Aamir Khan Haqqani Education center
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Contact Nmb 0334.9557527
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD (Department of Secondary
Teacher Education)
Course:
Foundations of Education (6500)Level: MA/M.ed
Semester:
Spring, 2018
ASSIGNMENT NO.1
Q No: 1 Describe Education and how it develops a Man? In global
perspective highlight theaims of education?
Anwser
Training and education are both different facets of learning. At
first, it may be difficult to tell thedifference between them,
especially in today’s school system, but there are major
differences intraining and education. Their purpose, history, and
methodology are all vastly different.Purpose:Training ‘ is
undertaken in the hopes of gaining a specific skill. Generally this
skill will make youmore employable. These skills can be manual:
Plumbing Carpentry Weaving or mental: Computer Programming
Accounting MarketingEducation ‘ is undertaken in the hopes of
furthering your individual knowledge and developing yourintellect.
While a highly educated person is often more employable, education
is not about getting ajob.Methodology:Training ‘ is usually done
through specialized courses and textbooks. The learning can often
be doneby rote and textbooks are very prescriptive. While
independent thinking at a micro level isencouraged, revolutionary
innovation is often looked down on. Training generally comes in a
course;when the course is completed, the training is done.
Education ‘“ is a lifelong process. Mosteducational learning is
done through real books, rather than textbooks. The learner is
encouraged tothink and write about what he is reading. Any point is
open to discussion and the only right answersare those that can be
found in the text. In today’s school systems, the line between
education andtraining can be very fine indeed. Especially at the
collegiate level, many areas of mental training arebeing passed off
as education. Programming, for instance, requires a difficult and
specialized skill setand needs years of training. However, its end
result is employment rather than self-improvement.Contrastive
concept to education:Training is usually considered as a
contrastive concept to education, if not as its polar extreme.
Aclassical although not consensual definition of education is
adopted by Unesco: "the organized andsustained instruction designed
to communicate a combination of knowledge, skills and
understandingvaluable for all activities of life". Training, on the
other hand, is most usually associated with the
world of work. Training can be defined as "the procedure whereby
knowledge is transmitted with aninstrumental and operational vision
of the learning process and of its expected results" or as
"aplanned and systematic sequence of instruction under supervision,
designed to impart skills,knowledge, information and attitudes.
However, training has itself a vast array of meanings.Traditionally
it has been associated with apprenticeship (Winch and Clarke,
2008). Nowadays itsmeanings stand from teaching someone how to
perform relatively simple tasks to preparing someonefor new job
challenges, but some commentators consider that "the differences
between education andtraining have always been exaggerated and the
most reputable training programs are education asmuch as
training.Legal requirements:In impact assessment a common meaning
of training is the transmittal of information, knowledge,and
sometimes skills on the purpose, legal requirements, procedures,
approaches and tools relative tothe process of identifying the
future consequences of a current or proposed action. Training
activitiesare normally aimed at professionals or practitioners.
Education, by contrast, aims at instructinggraduate or postgraduate
students, usually in fields such as environmental science or
engineering,environmental or regional planning, geography, social
and biological sciences, among others, on thesame evaluative
process.Informed judgment:As impact assessment involves the use of
independent and informed judgment, both education andtraining are
necessary to develop the necessary formal and soft skills for its
practice. Continuingeducation is a term normally used to designate
the understanding that in the contemporary world,higher education
is not enough to ensure the acquisition of skills to a professional
life.Interchangeable words:Education and training, to most people
would seem to be interchangeable words as this is theimpression
most of the institutes are giving to students by substituting
training for education.However, there is a vast difference between
education and training which you will realize afterreading this
article. There is no denying the importance of training, and
without training, educationwould be incomplete as is easily
demonstrated with the practical’s that we carry out in chemistry
labsafter learning the concepts in the classes. Both are integral
to any education system though there aresome courses that demand
more of practical training than formal education.On formal
education:Formal education is what is imparted in schools from
elementary to 10+2 stage after which a studentperuses undergraduate
and then graduate level courses. The basic purpose of this type of
education isto impart knowledge about facts, concepts, events and
principles. All these form the foundation uponwhich skills learnt
later work smoothly. It is through concepts learnt in earlier
classes that studentsget the ability to solve problems in higher
classes.Focus on issues:Training on the other hand is focused upon
gaining a particular skill. Training is taken to master aparticular
task or job and is mostly imparted to adults to let them become
proficient in a particularskill. You can get training yourself with
the help of a how-to-book to do a particular job at home
The best example of training is when you learn to drive a car.
Here you get to know about thepractical aspects of driving and
using different car parts such as accelerator, clutch and brakes.
Onthe other hand, if you are learning about driving laws and
theoretical aspects of driving, you aregetting education and not
training. It is clear then that education pertains to remembering
facts andunderstanding concepts. On the other hand training
pertains to practical aspects of a task or job and isimparted in
training institutes and special training sessions.Skills and job
requirements:Objectives, job requirements, and skill levels are
constraints with training. Yet time required fortraining can vary
because of the aptitude, experience, and previous skill level of
the student. Witheducation, however, time is often a constant (four
years, ninety semester hours, ten months, fortyhours in class) and
therefore is specified. This is not to say that one's education is
ever complete. It isnot. However, to fit time constraints,
objectives in education must be selected from a much widerrange of
possible objectives than can ever be included in the time
available, due to the nearly infinitecombination of position
responsibilities of the graduates. Objectives, job requirements,
and skilllevels are not constraints with education, since persons
are encouraged to develop to their potential.Training and best
analysis:With training, a task analysis can be done so that the
curriculum will include a complete listing ofskills and knowledge
required for the graduate to demonstrate competence. With
education,curriculum planners and instructors must select a sample
to teach from a universe of ideas.Furthermore, they must often rely
on opinion from acknowledged, credible experts to determinewhat
needs to be taught. Creative, visionary experts are needed to
predict future needs rather thanmerely reflect current ones. This
absence of exactness often results in a lack of consensus on
whatshould be taught. Analyze courses taken by majors in a given
field or discipline at differentuniversities, and you will find
differences. For that matter, you will find differences among
curriculaof the various senior and intermediate service schools.
Differences in curricula and emphasis onindividual study are good
in education but usually not in training.Importance of
learning:These differences between education and training do not
suggest that one facet of learning is moreimportant than the other,
only that they are different. Obviously, genuine
accomplishment(competence, proficiency, good judgment,
effectiveness) incorporates both. A person cannot, forexample,
effectively give a speech, fly an airplane, edit a scholarly
journal, or command an Air Forceorganization without a wide range
of knowledge and skills. Still, these differences have
strongimplications for those who provide education or training.
Failure to acknowledge them will hinderlearning and, ultimately,
performance. Recognizing their relevance in curriculum planning
andteaching will improve both education and training in the
world.
Q No: 2 Analyze different schools of thought of education
philosophy. Which philosophy wouldyou apply as a teacher?
Anwser
The term metaphysics literally means "beyond the physical." This
area of philosophy focuses on thenature of reality. Metaphysics
attempts to find unity across the domains of experience and
thought.At the metaphysical level, there are four* broad
philosophical schools of thought that apply toeducation today. They
are idealism, realism, pragmatism (sometimes called
experientialism), and
existentialism. Each will be explained shortly. These four
general frameworks provide the root orbase from which the various
educational philosophies are derived.* A fifth metaphysical school
of thought, called Scholasticism, is largely applied in Roman
Catholicschools in the educational philosophy called "Thomism." It
combines idealist and realist philosophiesin a framework that
harmonized the ideas of Aristotle, the realist, with idealist
notions of truth.Thomas Aquinas, 1255-127, was the theologian who
wrote "Summa Theologica," formalizingchurch doctrine. The
Scholasticism movement encouraged the logical and philosophical
study of thebeliefs of the church, legitimizing scientific inquiry
within a religious framework.Two of these general or world
philosophies, idealism and realism, are derived from the
ancientGreek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle. Two are more
contemporary, pragmatism andexistentialism. However, educators who
share one of these distinct sets of beliefs about the nature
ofreality presently apply each of these world philosophies in
successful classrooms. Let us explore
each of these metaphysical schools of thought.Idealism
Idealism is a philosophical approach that has as its central
tenet that ideas are the only true reality,the only thing worth
knowing. In a search for truth, beauty, and justice that is
enduring andeverlasting, the focus is on conscious reasoning in the
mind. Plato, father of Idealism, espoused thisview about 400 years
BC, in his famous book, The Republic. Plato believed that there are
twoworlds. The first is the spiritual or mental world, which is
eternal, permanent, orderly, regular, anduniversal. There is also
the world of appearance, the world experienced through sight,
touch, smell,taste, and sound, that is changing, imperfect, and
disorderly. This division is often referred to as theduality of
mind and body. Reacting against what he perceived as too much of a
focus on theimmediacy of the physical and sensory world, Plato
described a utopian society in which "educationto body and soul all
the beauty and perfection of which they are capable" as an ideal.
In his allegoryof the cave, the shadows of the sensory world must
be overcome with the light of reason or universaltruth. To
understand truth, one must pursue knowledge and identify with the
Absolute Mind. Platoalso believed that the soul is fully formed
prior to birth and is perfect and at one with the UniversalBeing.
The birth process checks this perfection, so education requires
bringing latent ideas (fullyformed concepts) to consciousness.In
idealism, the aim of education is to discover and develop each
individual's abilities and full moralexcellence in order to better
serve society. The curricular emphasis is subject matter of
mind:literature, history, philosophy, and religion. Teaching
methods focus on handling ideas throughlecture, discussion, and
Socratic dialogue (a method of teaching that uses questioning to
helpstudents discover and clarify knowledge). Introspection,
intuition, insight, and whole-part logic areused to bring to
consciousness the forms or concepts which are latent in the mind.
Character isdeveloped through imitating examples and
heroes.RealismRealists believe that reality exists independent of
the human mind. The ultimate reality is the worldof physical
objects. The focus is on the body/objects. Truth is objective-what
can be observed.Aristotle, a student of Plato who broke with his
mentor's idealist philosophy, is called the father ofboth Realism
and the scientific method. In this metaphysical view, the aim is to
understand objectivereality through "the diligent and unsparing
scrutiny of all observable data." Aristotle believed that to
understand an object, its ultimate form had to be understood,
which does not change. For example, arose exists whether or not a
person is aware of it. A rose can exist in the mind without
beingphysically present, but ultimately, the rose shares properties
with all other roses and flowers (itsform), although one rose may
be red and another peach colored. Aristotle also was the first to
teachlogic as a formal discipline in order to be able to reason
about physical events and aspects. Theexercise of rational thought
is viewed as the ultimate purpose for humankind. The Realist
curriculumemphasizes the subject matter of the physical world,
particularly science and mathematics. Theteacher organizes and
presents content systematically within a discipline, demonstrating
use ofcriteria in making decisions. Teaching methods focus on
mastery of facts and basic skills throughdemonstration and
recitation. Students must also demonstrate the ability to think
critically andscientifically, using observation and
experimentation. Curriculum should be scientificallyapproached,
standardized, and distinct-discipline based. Character is developed
through training inthe rules of conduct.Pragmatism
(Experientialism)For pragmatists, only those things that are
experienced or observed are real. In this late 19th centuryAmerican
philosophy, the focus is on the reality of experience. Unlike the
Realists and Rationalists,Pragmatists believe that reality is
constantly changing and that we learn best through applying
ourexperiences and thoughts to problems, as they arise. The
universe is dynamic and evolving, a"becoming" view of the world.
There is no absolute and unchanging truth, but rather, truth is
whatworks. Pragmatism is derived from the teaching of Charles
Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), whobelieved that thought must produce
action, rather than linger in the mind and lead to
indecisiveness.John Dewey (1859-1952) applied pragmatist philosophy
in his progressive approaches. He believedthat learners must adapt
to each other and to their environment. Schools should emphasize
thesubject matter of social experience. All learning is dependent
on the context of place, time, andcircumstance. Different cultural
and ethnic groups learn to work cooperatively and contribute to
ademocratic society. The ultimate purpose is the creation of a new
social order. Characterdevelopment is based on making group
decisions in light of consequences.For Pragmatists, teaching
methods focus on hands-on problem solving, experimenting, and
projects,often having students work in groups. Curriculum should
bring the disciplines together to focus onsolving problems in an
interdisciplinary way. Rather than passing down organized bodies
ofknowledge to new learners, Pragmatists believe that learners
should apply their knowledge to realsituations through experimental
inquiry. This prepares students for citizenship, daily living,
andfuture careers.ExistentialismThe nature of reality for
Existentialists is subjective, and lies within the individual. The
physicalworld has no inherent meaning outside of human existence.
Individual choice and individualstandards rather than external
standards are central. Existence comes before any definition of
whatwe are. We define ourselves in relationship to that existence
by the choices we make. We should notaccept anyone else's
predetermined philosophical system; rather, we must take
responsibility fordeciding who we are. The focus is on freedom, the
development of authentic individuals, as we makemeaning of our
lives.
There are several different orientations within the
existentialist philosophy. Soren Kierkegaard(1813-1855), a Danish
minister and philosopher, is considered to be the founder of
existentialism.His was a Christian orientation. Another group of
existentialists, largely European, believes that wemust recognize
the finiteness of our lives on this small and fragile planet,
rather than believing insalvation through God. Our existence is not
guaranteed in an after life, so there is tension about lifeand the
certainty of death, of hope or despair. Unlike the more austere
European approaches wherethe universe is seen as meaningless when
faced with the certainty of the end of existence,
Americanexistentialists have focused more on human potential and
the quest for personal meaning. Valuesclarification is an outgrowth
of this movement. Following the bleak period of World War II,
theFrench philosopher, Jean Paul Sartre, suggested that for youth,
the existential moment arises whenyoung persons realize for the
first time that choice is theirs, that they are responsible for
themselves.Their question becomes "Who am I and what should I
do?Related to education, the subject matter of existentialist
classrooms should be a matter of personalchoice. Teachers view the
individual as an entity within a social context in which the
learner mustconfront others' views to clarify his or her own.
Character development emphasizes individualresponsibility for
decisions. Real answers come from within the individual, not from
outsideauthority. Examining life through authentic thinking
involves students in genuine learningexperiences. Existentialists
are opposed to thinking about students as objects to be
measured,tracked, or standardized. Such educators want the
educational experience to focus on creatingopportunities for
self-direction and self actualization. They start with the student,
rather than oncurriculum content.Derivative Meaning of educationIt
is derivative sense the term Education may be understood as Educare
and Educere .Educare is aLatin word and it means to nourish to
bring up or to raise. This means, educating a child andnourishing
or bringing up the child according to certain ends or aims.Thinker
of the pastAccording to Aristotle , Education is the creation of a
sound mind in a sound body…….It develops ahumans’ faculty
especially the mind so that it may be able to enjoy the
contemplation of supremetruth , goodness and beauty of which
prefect happiness essentially consists.Modern thinkersAccording to
John Dewey education is a process of development of all those
capacities in theindividual which enables to control his
environment and fulfill his possibilities.Plato’s view:According to
Plato, ‘philosophy aims at knowledge of the eternal nature of
things’. In shortphilosophy is an attempt to answer all the
questions of life. This is so because human mind is movedby
‘intellectual curiosity and by the desire for order’ Relationship
between Philosophy andEducatioN
Philosophy and education are closely inter-related. Education is
the application of philosophy orphilosophy of education is applied
philosophy. It is the application of philosophy to the study of
theproblems of education that is known as philosophy of education.
Further, “a sound philosophy ofeducation is based on an adequate
philosophy of life”. Philosophy and education are
reconstructive;they give to and take from each other in ebb and
flow of thought and action; they are means to oneanother, and ends;
they are process and product.Great philosophers have also been
great educators: According to many, philosophy and education
arelike the sides of a coin, presenting different views of the same
thing, and that the one is implied onthe other.Education is the
dynamic side of philosophy. If one is contemplative the other is
active side.Philosophy is an attempt to answer the ultimate
question of education. Philosophy of educationundertakes the
systematic discussion of educational problems on a philosophical
level.John Dewey: “Education is a laboratory, in which
philosophical distinctions become concrete aretested.”Philosophy
prescribes the goals and essentials of good life and education is
the best means to achievethese goals. It is been rightly said that
without philosophy, education would be a blind effort andwithout
education, philosophy would be a cripple.Impact of Philosophy on
EducationSince philosophy and education are intimately related, it
seems necessary to discuss their relationshipin different fields
for example1.) Aims2.) Curriculum3.) Teaching techniques4.) Concept
of discipline5.) TeacherPhilosophy and aims of education: education
being a planned and purposeful activity has manifoldaims. These
aims or objectives are formulated by the philosophy of life.Aims of
education are co-related to the ideals of lifePhilosophy is the
determining force for laying down the aims of educations. Unless we
have someguiding philosophy in the determination of objectives, we
get nowhere at all. Different philosophieshave prescribed different
aims of education.Philosophy and curriculum: there are two sides of
philosophy, one is theory and one is practice.Curriculum being the
contents of education may be deemed as the practical side of
philosophy.Curriculum is constructed in accordance with the aims of
education that are ultimately guided by theobjectives of life over
which philosophy has great bearing. In the light of different
philosophies,different types of curriculum have been
described.Philosophy and the teacher:in the process of education,
teacher plays the pivotal role, the heart of the matter. Education
takesplace through the interaction between the teacher and the
thought. The teacher influences the
personality of the child and instills in him a thoughtful
awakening, a new life and beliefs. To be asuccessful teacher it is
for him to know the philosophy of education and its related
ingredients. Hisphilosophy of life finds an experience the
philosophy of education. Therefore, some knowledge ofphilosophy is
fundamental not only to an understanding of education as a whole
but also to have aclear grasp of the actual techniques of teaching
and their effective uses.Idealism assigns a very important role to
the teacher who has to inspire and influence his pupils andmould
them into spiritual beings. He is a co-worker with god in
perfecting man naturalism regardsteacher as the stage manager who
has to provide educational environment. According to
pragmatism,teacher is a friend, a guide and a philosopher. He
encourages self education on the part of his pupils.Philosophy and
the Textbook: A text book is an important means for the realization
of educationalaims. Philosophical implications are given special
attention in the preparation of a text book and inthe selection of
the content. We have to keep in mind some standard and judgment.
These areformulated by philosophy. Text books need special care and
attention. These must be written inaccordance with the philosophy
of time, cultural, social and political background of a society
ornation.
Q No: 3 Elaborate the Islamic philosophy of education and
describe how it is being applied inPakistan?
Anwser
Islam has, from its inception, placed a high premium on
education and has enjoyed a long and richintellectual tradition.
Knowledge ('ilm) occupies a significant position within Islam, as
evidenced bythe more than 800 references to it in Islam's most
revered book, the Koran. The importance ofeducation is repeatedly
emphasized in the Koran with frequent injunctions, such as "God
will exaltthose of you who believe and those who have knowledge to
high degrees" (58:11), "O my Lord!Increase me in knowledge" and "As
God has taught him, so let him write" (2:282). Such versesprovide a
forceful stimulus for the Islamic community to strive for education
and learning.Islamic education is uniquely different from other
types of educational theory and practice largelybecause of the
all-encompassing influence of the Koran. The Koran serves as a
comprehensiveblueprint for both the individual and society and as
the primary source of knowledge. The advent ofthe Koran in the
seventh century was quite revolutionary for the predominantly
illiterate Arabiansociety. Arab society had enjoyed a rich oral
tradition, but the Koran was considered the word ofGod and needed
to be organically interacted with by means of reading and reciting
its words. Hence,reading and writing for the purpose of accessing
the full blessings of the Koran was an aspiration formost Muslims.
Thus, education in Islam unequivocally derived its origins from a
symbioticrelationship with religious instruction.History of Islamic
EducationThus, in this way, Islamic education began. Pious and
learned Muslims (mu' allim or mudarris),dedicated to making the
teachings of the Koran more accessible to the Islamic community,
taught thefaithful in what came to be known as the kuttāb (plural,
katātīb). The kuttāb could be located in avariety of venues:
mosques, private homes, shops, tents, or even out in the open.
Historians areuncertain as to when the katātīb were first
established, but with the widespread desire of the faithfulto study
the Koran, katātīb could be found in virtually every part of the
Islamic empire by the middleof the eighth century. The kuttāb
served a vital social function as the only vehicle for formal
publicinstruction for primary-age children and continued so until
Western models of education wereintroduced in the modern period.
Even at present, it has exhibited remarkable durability
andcontinues to be an important means of religious instruction in
many Islamic countries.
Ritual ablutionsThe curriculum of the kuttāb was primarily
directed to young male children, beginning as early asage four, and
was centered on Koranic studies and on religious obligations such
as ritual ablutions,fasting, and prayer. The focus during the early
history of Islam on the education of youth reflectedthe belief that
raising children with correct principles was a holy obligation for
parents and society.As Abdul Tibawi wrote in 1972, the mind of the
child was believed to be "like a white clean paper,once anything is
written on it, right or wrong, it will be difficult to erase it or
superimpose newwriting upon it" (p. 38). The approach to teaching
children was strict, and the conditions in whichyoung students
learned could be quite harsh. Corporal punishment was often used to
correct lazinessor imprecision. Memorization of the Koran was
central to the curriculum of the kuttāb, but little orno attempt
was made to analyze and discuss the meaning of the text. Once
students had memorizedthe greater part of the Koran, they could
advance to higher stages of education, with increasedcomplexity of
instruction. Western analysts of the kuttāb system usually
criticize two areas of itspedagogy: the limited range of subjects
taught and the exclusive reliance on memorization.The contemporary
kuttāb system still emphasizes memorization and recitation as
important means oflearning. The value placed on memorization during
students' early religious training directlyinfluences their
approaches to learning when they enter formal education offered by
the modernstate. A common frustration of modern educators in the
Islamic world is that while their students canmemorize copious
volumes of notes and textbook pages, they often lack competence in
criticalanalysis and independent thinking.Islamic empireDuring the
golden age of the Islamic empire (usually defined as a period
between the tenth andthirteenth centuries), when western Europe was
intellectually backward and stagnant, Islamicscholarship flourished
with an impressive openness to the rational sciences, art, and even
literature. Itwas during this period that the Islamic world made
most of its contributions to the scientific andartistic world.
Ironically, Islamic scholars preserved much of the knowledge of the
Greeks that hadbeen prohibited by the Christian world. Other
outstanding contributions were made in areas ofchemistry, botany,
physics, mineralogy, mathematics, and astronomy, as many Muslim
thinkersregarded scientific truths as tools for accessing religious
truth.Individual judgmentGradually the open and vigorous spirit of
enquiry and individual judgment (ijtihād) thatcharacterized the
golden age gave way to a more insular, unquestioning acceptance
(taqlīd) of thetraditional corpus of authoritative knowledge. By
the thirteenth century, according to Aziz Talbani,the 'ulama'
(religious scholars) had become "self-appointed interpreters and
guardians of religiousknowledge.… learning was confined to the
transmission of traditions and dogma, and [was] hostileto research
and scientific inquiry" (p. 70). The mentality of taqlīd reigned
supreme in all matters, andreligious scholars condemned all other
forms of inquiry and research. Exemplifying the taqlīdmentality,
Burhän al-Din al-Zarnüji wrote during the thirteenth century,
"Stick to ancient thingswhile avoiding new things" and "Beware of
becoming engrossed in those disputes which come aboutafter one has
cut loose from the ancient authorities" (pp. 28, 58). Much of what
was written after thethirteenth century lacked originality, and it
consisted mostly of commentaries on existing canonicalworks without
adding any substantive new ideas. The lethal combination of taqlīd
and foreign
invasion beginning in the thirteenth century served to dim
Islam's preeminence in both the artisticand scientific
worlds.Glorious legacy of earlier periodsDespite its glorious
legacy of earlier periods, the Islamic world seemed unable to
respond eitherculturally or educationally to the onslaught of
Western advancement by the eighteenth century. Oneof the most
damaging aspects of European colonialism was the deterioration of
indigenous culturalnorms through secularism. With its veneration of
human reason over divine revelation and itsinsistence on separation
of religion and state, secularism is anathema to Islam, in which
all aspects oflife, spiritual or temporal, are interrelated as a
harmonious whole. At the same time, Westerninstitutions of
education, with their pronounced secular/religious dichotomy, were
infused intoIslamic countries in order to produce functionaries to
feed the bureaucratic and administrative needsof the state. The
early modernizers did not fully realize the extent to which
secularized educationfundamentally conflicted with Islamic thought
and traditional lifestyle. Religious education was toremain a
separate and personal responsibility, having no place in public
education. If Muslimstudents desired religious training, they could
supplement their existing education with moralinstruction in
traditional religious schools–the kuttāb. As a consequence, the two
differing educationsystems evolved independently with little or no
official interface.Aims and Objectives of Islamic EducationThe
Arabic language has three terms for education, representing the
various dimensions of theeducational process as perceived by Islam.
The most widely used word for education in a formalsense is ta'līm,
from the root 'alima (to know, to be aware, to perceive, to learn),
which is used todenote knowledge being sought or imparted through
instruction and teaching. Tarbiyah, from theroot raba (to increase,
to grow, to rear), implies a state of spiritual and ethical
nurturing inaccordance with the will of God. Ta'dīb, from the root
aduba (to be cultured, refined, wellmannered), suggests a person's
development of sound social behavior. What is meant by
soundrequires a deeper understanding of the Islamic conception of
the human being.Useful model of perfectionEducation in the context
of Islam is regarded as a process that involves the complete
person,including the rational, spiritual, and social dimensions. As
noted by Syed Muhammad al-Naquib alAttas in 1979, the comprehensive
and integrated approach to education in Islam is directed towardthe
"balanced growth of the total personality…through training Man's
spirit, intellect, rational self,feelings and bodily senses…such
that faith is infused into the whole of his personality" (p. 158).
InIslamic educational theory knowledge is gained in order to
actualize and perfect all dimensions ofthe human being. From an
Islamic perspective the highest and most useful model of perfection
is theprophet Muhammad, and the goal of Islamic education is that
people be able to live as he lived.Seyyed Hossein Nasr wrote in
1984 that while education does prepare humankind for happiness
inthis life, "its ultimate goal is the abode of permanence and all
education points to the permanentworld of eternity" (p. 7). To
ascertain truth by reason alone is restrictive, according to Islam,
becausespiritual and temporal reality are two sides of the same
sphere. Many Muslim educationists arguethat favoring reason at the
expense of spirituality interferes with balanced growth. Exclusive
trainingof the intellect, for example, is inadequate in developing
and refining elements of love, kindness,compassion, and
selflessness, which have an altogether spiritual ambiance and can
be engaged onlyby processes of spiritual training
Education in Islam is twofold: acquiring intellectual knowledge
(through the application of reasonand logic) and developing
spiritual knowledge (derived from divine revelation and
spiritualexperience). According to the worldview of Islam,
provision in education must be made equally forboth. Acquiring
knowledge in Islam is not intended as an end but as a means to
stimulate a moreelevated moral and spiritual consciousness, leading
to faith and righteous action.
Q No: 4 Discuss the importance of moral values in education.
Which moral values are quotedin the Holy Quran?
Anwser
Islam placed a high value on education, and, as the faith spread
among diverse peoples, educationbecame an important channel through
which to create a universal and cohesive social order. By themiddle
of the 9th century, knowledge was divided into three categories:
the Islamic sciences, thephilosophical and natural sciences (Greek
knowledge), and the literary arts. The Islamic sciences,which
emphasized the study of the Quran (the Islamic scripture) and the
Ḥadīth (the sayings andtraditions of the Prophet Muhammad) and
their interpretation by leading scholars and theologians,were
valued the most highly, but Greek scholarship was considered
equally important, albeit lessvirtuous.Application of technological
expertiseEarly Muslim education emphasized practical studies, such
as the application of technologicalexpertise to the development of
irrigation systems, architectural innovations, textiles, iron and
steelproducts, earthenware, and leather products; the manufacture
of paper and gunpowder; theadvancement of commerce; and the
maintenance of a merchant marine. After the 11th century,however,
denominational interests dominated higher learning, and the Islamic
sciences achievedpreeminence. Greek knowledge was studied in
private, if at all, and the literary arts diminished insignificance
as educational policies encouraging academic freedom and new
learning were replacedby a closed system characterized by
intolerance toward scientific innovations, secular subjects,
andcreative scholarship. This denominational system spread
throughout eastern Islam from Transoxania(roughly, modern-day
Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and southwest Kazakhstan) to Egypt, with
some 75schools in existence between about 1050 and
1250.Organization of educationThe system of education in the Muslim
world was uninterested and undifferentiated. Learning tookplace in
a variety of institutions, among them the ḥalqah, or study circle;
the maktab (kuttab), orelementary school; the palace schools;
bookshops and literary salons; and the various types ofcolleges,
the meshed, the masjid, and the madrasa. All the schools taught
essentially the samesubjects.The simplest type of early Muslim
education was offered in the mosques, where scholars who
hadcongregated to discuss the Qurān began before long to teach the
religious sciences to interestedadults. Mosques increased in number
under the caliphs, particularly the Abbāsids: 3,000 of themwere
reported in Baghdad alone in the first decades of the 10th century;
as many as 12,000 werereported in Alexandria in the 14th century,
most of them with schools attached. Some mosques—such as that of
al-Manṣūr, built during the reign of Hārūn al-Rashīd in Baghdad, or
those in Isfahan,Mashhad, Ghom, Damascus, Cairo, and the Alhambra
(Granada)—became centres of learning forstudents from all over the
Muslim world
Value system
The emphasis can then be said to be on a value system. What is
important is that the Muslim child beexposed to an education that
predominantly teaches values such as obedience, care,
forgiveness,respect and truthfulness etc. According to Sharif,
Islamic education is ‘the device for helping anindividual to full
stature.Balanced growth of the total peEducation should aim at the
balanced growth of the total personality of man through the
training ofman’s spirit, intellect, his rational self, feelings and
bodily senses. Education should cater thereforefor the growth of
man in all its aspects: spiritual, intellectual, imaginative,
physical, scientific,linguistic, both individually and collectively
and motivate all aspects towards goodness and theattainment of
perfection. The ultimate aim of Muslim education lies in the
realization of completesubmission to Allah on the level of the
individual, the community and humanity at large.It would follow
then that the aim of an Islamic school is to provide an environment
which allows thestudent to realize these ideals and gain an
education that enhances his spiritual, intellectual,imaginative,
physical, scientific and linguistic growth. Using the above
definition as an informativeguide, one would expect an Islamic
school then, to have facilities and a programme of learning
thatallows a pupil to develop his/her sense of spirituality and
build a positive relationship with Godwhich becomes manifest in
doing righteous deeds.Create an environmentThe purpose of an
Islamic school is essentially to create an environment that
reflects an Islamicideology. It is warm, embracing, encouraging and
its decor redirects its inhabitants towards Godremembrance and good
actions. The role of an Islamic school teacher is to then produce
awholesome child who carries out his obligations as set out by the
precepts of Islam. The teacher’sdirective is to educate a child by
giving him or her the mannerisms and the etiquette that will
servethe child and the community: To ultimately make the child
understand the purpose of his life and toprovide that child with
knowledge that will equip him/her to pursue both worldly gains and
mostimportantly after-life gains. Such a child does not feel
coerced, stifled or imprisoned but feelsmotivated, free and
eager.Knowledge is gainedIn Islamic theology, knowledge is gained
in order to actualize and perfect all the dimensions of thehuman.
The paradigm of perfection is the Prophet (peace be upon him), and
thus the goal of Islamiceducation is for Muslims to live as he
(peace be upon him) lived and to imitate him. Muslims aresanctioned
to do this: ‘Indeed in the Messenger of Allah you have a good
example to follow for himwho hopes for (the Meeting with) Allah and
the Last Day and remembers Allah much.’[4]Thissuggests that the
Qur’an and the Sunnah are the perennial sources of rulings
regarding both spiritualand temporal life. Al-Saud also confirms
this in his contribution to the 1977 Muslim educationalconference
that the Qur’an ‘…by consensus of Muslim opinion, in the past and
present, theimmutable source of the foundational tenets of Islam,
of its principles, ethics and culture. … All theother facets of the
curricula of that Islamic education are based upon the
acknowledgement of theQur’an as the core, pivot and gateway of
learning.Early Muslim Education:
Early Muslim education emphasized practical studies, such as the
application of technologicalexpertise to the development of
irrigation systems, architectural innovations, textiles, iron and
steelproducts, earthenware, and leather products; the manufacture
of paper and gunpowder; theadvancement of commerce; and the
maintenance of a merchant marine. After the 11th century,however,
denominational interests dominated higher learning, and the Islamic
sciences achievedpreeminence. Greek knowledge was studied in
private, if at all, and the literary arts diminished insignificance
as educational policies encouraging academic freedom and new
learning were replacedby a closed system characterized by an
intolerance toward scientific innovations, secular subjects,and
creative scholarship. This denominational system spread throughout
eastern Islam between about1050 and 1250 C.E.Pursuit of Scientific
Knowledge & Libraries:Thus during first half of millennia of
its history, Islamic civilization has been keen to gainknowledge,
be it physics, chemistry (alchemi), algebra, mathematics,
astronomy, medicine, socialsciences, philosophy or any other field.
The high degree of learning and scholarship in Islam,particularly
during the ‘Abbasid period in the East and the later Umayyads in
West (Spain),encouraged the development of bookshops, copyists, and
book dealers in large, important Islamiccities such as Damascus,
Baghdad, and Cordoba. Scholars and students spent many hours in
thesebookshop schools browsing, examining, and studying available
books or purchasing favouriteselections for their private
libraries. Book dealers traveled to famous bookstores in search of
raremanuscripts for purchase and resale to collectors and scholars
and thus contributed to the spread oflearning. Many such
manuscripts found their way to private libraries of famous Muslim
scholarssuch as Avicenna, al-Ghazali, and al-Farabi, who in turn
made their homes centres of scholarlypursuits for their favourite
students.Role of Islam in Renaissance & Enlightenment:Europe
owes it awakening form the dark ages to the Renaissance and
Enlightenment by the transferof knowledge including lost Greek
heritage through the Muslim scholars and centers of learning
atSpain and their contact with the Muslim world through Crusades.
As long as Muslims continued thepursuit of all branches of useful
worldly knowledge of physical science, technology along with
thereligious sciences, the Islamic Civilization was at its
zenith.Stages of Evolution of Learning Process:The education and
learning process may be divided in to various stages among the
Muslims. Therenaissance of Islamic culture and scholarship
developed largely under the ‘Abbasid administrationin Eastern side
and under the later Umayyads in the West, mainly in Spain, between
800 and 1000C.E. This latter stage, the golden age of Islamic
scholarship, was largely a period of translation andinterpretation
of classical thoughts and their adaptation to Islamic theology and
philosophy. Theperiod also witnessed the introduction and
assimilation of Hellenistic, Persian, and Indian knowledgeof
mathematics, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry, and medicine into
Muslim culture. Whereas the8th and 9th centuries, mainly between
750 and 900 C.E, were characterized by the introduction ofclassical
learning and its refinement and adaptation to Islamic culture, the
10th and 11th werecenturies of interpretation, criticism, and
further adaptation. There followed a stage of modificationand
significant additions to classical culture through Muslim
scholarship. Then, during the 12th and13th centuries, most of the
works of classical learning and the creative Muslim additions
weretranslated from Arabic into Hebrew and Latin. The creative
scholarship in Islam from the 10th to the
12th century included works by such scholars as Omar Khayyam,
al-Biruni, Fakhr ad-Din ar-Razi,Avicenna (Ibn Sina), at-Tabari,
Avempace (Ibn Bajjah), and Averroës (Ibn Rushd).
Q No: 5 Present a comparative analysis of traditional
philosophies and Islamic philosophies ofeducation.
Anwser
The educational process depends on four fundamental aspects: the
education institution, teachers,curriculums, and the students.
These four aspects correlate with each other strongly.Educational
processIn fact, all aspects are being integrated into the
educational process in any educational institutions.Each one of
those aspects is working side by side to support the other aspect
accurately. It is wellknown that an educational philosophy reflects
a social philosophy. A social philosophy is consideredas a plan to
guide the educational process. A relation between philosophy and
education is unclear;however, there is acceptance for this
relations existence. Some people believe that education is aresult
of philosophical doctrines, and educators are, in fact,
philosophers. Moreover, education is aprocess of keeping and
transferring social heritage throughout history.Firstly, the
education institution – the school - is a social educational
institution which plays asignificant role side by side with other
aspects. The primary function of the school is raising thechildren
by transferring the cultural heritage from previous generations.
Additionally, within theschool environment children learn the basic
studies such as: knowledge of religion, history,literature,
science, and linguistic. Those studies will made clear by teaching
specific curriculums foreach level and gradually, starting from
primary education to higher education. Following this further,the
school seeks during each stage of education to enhance pupils’
values of cultural identity andprinciples of Human Rights.
Undoubtedly, the significant objective of any educational
institution isto qualify a person for public life and to be an
effective member of society.Fundamental aspects of the educational
processSecondly, the teacher is one of the fundamental aspects of
the educational process. The transitionfrom the traditional
education system to the E-learning system made some changes in the
teachers’role. The teacher is a mentor, director, and educational
leader in the educational process. Asuccessful teacher is the one
who is able to organize the work and classroom life. Also, he
creates adesire in each student to do the work. In the concept of
emotional intelligence, a person who’s able tounderstand his
emotions has the ability to understand and to control others’
emotions. Pursuing thisfurther, the teacher affects the learner
both emotional and behavioral ways. He, also, contributes
toachieving the objectives of education process which is a result
of his effective role. Basically, theteacher conveys knowledge to
students easily and visibly. Providing a great classroom climate
helpsto gain good learning outcomes. The climate that is dominated
by warmth is more likely to achievemost teachers’ objectives. It
was found that there is a strong correlation between the climate
duringthe teaching process and the learning outcomes. Obviously, it
is a positive correlation; as much as theclimate provided was
suitable, the learning outcomes were better.Educational
experiences
Thirdly, curriculum is not less important than other aspects.
It’s defined as all the educationalexperiences that are offered by
teachers at the school. Another definition, is all
educationalexperiences that are offered by teachers either in the
classroom or outside the classroom. Besidesthat, there are several
dimensions that must be accrued in any curriculum. Those dimensions
areobjectives, content, teaching methods, and assessment.
Objectives mean all knowledge that isestablished by the educational
institution and achieved by students. The content is the components
ofthe curriculum which organizes all knowledge in a particular
manner in order to achieve allobjectives. Both previous dimensions
will be explained by the teaching method. It means the waythat is
used to deliver information by the instructor to students. The
assessment aims to determine ifthe student may have reached all
educational objectives in all areas or not. All the previous
aspectsare working together to create a healthy and educational
environment for the student, who’sconsidered a fundamental factor
to build the future.Forgettable part of the education
approachFinally, the student role is unclear in the education
process. As it is well known that the student is thecenter of the
education. For instance, in Saudi Arabia, they treat the student as
a receiver, which isunacceptable. That action made a huge gap
between student and teacher; also, it changed the real roleof the
education process. Therefore, benefits that the student is looking
forward to gaining are quitefew. A field of discussion is virtually
rare in some classes, as well a creative field. All
thoseimperfections must be changed by applying new strategies and
employing specialized teachers.Those teachers are able to discuss
and explain curriculums accurately. Special needs students are
aforgettable part of the education approach. Ignoring their needs
and not understanding their situationwere clear actions in some
education institutions in Saudi Arabia. However, lately these
actions werechanged significantly. It started by integrating
disabled students with normal students which gives agood
opportunity for both of them to discover others’ lives and make
friendships. Furthermore,disabled students will get a better
understanding to accept their situation and looking for a
positiveaspect of the handicap. The benefit of that action is not
confined to the disabled student; it alsoincludes the normal
student. In fact, integration leads to changing the attitude of the
normal studentand to accept the disabled student.Aspirations of the
future are changing the teaching methods, especially in Saudi
Arabia, andestablishing many institutions that care about early
childhood and special needs students. Moreover,applying
self-learning for students will help them to discover the hidden
aspects behind theirpersonality. Providing students with a good
environment will lead them to innovation and creativeideas and
thoughts. Substantially, teachers and students must understand
their roles in order to get abetter outcome of learning. There is
no benefit of curriculum development if it is not accompaniedby
qualification, either for teachers or school environment.Although,
there are many different branches of education, but the present
time requires the presenceof philosophy in the field of education,
considering that the educational philosophy derives itssubject from
the education. Essentially, the main goal of any learning process
is finding a change inthe learner’s behavior. Therefore, the
measurement and evaluation process is an integral part of
theeducational process. There is no right or wrong strategy in any
function, because each strategy hasadvantages and disadvantages.
All ways support each other and each student is on a different
level oflearning.Philosophy and teaching
It is important to start by describing where you want to end. In
other words, what are yourobjectives as a teacher? The rest of your
philosophy statement should support these objectiveswhich should be
achievable and relevant to your teaching responsibilities; avoid
vague oroverly grandiose statements. On the other hand, you will
want to demonstrate that you strivefor more than mediocrity or only
nuts-and-bolts transference of facts.You would certainly want your
students to learn the fundamental content of the courses youteach.
But beyond that, do you hope to foster critical thinking,
facilitate the acquisition of lifelong learning skills, prepare
students to function effectively in an information economy,
ordevelop problem-solving strategies? What is your role in
orienting students to a discipline, towhat it means to be an
educated person in your field? How do you delineate your areas
ofresponsibility as compared to your students’ responsibilities? In
what specific ways do youwant to improve the education of students
in your field? Are there discussions in academicjournals or in
professional organizations about shortcomings in the education of
students todayor unmet needs in the discipline and do you have
ideas about how to address thoseshortcomings and needs? If you are
going to use teaching in P & T bids, you will probably needto
connect to national issues or objectives.These are questions that
will require some thought and you will probably benefit
fromdiscussing them with other faculty in your department. Some
people can sit down and bang outa paragraph or two in a short time
but most of us become more thoughtful about the “big”questions when
we bounce them off of our colleagues, consider their responses,
re-evaluate ourpositions, revise, talk some more, etc. Your
statement of objectives as a teacher is the mostimportant part of
your teaching philosophy and you should take some time with it. And
if youtake it seriously, you will probably come back to this
statement to revise or add to it. Think ofit as a work in
progress.Teaching objectivesWhen you have a clear idea about your
teaching objectives, you can discuss methods that youuse to achieve
or work toward those objectives. Here is where you can display your
knowledgeof learning theory, cognitive development, curriculum
design, etc. You will want to explainspecific strategies,
techniques, exercises, and include both what you have used in the
past andare planning for future courses. You will want to tie these
directly to your teaching objectivesand discuss how each approach
is designed for that purpose.Discuss how you make decisions about
content, resources, and methods. If you include a fieldtrip, what
are your learning objectives? If you assemble a collection of
readings, how did youdecide what to include? How do you decide
whether to use collaborative or individual projects?Do you use
active learning or student-centered learning principles and why?
Relate thesedecisions and methods to the kinds of classes you teach
(large lecture, small discussion, lab,etc.) and make connections to
your course objectives.Again, relate your methods to national-level
needs for teaching in your discipline wheneverpossible. If you have
developed instructional materials that have been or could
bedisseminated, be sure to discuss them. If you have designed or
are planning innovativeactivities, describe how they address
specific teaching objectives. Have you presented a paperor a
workshop at a professional conference related to your teaching
methods?Philosophy and Evaluation
. Educational philosophy and evaluation is the evaluation
process of characterizing and appraisingsome aspect/s of an
educational process. There are two common purposes in educational
evaluationwhich are, at times, in conflict with one another.
Educational institutions usually require evaluationdata to
demonstrate effectiveness to funders and other stakeholders, and to
provide a measure ofperformance for marketing purposes. Educational
evaluation is also a professional activity thatindividual educators
need to undertake if they intend to continuously review and enhance
thelearning they are endeavoring to facilitate.Standards for
educational evaluationEach publication presents and elaborates a
set of standards for use in a variety of educationalsettings. The
standards provide guidelines for designing, implementing, assessing
and improving theidentified form of evaluation. Each of the
standards has been placed in one of four fundamentalcategories to
promote evaluations that are proper, useful, feasible, and
accurate
The Personnel Evaluation Standards
“ The propriety standards require that evaluations be conducted
legally, ethically, and with dueregard for the welfare of
evaluatees and clients involved
,, The utility standards are intended to guide evaluations so
that they will be informative,timely, and influential.
The feasibility standards call for evaluation systems that are
as easy to implement as possible,efficient in their use of time and
resources, adequately funded, and viable from a number ofother
standpoints
The accuracy standards require that the obtained information be
technically accurate and that
conclusions be linked logically to the data.The Program
Evaluation Standards
The utility standards are intended to ensure that an evaluation
will serve the informationneeds of intended users
The feasibility standards are intended to ensure that an
evaluation will be realistic, prudent,diplomatic, and frugal
The propriety standards are intended to ensure that an
evaluation will be conducted legally,ethically, and with due regard
for the welfare of those involved in the evaluation, as well
asthose affected by its results
The accuracy standards are intended to ensure that an evaluation
will reveal and convey
technically adequate information about the features that
determine worth or merit of theprogram being evaluated.
The Student Evaluation Standards
The Propriety standards help and ensure that student evaluations
are conducted lawfully,ethically, and with regard to the rights of
students and other persons affected by studentevaluation.
The Utility standards promote the design and implementation of
informative, timely, and
useful student evaluations.
The Feasibility standards help ensure that student evaluations
are practical; viable; costeffective; and culturally, socially, and
politically appropriate
The Accuracy standards help ensure that student evaluations will
provide sound, accurate,and credible information about student
learning and performance.
Philosophy and aims of EducationThe most basic problem of
philosophy of education is that concerning aims: what are the
proper aimsand guiding ideals of education? What are the proper
criteria for evaluating educational efforts,institutions,
practices, and products? Many aims have been proposed by
philosophers and othereducational theorists; they include the
cultivation of curiosity and the disposition to inquire;
thefostering of creativity; the production of knowledge and of
knowledgeable students; the enhancementof understanding; the
promotion of moral thinking, feeling, and action; the enlargement
of theimagination; the fostering of growth, development, and
self-realization; the fulfillment of potential;the cultivation of
“liberally educated” persons; the overcoming of provincialism and
closemindedness; the development of sound judgment; the cultivation
of docility and obedience toauthority; the fostering of autonomy;
the maximization of freedom, happiness, or self-esteem;
thedevelopment of care, concern, and related attitudes and
dispositions; the fostering of feelings ofcommunity, social
solidarity, citizenship, and civic-mindedness; the production of
good citizens; the“civilizing” of students; the protection of
students from the deleterious effects of civilization;
thedevelopment of piety, religious faith, and spiritual
fulfillment; the fostering of ideological purity; thecultivation of
political awareness and action; the integration or balancing of the
needs and interestsof the individual student and the larger
society; and the fostering of skills and dispositionsconstitutive
of rationality or critical thinking.All such proposed aims require
careful articulation and defense, and all have been subjected
tosustained criticism. Both contemporary and historical
philosophers of education have devotedthemselves, at least in part,
to defending a particular conception of the aims of education or
tocriticizing the conceptions of others. The great range of aims
that have been proposed makes vividthe philosopher of education’s
need to appeal to other areas of philosophy, to other disciplines
(e.g.,psychology, anthropology, sociology, and the physical
sciences), and to educational practice itself.Given that
consideration of education’s proper aims is of fundamental
importance for the intelligentguidance of educational activities,
it is unfortunate that contemporary discussions of
educationalpolicy rarely address the matter.Clarification of
educational conceptsA perennial conception of the nature of
philosophy is that it is chiefly concerned with theclarification of
concepts, such as knowledge, truth, justice, beauty, mind, meaning,
and existence.One of the tasks of the philosophy of education,
accordingly, has been the elucidation of keyeducational concepts,
including the concept of education itself, as well as related
concepts such asteaching, learning, schooling, child rearing, and
indoctrination. Although this clarificatory task hassometimes been
pursued overzealously—especially during the period of so-called
ordinary languageanalysis in the 1960s and ’70s, when much work in
the field seemed to lose sight of the basicnormative issues to
which these concepts were relevant—it remains the case that work in
thephilosophy of education, as in other areas of philosophy, must
rely at least in part on conceptualclarification. Such analysis
seeks not necessarily, or only, to identify the particular meanings
ofcharged or contested concepts but also to identify alternative
meanings, render ambiguities explicit,reveal hidden metaphysical,
normative, or cultural assumptions, illuminate the consequences
ofalternative interpretations, explore the semantic connections
between related concepts, and elucidate
the inferential relationships obtaining among the philosophical
claims and theses in which they areembedded.Rights, power, and
authorityThere are several issues that fall under this heading.
What justifies the state in compelling children toattend school—in
what does its authority to mandate attendance lie? What is the
nature andjustification of the authority that teachers exercise
over their students? Is the freedom of studentsrightly curtailed by
the state? Is the public school system rightly entitled to the
power it exercises inestablishing curricula that parents might find
objectionable—e.g., science curricula that mandate theteaching of
human evolution but not creationism or intelligent design and
literature curricula thatmandate the teaching of novels dealing
with sexual themes? Should parents or their children have theright
to opt out of material they think is inappropriate? Should schools
encourage students to bereflective and critical generally—as urged
by the American philosophers Israel Scheffler and AmyGutmann,
following Socrates and the tradition he established—or should they
refrain fromencouraging students to subject their own ways of life
to critical scrutiny, as the American politicalscientist William
Galston has recommended?The issue of legitimate authority has been
raised recently in the United States in connection with thepractice
of standardized testing, which some critics believe discriminates
against the children ofsome racial, cultural, religious, or ethnic
groups (because the test questions rely, implicitly orexplicitly,
on various culturally specific cues or assumptions that members of
some groups may notunderstand or accept). In such controversial
cases, what power should members of allegedlydisadvantaged groups
have to protect their children from discrimination or injustice?
The answer tothis question, as to the others raised above, may
depend in part on the status of the particular schoolas public
(state-supported) or private. But it can also be asked whether
private schools should enjoymore authority with respect to
curricular matters than public schools do, particularly in cases
wherethey receive state subsidies of one form or another.These
questions are primarily matters of ethics and political philosophy,
but they also requireattention to metaphysics (e.g., how are
“groups” to be individuated and understood?), philosophy ofscience
(e.g., is “intelligent design” a genuinely scientific theory?),
psychology (e.g., do IQ testsdiscriminate against members of
certain minority groups?), and other areas of philosophy,
socialscience, and law.
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