© West Educational Publishing Information Processing and Memory C HAPTER 8 W e control the information that comes to us from the environment. Physical.

© West Educational Publishing

Information Processing and Memory

CHAPTER 8

We control the information that comes to us from the environment. Physical changes take place in the nerve cells when information is stored long term.

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Acquiring Information

The Influence of Attention

Paying attention means focusing on something. When people pay attention, chemicals that aid in learning are activated in the brain.

The following demonstration will illustrate the concept of attention.

Pay attention

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You handle quarters every day of your life, but do you pay attention to quarters? George Washington is one side of a quarter, but (without looking) describe what is on the other side of a quarter .

Are You Paying Attention?

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Did you describe the back of the quarter accurately?

By necessity we become very adept at going through the motions without really paying attention.

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Most learning takes place gradually, over a number of trials. The conventional learning curve appears below.

Learning Curves

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Both stimulants and depressants affect memory and how material is retained. Some chemicals, such as caffeine, can increase learning. Other chemicals, such as amphetamines, can overstimulate the brain and decrease learning.

Emotional Factors

Emotional involvement, such as a crisis or the use of humor, can also increase learning.

Chemical Influences on Learning

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Transfer of Training

Positive Transfer occurswhen the learning in one situation carries overto another similar situation(example: flight cockpit simulations).

Negative transfer occurs when similarities between two different tasks interfere with new learning (example: changing from an automatic to standard transmission).

A B

BA

Learned first Learned second

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Defined as taking in, analyzing, storing, and retrieving material.

SchemaAn organized and systematic approach to solving problems. Research has shown that the mind creates maps, or schemas, to interpret and organize information. Items that do not fit the schema cause temporary confusion.

Information Processing

Choices

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Special Learning Processes

The Elaboration Process - the method for storing learned material by using a maximum number of associations (the more colorful, the better). When trying to remember “dull” material, associate it with something important in your life. Use old information to help you remember new information.

Old = the word DREAMNew = the term REMThe letters in REM help make up the word DREAM.

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Mnemonic Devices - unusual associations that add meaning to the material to be learned.

Roy G. Biv = colors of the spectrum (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet)

HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior (The Great Lakes)

Same Darn Lesson = to help remember the definition for state-dependent learning

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Principle Learning is focusing on the basic principle behind the information to be learned. Take details and generate a broad statement.

Example: The older you get, the less sleep you need, and the less time you spend in REM.

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Chunking is defined as organizing information by combining them into clusters.

Try to remember this number:

Chunking makes it easier, especially if you are interested in history…

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A friend gave you this list of ingredients for muffins. How might you rearrange the ingredients so you can remember them better?

salt, eggs, raisins, wheat flour, honey, milk, margarine, nuts, white flour, baking powder, baking soda

See the next slide for one suggestion.

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Try dividing (chunking) the ingredients into dry ingredients and liquid (or wet) ingredients.

Dry Ingredients

saltnutsraisinswhite flourwheat flourbaking sodabaking powder

Wet or Liquid Ingredients

eggsmilkhoneymargarine

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Forgetting can be defined as an increase in the number of errors while trying to remember (or bring back) material.

Retaining Information

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One major theory states that most forgetting occurs when there is conflict (interference) between new and old material in the memory system.

Example:

Old phone number = 555-2678

New Phone number = 555-2768

Interference Theory

555-????

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Encoding is defined as the physical transfer of information into memory by using mental representations.

The process is not well understood, but may be likened to computer code made up of strings of 1s and 0s.

Psychologists believe that nerve cells fire in certain sequences, producing what is called “thought.”

Mechanisms of Memory

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Two separate theories exist to account for memory:

1. The structure of neuronal synapses change to affect how and in what pattern a synapses will fire.

2. The synapses grow once a pattern of memory is established.

Theories of Memory Formation

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A major trauma (blow to the head) or electric shock can block older memories or cause the loss of newer memories.

Most material will return unless there is a psychological reason for not wanting the memories to come back.

Amnesia

Memory loss is selective (routine tasks are generally not lost).

Explanations include a loss of blood to vital brain cells and a disruption in the transmission of electrical charges.

Note: Another blow to the head WILL NOT bring back lost memories.

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All incoming information (iconic/visual and acoustic/hearing) goes directly to short-term memory where it is processed. It is either “dumped” or moved to long-term memory.

Long-term memories become permanent through a process called consolidation.

Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory

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Photographic memory or eidetic imagery— extremely rare that people have “photographic memory”

Eyewitness memory is faulty because in most cases the brain tries to fill in what the eyes miss. Perception is faulty, witnesses speculate and provide details that may or may not have been present. The interviewer can also influence the witness by the way the questions are phrased.

Special Issues in Memory

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Summary of Main Topics Covered

Acquiring Information

Information Processing

Retaining Information

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© West Educational Publishing Information Processing and Memory C HAPTER 8 W e control the information that comes to us from the environment. Physical.

Documents

attention exit slide

learning curves exit

new learning example

new information

conventional learning

old information

influence of attention

concept of attention