•). Shoikhe wer:a more prominent. as painter a.

Ara1no weto cmpl~ed ao turners and erectors. Moulders were entirely tho

Lotu-a•;. 81

16 Ibid' t PP• ·436-)7.

?7 lbidt

'78 ~

79 §!MUa of India, 1921, Punjab, XV• 11, Tabla n. xx, Croup n. 118, P• 410.

eo ~tt&S'·

81 IRJ.d;.• PP• 420•21 • Ccste or Race and l:iirth ¢lace of' ekilled \lhJt'kman.

39

Over fifty per cant of the workforce belonged to the district in which

tho aorkahopa were located. One alxth of them were recruited from the adjoin­

ing district and one-tenth tram the other districts of the etate. Noarly one­

eighth about 11 ))2 workman werre m.t.grante from the United Provinces and only

over a hundred workmen mentioned Madras, Bombay and Bengel as their place of

birth. Moat of these UIDt'kmen were employed ae fittera. tn gemeral the local

skilled labour fGUnd employment in the workshops. Amongst the skilled artiaeno

the largest section of the ~tgrant ~arkforce was .from the Unitsd Prov!ncaa.82

ln the unGkillod workforce in Lahore. Rawalpindi, the predominant cactea

ware Shaikhs, Are1nth Brahmtne, Jata, Khatrie and Rajputa. The Churaa, Chemera

and Julahaa castes also found employment 1n the workshops. In Aaalp1nd1 and

lahore Pathana too worked 1n tho 'Unskilled jobu.8'

In thl!f railway workshops in Bombay Presidency amongst thii naerly s,ooo

ekllled labour l.letad as employed, SO pa:r cant Will'S MuaU.ms. Sikhs and Chl'1a•

tiana. The teat belonged to the Merathas, Kunbis, B~ehm!ns, Kolle end othei.'

l8b$tring;,artisana1 and cultivating caste g:roupe.84 The titters, nearly 1,JOO

in number, belonged to sociel groups, such as, Kolis, Muslims and Kunbia. In

the trade ot boiler-makers too the above mentioMd throe groupe predominated.

Carpenter a camo from the K oils and other srtlscnnl casta a, whose name a ere oro

not de~ailed. Jn the unakUled grades too Muolime and Sikhs• Kunbio, Marathaa,

Kolis end other laboring caates fo~nd em!)loyment. 85 About 60 per cent or these

belon~d to tho 8ombay province and the rest ware migrants t'rom Barodat Myeoro,

Hydarabad, Central Provinceo a,_ other parte or India. Naarly one third ot

tho migrants originated from the Central Prov1ncas.86

92 .Jb&d•.

8} Ihigu P• 426.

84 Censys sf India, 1921, Oombay, i.IUt, u, PP• 420-21.

85 !J!Wu PP• 42&oo.2?.

86 l.~idt t PP• 420 ... 21.

40 ln Madree presidency 1n the workshops, given under the heading tramwayo,

nearly one rourth of the skilled workforce was recruited from the Europeans

and Anglo-Indians, Indian .Christiane and Muslims. Th0 Muslims werre only a

traction or this aggregate. The rae.t were recruited from the Hindu caetea -

Vellala, Vsnniya, Adi•Bravida, Panchama, Balija, Kammala, V1ewabrahmana and

Tiya. The Vallala, Vanniya and BaU.ja predominated in the trade of titters,

boiler makers, moulders a~nd blackarllitha. In the trade of' ca~Jpentere, Kamnala

81 ~nd Viswabratmlana wara emp1oyad in a significant number. Bulk ot the work•

force cams from tha district whara ths iiiOi:kshopa were locatm:i and the reat

tram tha contiguau;a areas. There was hardly any migrant skilled workforce

88 from othar provinceo.

(b) Soma Observations

rrom the census data available, only limited ganaral1z~t1on can be modo.

Firstly, only a small parcentaqa of the unstdUed workforce employ..Jd in the

wrkshops was migrant. Secondly• in eastern, northern aMd we~trarn railways

ita o:-igino ot migration ware the United Prov1neaa and Ori.saa •.. In contrast,

a lerge percentage of the ok!lJ.ttd tradeR woro loc~lly recruited. Th1rdly 0 only

a vary amall pareantaga of the !!lorktorce wao e:mnncted with agriculture. Aa

e canaaquanca ot theea determinations" tha l~bour protest movement and railway

oparattona may hava been af'f'ected !n eeverel 11ays. F"tr~t, ns thf! skilled

workf'orca w~a locally roe.ruited. Ae ls ev1dsnt tram the table given in the

87 Caneue o( Ins&a• 1921, Madras, XIII• lit Tabla n. XXII, PP• J19•20.

88 ~iiL This tact is elsa born out by the Report ot the Royel Comm!soion on l.abou,-". f!sl,qtortl.fl!ie.Be.~*; !a..B.•C,.,L .. u PP• 24?-54,.

41

taotnate absenteeism was low and labou:t turn over waa high. 89 tn the IJIOrkahope

and in the lower skilled railway operations a stable workforce had emerged

with a crystallized group- craft; grade and category- aolidarity by 1919.

This was adequately substantiated by large scale strike•action of' the workehop­

men, signallers and firemen demanding higher wages ~uring 1919•22. Ae the

skilled workforce in each of' the areas came from specified caste groupings,

caete must have aesisted the process of' sedimentation or work group and claae•

ties. Thirdly, aa the skilled workforce waa locally recruited, local laval

ant1""Colonial agitation and mesa mobilization influenced the railwaymen' s mesa

actions. In some agitations the &killed workmen even emerged ae popular maao

laadera and agitators such ae; during the N.w.R. and E.l.R. anti-colonial

. struggle or 1919•1922. 90

IV I!nsipga in WO£k-Geptat&onn

The railway wort< operation was a complex graded system. Its vast commer-

cial and administrative tranaacti.ona with the public and business community•

89 R.C,Lu lU, l, PP• 2D-22e

Extant ot Absenteeism in the railotay workahope

workshop % Workshop ~ BaBe A C1 I.Aa M.g&,M.R, Locomotive dept. 10 Engineering 2 to 4 Workshop 11 to 12 work shOJI 11 CAW dept, 2 Electrical 10 ~.S1R 1 t:Jorkahop 10 Mechanical 10

Other atatf 2 to S NaWeR, Workshop 4.25

£ 1 1 :R a G,l,P eR. WOl'kahop 4

Jamalpur Workehope 8 Lower paid statt S to 10

L1llooeh workshops ' B1N.R. Electrical dept. 2 Engineering Dept. ) Stores Dept. 1 Workshop 8 Printing Oept. 6 Colllary statt '

90 Sea Chapter 111 tor details of this agitation,

42 91 also fostered a system or graded responsibility. The rail.waymen operated

various types of tracks, interlocking, signalling systems and the rolling '

stock. tach grade with:tts sub-divisions had its own peculiar functions, ita

time schedule, its place or work, its seemingly 1neular vocation disconnected '

tram others categoriea.92 But all categories, all grades and their aub-divi•

sions worked according to the clock. This tyranny of the clock fostered en

elaborate system of discipline, with its consequential modes of punishment, . 9)

dismissal, demotion and fines.

The railway diacipU.ne was maintained through checks and cauntarchacka

of one grade over the other. The drivers were reported upon by their firemen

and guards th& signallers by station-masters and vice versa. The 1nbuilt

competition and graded authority isolated each section from the other, allow•

91 This aspect has bean discussed in a study at 19th century tngliah rail• 111eymen. P.w. Kingsford, V1qtgriap Reilwaymen, The toueraence ang G!ot!J\J) gt Rmilwax Labpyra 18,0.18?p, p. xtn. "The 'grade notion' eftectivaly preserved the distinctions between grades• which were social as well ae authoritarian. •The man in one of the higher• grade wee regraded ea socially superior to the l0t11et grade man•. Wrote a rellweyman who worked in a goods yard in the north at the end of the ninetaenth century,. 1fho goods porter was looked upon as an inferior animal 'by the ahuntar. The ahunter was tolerated as e necessary e\:fil by the goods guard• who had tdld hopes that some time he would be able to look e paseanger guard squarely in the eyes as a man and brother ot equal renk ...

92 For a deteiled analysis of railwaymen's work prejud1oee in 19th century England a~a ,rrank McKenna, Victorian ~eilw~y Workers, t!1Bto.r,x.Wo;Jsahop, I; 1911, P• 66. "The area covered by a railway company w.aa inhabited and worked by sections or staff as easily identified as setUed tribes. Thsae tribes u.ere d1st1ngu.tshed by work patterns, by an acute grade cone• ciouanaso, by uniforms, by the tools they used• by the uaa of' local or regional colloquqalism, and by their tierce identitication with the ter• r1tory they inhabited. Some of these·tl'ibal groupe formed natural allia• ness with similar gradea, and were elaarly host1le to other tribes. Tho angtnamen always felt that the hand of every ather railwaymen wee agalnat them, and they have always ahoum a particular truculence. Pletelayera tao provide a good example of a distinct railway tribe. · They worked up• on tightly specified areas ot the treck, celled their *length• and they exhibited e strong aenee ot group and territorial association,"

9J R.c.s.....,vnr, t, N.w.R. Union, PP• '61, )98-97. · General Workers Union N.w.a •• PP• 408, 415•16, 419•20J G.,I.P,R. Staft Union, PP• 4)9; E.l.R. Union Moradebad, PP• 474-?6. B.N.Rt Indian labour Union, P• 541.

43

ing tor the growth of suspicion and social d.lstance. 94 The colonial environ­

ment with its prevalent racialism was to· aggravate the inbuilt tensions in the

labour process and breed an envitonment of animosity. Of course,. the railway

companies had promoted communal and r:eligious di fferencaa eo as to keep the

work force segregated.

Within each department the specifities of work operations had created

its own divisions. ln the loco-running, drivers, shunters and cleanaro thcugh

belonging to the same work operation - the running of a train - had their

apacialiaed pay-scalae and work routine. They were distinct as a grade not

only tram the good drivers but also from the other metre or small guags pe.aaan-

ger drivers. Similarly the fireman, classified into three grades, worked elong

with drivers on tho eng1ne.95 The severity of work did create comradeship but

more often it created hostility amongst .an engine crew. European or the Anglo-

Indian engine drivere treated their native firemen like their 'veleta. Theaa

flremen lived at the mercy of engine drivers from whom they could learn the

96 technique of train dt1v1ng.

This master crattemen-apprentlce relationship among en engine crem and

in the workshops, was by the 1920s acquir·ing racial overtones. As tho ksy

grade drivero wero Europeans .and Anglo•lncU.ene and the· inferior grade firemen

Indiana, with the worsening race•relationa the eng!ne was to become the contend•

1ng place of t~:~o social 1dent1t1&th 91 The firemen's apprentlceehip and upward

prcmotton depended on the Anglo-Indiaf'l engine driver and the subordinate Anglo•

Indian railway bureaucracy. As the dEHnand tor lndianization of the superior

end upper subordinate railway services, ln the 1920e., had antagonised thra entire

94 Amr-itg Bazar Pctr,ika, 14 April 1922.

95 Sea Chapter 11 for details.

96 Amrita Beza£ Patrik.AJ 14 April 1922.

97 for details of 1922 strike, eaa Chapter III.

44 domiciled European and Anglo-Indian communityJ instead or fraternal coopera­

tion, racial hostility became the prevalent een_tlment on the E.l.R. and s.I.R.

The aggressively militant nationalist fervour generated by the anti-ROUtlett

Act and Non-cooperation agiteticns, in which non-white railwayman were active

participants, grew up into a violent confrontation between the whites and

natives on the E. I.R • on the eve of the arrival of Prince of Wales, in 1922

and on the s.I.A. in 1924.90

(b) Carly form of Protest

Protest against the colonial structure or the li!Or.kforce took vatied

formal The earliest mode of ptotast of reilwaymen was constitutional. lt wee

to apptoach a 1egislat01' and through him get a question put to the government

on its discriminatory policy. In the pre-war phase the majority of questiona

raised by legislators ware regarding the Indi.enization of the superior railway

services. The Public Services c,nmr!ssion of 1917 and the Acworth Committee

Report of 1921 were made the basis tor demanding greater appointment for

Indiana on the railways.

Only in the post-war years .• after the VJideaptead railway strikf.llc during

1919•22t that the iaaua of racial diacriminat1on in the subordinate carvicee

wae 1n det.eil discussed in the Legislative Assembly. Queries regarding the

conditions of work and life of reilway.men touched nearly avery aepect. It tJSG

alleged by legislator& that tacial discrimination prevailed in the pay•etruc­

ture and leave rules• aducat!on and epectfJ.cally chlldrens' aO,cotional raci-

11t1es., houeing, medtcal reliof't apprenticeship system in the workehope. It

waa further alleged that di fterential qualification requirements existed f'or

99 the Anglo-lndions and tnd1ans.

98 Ibid•

99 ror mo»e detail.e of' tha q.~er1es made in the Legislative Asoembly on tha subject of raileusy labour retar to Amba Prasad, O[bCitu PP• :S04-D9.

45 Discussion on railway labour consumed a f'alr amount of time of' the

legislative Aeaemt:lly and Council of Stata.100 In the 1920& and 193Ds, the

frequency of questions• resolutions and adjournmsnt motions on tho subject

-- colonial structure of the r&ilway workforce -- showed tha importance rail•

way labour had acquired in the public mind. No doubt the nationalists used

the iesua of' railway labour to embarrass the govarnmentt 8y tha 9rit1tsh the

railcWays were projected as a symbol of the RajJ in contrast the Indian reil-- '

waymens• grievances ware projected bV the nat1onal1ata as a proteat against

the colonial distortions in the railways work operations, and as a critique

101 of colonialisn.

•11 - ......... I' F

1 DO .llW1.t.

101 This aspnct has bP.en diecussed in gl'eatsr detail in the next chapter-.