1
Saving Souls and Bodies: The United States Christian Commission
in the Civil War
By
Ashley Miller
May 2018
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
Dual-Degree Program in History and Archives Management
Simmons College
Boston, Massachusetts
The author grants Simmons College permission to include this
thesis in its Library and to make it available to the academic
community for scholarly purposes.
Submitted by
____________________________
Ashley Miller
Approved by:
___________________________ ________________________________
Stephen Berry Sarah Leonard
Associate Professor of History Associate Professor and Chair of
History
2018, Ashley Miller
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Introduction 2
Historiography 6
Early Work of the USCC 13
Reading Materials 20
Loan Libraries 26
Literacy Programs and Schooling 31
Women and the USCC 34
Special Diet Kitchens 40
Conclusion 46
Bibliography 55
Part I: Introduction
From the 1830s until the Civil War, Northern Evangelical
Protestants undertook a large array of social reform efforts.
Established preachers led reform movements in education, health,
temperance, criminal justice, and abolition. These groups
distributed food, clothing, and money to the poor, vagrant, sick,
and uneducated. In the 1840s and 1850s, city churches and religious
organizations in the North turned their attention to serving the
needs of new immigrants and native poor.[footnoteRef:1] Several
chapters of the Home Missionary and Tract Societies built mission
churches and Sunday schools. They even offered aid with job
placement. In Philadelphia, with the help of five thousand
volunteers, the city was divided into sections for systematic
visitation and relief for every needy home.[footnoteRef:2]
Educational reform was particularly an evangelical
priority.[footnoteRef:3]In New York, a Methodist minister created
an early type of settlement house, complete with schoolrooms,
shops, living quarters, and a chapel.[footnoteRef:4] By reforming
the sinful parts of society, evangelists sought to bring the United
States closer to their religious ideology. Freedom, patriotism, and
voluntarism had become hallmarks of religious practice within the
United States.[footnoteRef:5] These reform efforts did not cease
once the first shots were fired at Fort Sumter, but they instead
took on new zeal, with one prominent organization leading the
charge against the weary souls and bodies of Union soldiers. [1:
Frances Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals: The Struggle to Shape America
(New York: Simon and Schuster, 2017), 45. ] [2: Fitzgerald, The
Evangelicals, 45. ] [3: Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 44-45. ] [4:
Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 45. ] [5: George C. Rable, Gods
Almost Chosen Peoples: A Religious History of the American Civil
War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010),
3.]
The United States Christian Commission, or USCC, was formed at a
meeting of the Young Mens Christian Association in New York City on
November 14 and 15, 1861, just months after the inception of the
Civil War. Its two founding members Vincent Colyer, an artist and
humanitarian, and George Stuart, a businessman, created the
organization in response to the suffering troops faced during the
First Battle of Bull Run. Their purpose was to organize a central
agency to systematize, combine, and extend the work of the YMCA.
The goal of the Commission was to minister to the spiritual needs
of soldiers, to distribute supplies and religious material, to
write for soldiers, to receive and respond to inquiries concerning
the whereabouts of soldiers, and to aid chaplains.
In the spirit of evangelical Protestantism, the USCC emphasized
Bible preaching and immediate conversions. For most of the
nineteenth century, evangelists felt a strong duty to spread the
word of Christ. Delegates extended that word to the battlefield.
While the original plan for the Commission was to aid clergy
members in the armed forces, the chaplaincy program only had about
thirty members who were quickly overwhelmed by both the scale of
battle and the number of casualties. The Commission was eager to
aid in religious healing for soldiers. Religion undoubtedly helped
to sustain army morale and lengthen the war.[footnoteRef:6] It
helped overcome soldiers fears of dying and allowed them to find
meaning in the horrors of the battlefield. Seeking conversions
formed a large part of the Commissions work. Evangelists
characterized instantaneous conversions as a sudden and
overwhelming demonstration of Gods grace, particularly imperative
for dying soldiers. [footnoteRef:7] Administering to soldiers
spiritual needs, especially before death, was the most important
work. [6: Rable, Gods Almost Chosen Peoples, 8. ] [7: Fitzgerald,
The Evangelicals, 13. ]
Five thousand volunteers, or delegates, from the Commission
served during the War. They were sent to hospitals, field camps,
and battlegrounds to serve. Some delegates were seminary students,
but most were simply concerned Christians; even Walt Whitman served
as a delegate. Delegates served two-week or six-week terms. While
women also participated, often accompanying their husbands while
they served the Commission.
The Commission reached its stride in the years 1863 and 1864.
Its popularity, support, and recognition culminated in increased
and varying types of aid that reflected pre-war evangelical reform
impulses mobilized for the war effort. It expanded its work to
include special diet kitchens, loan libraries, and literacy
programs. Moreover, in May 1864 the Ladies Auxiliary Christian
Commission emerged with the mission to write letters to soldiers,
fundraise, make clothing, gather and send supplies, work in special
diet kitchens, and serve as nurses. With the increased support, the
USCC kept record of how donations and stores were used and how
exactly delegates served.
Delegates kept strict records about the terms they served with
the army. Each delegate tracked how many reading matters,
testaments, hymn books, hymn and psalm books, Soldiers books, pages
of tracts, papers, and pamphlets that he distributed in a Delegates
Statement and Report. Other statistical records found in this
report included the number of sermons given, meetings participated
in and conducted, funeral services conducted, soldiers conversed
with, soldiers benefited from gifts of hospital stores or personal
ministrations, number of letters written for soldiers, and the
number of soldiers assisted on the battlefield. Each report would
also include a summary of the delegates experiences, including
where and how long he served, what he did, with whom he served, and
any unique experiences. These reports were then sent to their
respective offices. As the reports themselves state, their purpose
was to show the nature, necessity, and benefit of the work of the
Christian Commission to potential donors.[footnoteRef:8] [8:
Delegates Statement and Report, United States Christian Commission
11/15/1861-1/1/1866, Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant
General's Office, 1762 1984, National Archives, Washington DC.
]
Initially, the delegates faced great difficulty in accessing the
troops. The Commission needed official approval from the federal
government in order to be recognized by the Union. Moreover,
military authorities challenged the usefulness of the Commission.
The Commission only started to gain favor in the army after it
built a reputation for relieving the suffering of soldiers.
[footnoteRef:9] The USCCs usefulness especially became apparent on
the battlefields of Second Bull Run, Antietam, Fredericksburg, and
Gettysburg. By October 1863, Ulysses S. Grant permitted the
delegates free access to all troops in the West and free passage
for their supplies. [footnoteRef:10] [9: James O. Henry, The United
States Christian Commission in the Civil War, Civil War History,
(1960): 376.] [10: Henry, USCC in the Civil War, 376. ]
Over the course of the war the Commission took on much more work
than simply administering to the spiritual needs of soldiers by
caring for their physical needs as well. According to the First
Annual Report of the Commission, delegates had to nurse, dress
wounds, strip off filthy garments, wash the blood and dust of hard
marches off of the soldiers, cleanse them of vermin, and put upon
them clean clothing; dig graves for the dead, lift and open boxes,
make wearisome visits on foot, sleep on the ground,... and often
work from daylight until midnight, or all night long, with little
to eat except dry bread and crackers.[footnoteRef:11] Over the
course of war, the Commission created various programs to furnish
troops with necessary supplies. [11: Henry, USCC in the Civil War,
382. ]
The US Christian Commission disbanded on January 1, 1866. After
nearly five years of caring for soldiers, the delegates distributed
more than six million dollars worth of goods and supplies in
hospitals, camps, prisons, and battlefields. With modest goals set
in traditional pre-war evangelicalism, the USCC expanded to cater
to the physical needs of soldiers, grounding the roots of the later
Social Gospel Movement. The USCC was afforded the opportunity to
aid countless soldiers during trying times, minister to their
spiritual needs, and provide them with the comforts of home, saving
their souls and bodies.
Part II: Historiography
This project weaves together religious discourses, the impact of
religious groups on societal norms, and evangelical charities.
Though my historical analysis draws from such histories, the
primary historiography that contextualizes this project concerns
the United States Christian Commission. The USCC has rarely
received its dues in the historical narrative, with a bulk of the
materials about the commission written in the 1960s. Therefore,
this project will expand upon the brief historiography of the
USCC.
There has been little written about the USCC. Only one great
tome of work exists about the commission, and it was created by the
organization itself. The Annals of the U.S. Christian Commission
was written and compiled by Lemuel Moss, an executive committee
member, and published in 1868, just a few short years after the
commission officially dissolved. Leading the wave of denominational
histories in the late nineteenth century, this text is largely
self-congratulatory and glorifies the work of the USCC. Most of the
works created about the organization were published in the 1960s,
as a direct result of the renewed interest in the war, garnered by
the centennial anniversary. The modern discussions of the
organization are mere mentions about aid distribution, the famed
volunteer Walt Whitman, or comparisons to other relief
organizations. This project not only brings together several fields
of scholarship, but seeks to distinguish the USCC as its own unique
organization.
USCC vs. USSC
In the little that has been written about the USCC, there is the
tendency to compare and contrast it with the Sanitary Commission.
There is debate among historians over whether not these
organizations should be compared. Both were created after the First
Battle of Bull Run. The organizations shared similar goals, yet
went about their work differently. Those working for the USSC were
paid, while the USCC ran primarily on volunteer service. The USSC
sought to only care for the physical needs of soldiers, while the
USCC took a multifaceted approach. These differences have played
out in Civil War literature as a contentious rivalry between the
two organizations. Martin T. Buinickis article, The Needs of Means
Additional: Walt Whitmans Civil War Fundraising, the author states
that In spite of both its official imprimatur and its continual
public efforts to place itself at the center of charitable efforts
during the war, undirected donations would continue to pour in, and
the USSC would find itself competing with other organizations,
including most importantly the Christian Commission, founded by the
YMCA a short time later and devoted to both the spiritual and
physical well-being of the soldiers.[footnoteRef:12] Not only were
the two organizations competing for resources to aid soldiers, but
historians have traditionally pitted them against each other in
terms of effectiveness and likeability. George C. Rables work, Gods
Almost Chosen Peoples: A Religious History of the American Civil
War, even utilizes President Lincoln to compare the two
organizations, stating perhaps Christian Commission officials
seemed too much like the pesky clerical delegations that kept
showing up at his door. In any case, during a trip to Philadelphia,
Lincoln offered warmer praise for the rival Sanitary
Commission.[footnoteRef:13] According to Robert H. Bremner, the
rivalry might have been less intense had the agencies not differed
so widely in ideology. The Christian Commission embraced the
traditional views of charity as a religious obligation, alleviative
in nature, and particularly sanctified when directed toward
spiritual ends. The Sanitary Commission, adopting a more secular
attitude, made prevention its watchword; suspicious of spontaneous
benevolence, it sought to discipline the nations charitable
impulses and tum them toward practical goals.[footnoteRef:14]
Bremner even goes so far as to state that the opinion of the
present writer is that the United States Sanitary Commission
rendered the greatest service to the general cause of
philanthropy.[footnoteRef:15] There is debate, however, as to the
usefulness of such commentary to the historical narrative. [12:
Martin T. Buinicki, The Need of Means Additional: Walt Whitmans
Civil War Fundraising, Walt Whitman Quarterly Review 31, no. 4
(2010): 2. ] [13: Rable, Gods Almost Chosen Peoples, 219.] [14:
Robert H. Bremner, The Impact of the Civil War on Philanthropy and
Social Welfare, Civil WarHistory. (1966): 301. ] [15: Bremner,
Civil War Philanthropy, 302. ]
While these comparisons are frequent in Civil War discourse,
there is debate as to whether these groups should even be compared.
Because both commissions had differing goals, it is useless to
contend that one group was more or less effective than the other.
In his article, The United States Christian Commission, James O.
Henry states that
One of the mistakes consistently made by historians in their
evaluation of the work of the Christian Commission is to judge it
on the basis of the work of the Sanitary Commission. This usually
places the Christian Commission in an unfavorable light. To arrive
at a fair evaluation by this method is an impossibility, especially
in view of the two opposite goals these organizations set for
themselves. When judged in light of its overall goal, the Christian
Commission will rise to the same level of the Sanitary Commission,
which has occupied a commendable position in American
history.[footnoteRef:16] [16: Henry, The United States Christian
Commission in the Civil War, 387. ]
Henry firmly believed that the Commissions work was just as
efficacious as the Sanitary Commissions work. Just as historians
have compared the USCC to the USSC, so has the USCCs likeability
among soldiers been dissected.
Mixed Reviews of USCC
The response to the USCC and its delegates changed over the
course of the war. The USCC became increasingly popular, yet
historians have discussed quotes from soldiers that display their
dislike of the commission. These mixed reviews of the commission
reveal the complex nature of this religiously bound aid. Soldiers
responses and reactions to the delegates and their work were mixed.
According to M. Hamlin Cannons article, The United States Christian
Commission, the delegates of the USCC frequently faced official
apathy and even hostility in the course of its welfare work among
the federal forces.[footnoteRef:17] Philip Katchers article, Union
Soldiers had Mixed Verdict on the Effectiveness of the U.S.
Christian Commission, provides a laundry list of examples of the
disdain soldiers harbored for USCC delegates. For example, Katcher
states that Delegates often refused to give soldiers items they
wanted if their wants differed from what the delegates thought they
should have.Forexample, Delegate Ashley noted that a man came in
this A.M. who on being asked if he was a Christian, ans. Promptly
yes. He wound up by asking if he could get some novels off us. The
soldier went away disappointed, however; Delegate Ashley
disapproved of novels.[footnoteRef:18] Furthermore, Katcher also
describes an instance where soldiers got physical with delegates,
Delegates were often unaware of the feelings of soldiers like
Westervelt, and were surprised when they were treated inhospitably.
Pastor Ashley described one unpleasant experience: This afternoon
went among 46th Ill., many of whom were very drunk and beastly. One
struck me, but a doz. hands were at once ready to restrain
him.[footnoteRef:19]Of course, when describing their own
experiences, delegates reports almost always discussed pleasant,
grateful interactions with soldiers. Although there were a handful
of negative interactions and views of USCC delegates and their
work, a majority of soldiers had positive views of the USCC and
appreciated their aid and religious guidance. [17: M. Hamlin
Cannon, The United States Christian Commission, The Mississippi
Valley Historical Review 38, No. 1 (1951): 61. ] [18: Philip
Katcher, Union soldiers had a mixed verdict on the effectiveness of
the U.S. Christian Commission, America's Civil War 15, no. 4
(2002): 12.] [19: Philip. Union soldiers had a mixed verdict,
12.]
Evangelical Reform Society
While there are a number of texts regarding wartime evangelical
reform society, for the sake of brevity and the length of this
project, a small selection was chosen.[footnoteRef:20] In the late
twentieth century, studies of religion during the Civil War
emerged. Previously neglected, this major field of study has been
dissected by such historians as Drew Gilpin Faust and Steven E.
Woodworth. As George C. Rable notes in his 2010 work, Gods Almost
Chosen Peoples: A Religious History of the American Civil War, the
grand and sweeping narratives of the sectional crisis and Civil War
from James Ford Rhodes to Bruce Catton to Shelby Foote and beyond
have seldom paid attention to religion much less tried to create a
religious narrative of the conflict.[footnoteRef:21] This project
utilizes several such works to contextualize the work of the USCC
in the space of evangelical reform society. [20: While there are a
number of works involving religion during the Civil War, my project
focuses on those relating to the Northern United States, as the US
Christian Commission was designed to serve the Union Army. ] [21:
Rable, George C. Gods Almost Chosen Peoples. 5. ]
Although the United States Christian Commissions work was
heavily tied to evangelical reform culture, the USCC makes few, if
any, appearances in texts regarding the subject. The Pulitzer Prize
winning The Evangelicals: The Struggle to Shape America by Frances
Fitzgerald skips from pre-war America to post Civil War,
disregarding the war years and the evangelical reform effort that
took place throughout that time.[footnoteRef:22] Fitzgerald does
make one mention of the USCC when discussing the1873 work of one of
its former volunteers.[footnoteRef:23] This lack of information, on
the USCC is a recurring theme throughout several texts regarding
wartime evangelicalism.[footnoteRef:24] [22: Fitzgerald, The
Evangels, 56-57.] [23: Fitzgerald, The Evangelicals, 85.] [24: This
can be observed in George C. Rables Gods Almost Chosen Peoples: A
Religious History of the American Civil War, James M. McPhersons
Battle Cry of Freedom, Harry S. StoutsUpon the Altar of the Nation:
A Moral History of the Civil War, and Shelby Footes The Civil War:
A Narrative, among others. ]
While many historians, such as David Goldfield, list religion as
one of the factors of the start of the war, religion undoubtedly
helped to sustain morale and lengthen the war, yet there is still
much debate over whether the war created a more devout society.
[footnoteRef:25] In M. Hamlin Cannons article, The United States
Christian Commission, he states that The Civil War was ushered in
on a wave of religious revival. In point of total numbers, however,
this revival did not affect a majority of the people. In 1860 only
a little more than 5,000,000, of a population of 22,200,000 over
the age of ten, listed themselves as members of an evangelical
denomination.[footnoteRef:26] Yet according to Philip Schaff,
theologian and church historian, in 1854 the United States harbored
probably more awakened souls, and more individual efforts and
self-sacrifice for religious purposesthan in any other country in
the world.[footnoteRef:27] Evangelical Protestantism was the
dominant religious force in the country for most of the nineteenth
century, and this group undertook a large array of social reform
efforts. [25: David Goldfield, America Aflame: How the Civil War
Created a Nation,(New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2011). Rable, Gods
Almost Chosen Peoples, 8.] [26: Cannon, The United States Christian
Commission, 61. ] [27: Rable, Gods Almost Chosen Peoples, 11.]
Womens Work
There are few discussions of womens work in societal reform
efforts in the Civil War. Womens work is often only mentioned in
the context of the larger body of male work which do not discuss
their efforts are not discussed at length, nor are their relief
organizations. Fernanda Perrones article, I Prayed and Sung in
Every Tent: Israel Silvers, US Christian Commission Delegate from
New Jersey, the USCC, reflecting the masculine Christianity of the
YMCA tradition, the Christian Commission had no women on its
governing board. Only twelve women, all but one of whom was from
the Midwest, were issued credentials as delegates. Women sometimes
accompanied their husbands to the front, and played an important
support role through local aid societies.[footnoteRef:28] This
quote not only captures the muscular Christianity of the USCC but
also notes the important work women accomplished for such aid
societies. Perrone is one of the few authors to tell of the
importance of women in the USCC. The only other extensive mention
of women working for the USCC was by Martin T. Buinicki, in his
article, The Needs of Means Additional: Walt Whitmans Civil War
Fundraising. Buinicki states that several of the leading women of
society were particularly ambitious and forward thinking, forming
the Womens Central Relief Association (WCRA) in an effort to
organize and coordinate the charitable efforts on the homefrontSoon
the work of the WCRA was subsumed by the new organization, the
USSC, which subsequently made great efforts to become the conduit
for assisting the soldiers and the wounded during the
war.[footnoteRef:29] Both Perrone and Buinickis articles were
written in 2014. Clearly observing a more modern view, even these
two articles do not discuss womens work at length. [28: Fernanda
Perrone,I Prayed and Sung in Every Tent: Israel Silvers, US
Christian Commission Delegate from New Jersey, The Journal of
Rutgers University Libraries 1, no.66 (2014): 83. ] [29: Buinicki,
Needs of Means Additional, 9-11. ]
My thesis intends to rectify the prior absence of evangelical
reform culture from the discussion of the USCC. Utilizing reform
efforts made by the USCC, I will situate their early work such as
providing religious reading materials as following the principles
pre-war evangelicalism, while contextualizing their later work of
providing special diet kitchens as the precursor to the Social
Gospel Movement. My project will rectify the absence of womens
relief efforts by discussing the work of women for the USCC and the
Ladies Auxiliary to the United States Christian Commission.
Moreover, I do not intend to compare the USCC to the USSC. By
examining a number of texts created by the USCC, including
Delegates Statements and Reports, a booklet explaining the creation
of the Ladies Christian Commission, and the Annals of the U.S.
Christian Commission, I will not only expand the scholarship of the
USCC, but provide a more complete, rounded narrative of their
work.
Part III: Early Work of USCC
The early work of the USCC focused on providing for the
spiritual needs of soldiers. Their proven success and support, as
well as the exigencies of the war, allowed the USCC to expand their
work to include and cater to the bodily needs of Union troops.
The support of the Christian Commission grew steadily throughout
its life, culminating in more aid, donations, and volunteers. By
the middle of 1862, the USCC was at first regarded by the public
with general indifference.[footnoteRef:30] Even religious presses
were not quick to recognize and assist the USCC because of a
general lack of confidence in the organization and its goals.
[footnoteRef:31] This lack of confidence could be due in part to
its slow beginnings. It was not until May 14, 1862, a full year
after the inception of the war, that the first delegates were sent
to the army.[footnoteRef:32] By the time they arrived, there were
already a large number of aid societies that collected supplies and
donations for Union soldiers. Once the Commission proved itself on
and around the battlefields, Gettysburg being particularly
important for allowing the USCC to become more recognized, support
increased. [30: Lemuel Moss, Annals of the U.S. Christian
Commission (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1868), 117.]
[31: Moss, Annals of USCC. 118.] [32: Moss, Annals of USCC, 122.
]
The Battle of Gettysburg, though half-way through the war,
provided the USCC with the perfect venue to demonstrate the value
of its work. It remains the bloodiest battle in the western
hemisphere, with casualties totaled around fifty-five thousand. The
delegates were quick to offer medical attention, food and supplies,
minister to the dying soldiers, and bury the dead. C. L. Pascal, a
delegate who served at Gettysburg from July 6 to July 18, gave a
chilling description of not only the services he rendered, but the
aftermath of the battle: Not having received any thing to eat,
except perhaps a Small piece of hard dry biscuit and a little water
for over 8 days (after the battle), and oh how thankfully was
received nourishing food with wines + jellies by poor helpless
Soldiers, at the hands of the Christian Commission.
[footnoteRef:33] Pascal also detailed two interactions he
experienced aiding Confederate soldiers. The first soldier, Spencer
Samson of the 22nd Regiment, Georgia Infantry was found [33: Record
Group 94: Records of the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA.]
carried out from a filthy Stable and laid against the side of
the Barn to die. His wounds in the fore part of the head, which lay
open + the Brains coming out + worms at work therein , as he lay
with his chin resting on his breast I approached him + asked a
question, No answer, another + another, No answer placed my tin cup
to his lips + he clinched it beneath his teeth + held fast till all
was gone, I gave him a Farena Cracker, he chewed it, but one at
least crumbled out his mouth, I Soaked one he ate it, another + So,
he ate I gave about 20 of them a dozen ginger + several slices of
bologna sausage and made him comfortable, The next day he could
talk, his wound was dressed + he kept getting better up to the time
of my leaving, I spoke to him of his future, He said I have made my
peace with God. And desired me to write home to his wife (+ his
children) These words. Say to her I have great faith in Jesus. I
have prayed forgiveness of my Sins My prayers have not been in
vain. That thee Shall bring my children up in the fear of God, and
if it is Gods will that we shall not meet in this Earth, We will
meet in Heaven. [footnoteRef:34] [34: Record Group 94: Records of
the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA.]
Despite the USCCs mission to only cater to Union troops, Pascal
could not simply leave this man to suffer alone. He catered both to
his spiritual and physical needs, making him as comfortable as
possible. Pascal also aided another Confederate soldier at
Gettysburg, demonstrating evangelical behavior and aiding those in
need.
Another poor Soldier (Rebel) lay on the cold ground near at hand
in a dieing state In a Loud voice he called me to him, to drive the
flies off him, none were in him, a glance at his wounds revealed
the mistery, it was worms cralling in his flesh, I talked with him,
told him he was laid there to die + to lose no time in making his
head with God, his only helper, I told him that I could give him a
drink or something to eat and covered his bear limbs with a shirt
He was prayed to + he prayed + prayed for himself, Gentle night he
died and I have no doubt his Spirit went to heaven + many were the
blessings the Christian Commission the dieing Soldiers and dearest
friend on earth.[footnoteRef:35] [35: Record Group 94: Records of
the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA.]
Pascals report affirmed the need for the work of the USCC. In
the statistical portion of his report, Pascal stated that he
personally assisted three hundred wounded soldiers on the
battlefield. Union soldiers mostly received the Commissions aid,
but as Pascals report shows, delegates took mercy on Confederates
too, administering to them food, water, and spiritual guidance.
The efficacy of the spiritual ministrations by delegates can
also be observed from this report. In both examples of aiding
Confederate soldiers, each one prayed to God. In the first example,
the soldier was so touched by the delegates aid that he had Pascal
write home to his family so that they may immediately take up good
Christian lifestyles. In the latter example, Pascal was certain
that the soldiers immediate conversion to Christianity in the
little time remaining before death set in would secure him a place
in heaven. Another delegate, C. W. Holstein, shared both his
initial feelings about the USCC prior to his at Gettysburg service,
and how those feelings changed afterward.
When I entered upon the work of the Christian Commission, I was
laboring under Some prejudice against accounts I had previously
received of its operations. had I an opportunity of seeing its
workings, and from actual observation, than all such prejudice was
dispelled, like the mist before the morning Sun:- and not only not
only did these feelings of prejudice pass away, but the place was
soon occupied by others of an entirely different nature I felt that
if there ever was an institution deserving if the patronage of the
patriotic and Christian people of the land, this was just the one:-
every effort should be made, Every nerve strained to keep it in
active operation:- it is so thoroughly adapted in every respect to
the wants of the brave Soldiers suffering from the untold horrors
of the Battle-field, administering, as it does, alike to their
spiritual + temporal necessities[footnoteRef:36] [36: Record Group
94: Records of the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA.]
Holsteins account demonstrates the virtues of the USCCs work. As
someone who did not previously believe the praising accounts of the
organizations work, Holstein experienced it firsthand.
I know that had it not been for the Christian Commission many of
those noble Soldiers, most of them maimed for life, would have
suffered from the want of very many articles that tend materially
to the everyday comforts and necessities of human life:- Hence it
is that in my Statement under the headings of Number of Soldiers
benefitted by gifts of Hospital Stores, I have made the remark that
it could not be estimated orders were continually pouring into the
Tent from Division + Ward Surgeons, Ward Masters, Nurses, +e. for
supplies, and they were always cheerfully filled, the only regret
being that Sometimes the article called for was not on
hand.[footnoteRef:37] [37: Record Group 94: Records of the Adjutant
Generals Office. NARA.]
Holstein did not support the USCC prior to his work at
Gettysburg, but upon observing the organization and its work in so
dire a situation, he instantly saw its virtues. The USCC was
effective, organized, and well supplied. They had not only large
quantities of supplies, but the volunteers necessary to distribute
it. Moreover, Holsteins account serves as a call to action. He
believed that the work of the Christian Commission should be
sustained and that every effort should be made to keep up its work.
Holsteins report reflects the nations growing admiration and
support for the Commission at that time.
Aid societies that once had their own interests began
contributing to the USCC. In 1864, The New Hampshire Soldiers Aid
Societys annual report noted that the USCC possessed more
recognition with a larger range than their organization, stating
that the better known and wider spread organizations of the
Sanitary and Christian Commissions, to which the larger towns and
cities now send their contributions directly, instead of through
the medium of this Society as formerly, to a great
extent.[footnoteRef:38] The NHSAS donated to the USCC, yet prior to
1864, there are no mentions of the USCC in any of the NHSASs annual
reports. About one-half of the USCCs entire work, as measured by
money and supplies received and by the number of delegates
commissioned, was accomplished during the year
1864.[footnoteRef:39] At the end of the war, the Commissions entire
cash receipts totaled $2,524,512.56.[footnoteRef:40] Due to the
overwhelming support, the USCC gained access to several parts of
the Union Army. [38: New Hampshire Soldiers Aid Society Annual
Report for 1864. Concord Public Library. 5.] [39: Moss, Annals of
USCC, 165. ] [40: Moss, Annals of USCC, 687. ]
Even the army grew to trust the aid of the Commission. On
December 12, 1863, General Ulysses S. Grant granted the USCC was
granted access to the West, or the Military Division of
Mississippi. With the aid given and religious services provided, It
was generally felt, especially during the last two years of the
war, that the Christian character of a young man was as safe in the
army as in any place out of it.[footnoteRef:41] A number of
generals expressed their gratitude for USCC delegates. General
Grant wrote to George Stuart, a co-founder of the USCC, on January
12, 1866 that It affords me pleasure to bear evidence to the
services rendered, and the manner in which they have been rendered.
By the agency of the Commission much suffering has been saved, on
almost every battle-field and in every hospital during the late
rebellion. No doubt thousands of persons now living attribute their
recovery, in great part, to volunteer agencies sent to the field
and hospital.[footnoteRef:42] General William T. Sherman also gave
his impressions of the USCCs work in a January 19, 1866 letter to
Stuart, That the agents for the application of this charity did
manifest a zeal and energy worthy the object, I myself am a willing
witness; and I would be understood as heartily endorsing, without
reserve, their efforts, when applied to the great hospitals and
rendezvous in the rear of our great armies.[footnoteRef:43] The
support of these generals enabled the Commission was able to
effectively adhere to and complete its mission in assisting the
Union Army. There were, in fact, a multitude of ways in which the
USCC sought backing. [41: Moss, Annals of the USCC, 59-60. ] [42:
Moss, Annals of USCC, 238. ] [43: Moss, Annals of USCC, 238. ]
The establishment of delegates reports was used to drum up
support. They were A system of reportsnot perfected and fully
introduced, however, until a year later [1863]furnished the
requisite information for the Agents and for the Executive and
Auxiliary Committees. This information also, so far as desirable,
was communicated to the public through various channels. Thus an
interest in the work was sustained.[footnoteRef:44] These reports
not only provided statistical data of aid given but documented the
achievements of the Commission. The reports tracked the number of
days a delegates service occupied, the meetings they conducted, the
number of meetings participated in, the number of sermons and
addresses delivered, the number of funeral services conducted, the
number of soldiers personally conversed with about their spiritual
interest, the number of soldiers benefitted by gifts of Hospitals
Stores or personals ministrations, the number of letters written
for soldiers, the number of wounded soldiers assisted on
battle-fields, the number reading matter distributed, scriptures,
hymn and psalm books, soldiers books, pages of tracts, papers, and
pamphlets.[footnoteRef:45] Each report included a section for
Report of Work and Incidents, where delegates were to write,
particulars and incidents with the purpose to show the nature,
necessity, and benefit of the work of the Christian
Commission.[footnoteRef:46] By publicizing all the work being done
by its delegates, support for the organization grew, allowing
increased donations. At the conclusion of their service delegates
created statistical reports on the aid distributed, the data may
not be the most accurate. As Delegate Alex M. Lauglin admitted in
his October 16, 1863 Delegates Statement and Report, Reading matter
distributed I gave an account every evening, so that I cannot give
an accurate account here of the amount distributed.[footnoteRef:47]
One can hardly blame the delegate for not correctly tallying the
hundreds of pages of tracts given to weary soldiers. Yet, support
for the USCCs efforts came through using this data. [44: Moss,
Annals of USCC, 145. ] [45: Record Group 94: Records of the
Adjutant General's Office. NARA. ] [46: Record Group 94: Records of
the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA. ] [47: Record Group 94: Records
of the Adjutant Generals Office. NARA. ]
Several soldiers expressed their reverence for the delegates of
the USCC. Of the sacrifices of the delegates, Said a soldier to
Chaplain Thomas at Bermuda Hundred: What a blessed institution this
Christian Commission is! Your delegates care for us in the
hospital, follow us on the march, and in the hour of battle they
hover around us like ministering angels.[footnoteRef:48] Those
serving in the Commission followed the troops, wherever they were,
to administer aid and cater to their spiritual needs. Due to the
obvious and overwhelming needs, the Commission provided the
soldiers with physicians, Many eminent physicians are sent out by
the Commission, who render very important service. Among these were
Drs. Reed, Goodman, and Parker. The latter reports that with his
own hands he made three thousand dressings for wounds at
Fredericksburg. The gratitude of the relieved for such labor cannot
be expressed; yet this is only an instance among hundreds of like
exertions. [footnoteRef:49] It does not need to be stated the
importance of this kind of work, the very health of the Union Army
depended on it. The soldiers too appreciated the sacrifice and
toils of the delegates. It inspired such trust in the soldiers, The
following is an instance of the unbounded confidence the soldiers
have in the delegates of the Commission: After the 2d Connecticut
Regiment was paid off, they put their several packages into a bag
and sent it to the Commission tent, only requesting that they be
sent to their homes. On overhauling it, it was found to contain
about seventeen thousand dollars, which was expressed to their
friends at home. Hundreds of watches and other valuables are given
to the delegates for safe keeping. [footnoteRef:50] Evidently, the
USCC had formed a strong reputation among soldiers as a good and
trustworthy organization. [48: Ladies Christian Commission:
Auxiliary to the U.S. Christian Commission (Philadelphia: C.
Sherman, Son & Co., Printers, 1864), 24. ] [49: Ladies
Christian Commission, 23. ] [50: Ladies Christian Commission,
23.]
Reading Materials
While the USCC always had a strong focus on distributing reading
materials for soldiers, that focus was amplified with both the
invention of loan libraries and literacy programs. Delegates kept
strict records of what types of reading material they distributed
and in what quantity. In the Delegates Statement and Report,
completed after delegates finished serving their volunteer terms,
they outline how many scriptures, hymn books, hymn and psalm books,
soldiers books, pages of tracts, papers, reading matter, and
pamphlets they personally dispersed to Union
soldiers.[footnoteRef:51]At first, The Commission, in this as in
other respects, did not at first aim to be more than the forwarder
of what the people might supply, and the earliest shipments of
reading-matter therefore consisted mainly of such second-hand
tracts, newspapers, and books as were offered.[footnoteRef:52]
Seeing the benefit of these tracts, the USCC began the regular
distribution of religious weekly papers in the fall of
1863.[footnoteRef:53] The Commission's goals and distributions
changed as the war went on and their organization garnered more
support. [51: NARA U.S. Christian Commission. ] [52: Moss, Annals
of USCC, 685. ] [53: Moss, Annals of USCC, 686. ]
The dissemination of reading material to the army gained quick
support, both with troops and those looking to provide aid.
Publishers were eager to support the cause, some creating special
tracts, Then the small publications of the Tract Soci[e]ties were
addedsome of them having been specially prepared for army
circulation.[footnoteRef:54] The American Messenger, Tract Journal,
and Christian Banner were all distributed among troops. While the
work of spreading literature was not as dire as providing basic
provisions, the Commission and army all felt the importance of this
work, The work of distributing publications throughout the army by
the Christian Commission possessed several points of special
interest. More than any other part of their labors it furnished an
index of the character of the soldiers; and the evidence was as
gratifying as it was remarkable, that a large proportion of the
army were men to whom serious and solid literature was a
necessity.[footnoteRef:55]The Commission also provided literature
to African American troops: [54: Moss, Annals of USCC, 685. ] [55:
Moss, Annals of USCC, 685. ]
Reference has several times been made to the labors of the
Commission among the colored troops. They were supplied with
elementary school books of all kinds, and also with periodicals,
Scripture portions, and other publications suited to their
circumstances and attainments. Not a few of them could appreciate
the reading-matter furnished for general distribution, and none
showed greater eagerness or gratification than they. To be able to
read the New Testament was to these new-made men a marvelous
acquisition, and to own the Book itself was to secure an
incalculable prize.[footnoteRef:56] [56: Moss, Annals of USCC,
711-712. ]
The troops undoubtedly appreciated the furnished reading
materials, with the desire for more growing constantly.
The USCC sought to increase the amount of reading material
available for troops. In the fall of 1863, the USCC prepared to
increase the volume and quality of reading matter provided for
troops. The Commission made heavy purchases, instead of relying
merely on donations, to ensure the best possible texts for
soldiers.
Not a few of the subscribers to them went into the ranks, and
requested that their papers should follow them; sometimes the
chaplain would make up a club from his regiment; the publishers
generally gave notice that their journals would be furnished for
soldiers at the simple cost of productionThe same considerations
that suggested this increase of religious periodicals operated also
to improve the quality of the books used. Less reliance was placed
upon tracts and the smallest kind of publications, although they
continued to be abundantly circulated, and a better and more
expensive class of works was purchased, alike for the knapsack and
the library. Many of these books were printed and bound in
substantial and attract styles, and were every way worthy of the
wide circulation and eager reception which they received.
[footnoteRef:57] [57: Moss, Annals of USCC, 686. ]
The USCC not only received numerous donations of reading
materials from citizens but cooperated with of several publishing
societies to increase their work. There was indeed a large
circulation of Scriptures in the army. Under date of Sept. 18,
1862about the time that the headquarters of the Christian
Commission was established in PhiladelphiaMr. Stuart wrote to the
American Bible Society, asking if it would grant to the Commission
what Bibles and Testaments they may need in their work. To this
request Rev. Dr. Taylor, Corresponding Secretary of the Bible
Society, replied on the 20th: Your letter can have only one
response. Most cheerfully will our Committee and Board grant all
that you require in your noble labors.[footnoteRef:58] The Bible
Society provided millions of volumes of reading material to the
Union army: Besides the grants to the Christian Commission,
amounting to 1,451,748 volumes, valued at $179.824.99, the Bible
Society also sent to the army, through other agencies, not less
than 574,512 volumesmaking their total issues for this purpose,
during the period of the civil war, amount to the vast number of
2,026,260 volumes.[footnoteRef:59] [58: Moss, Annals of USCC, 686.
] [59: Moss, Annals of USCC, 690-691. ]
Working closely with the Commission, the Bible Society was able
to furnish reading matter to troops throughout the nation. Generous
offers from publishing societies poured into the Commission:
The two American Tract Societies, at Boston and New York, early
gave attention to the wants of the armyBoth co-operated cordially
with the Christian Commission, making to it donations of books and
papers, and selling at the lowest prices. In June, 1864, the Boston
Society adopted the following resolutions:
1. That the Committee on Charities be authorized to grant to the
Christian Commission the publications of this Society, to such
amount as the charitable funds will permit, provided that said
Commission shall purchase an equal quantity of said publications at
cost.
2. That if the Christian Commission shall accept the above
proposal, and thus distribute our publications through the army,
our own independent system of distributions shall be
discontinued.[footnoteRef:60] [60: Moss, Annals of USCC, 698-699.
]
The American Tract Societies had such faith and confidence in
the Commissions work that they were willing to give up their own
independent distribution to the army in favor of using the
Commissions network. Moreover, the Societies granted the Commission
innumerable books and papers to provide for soldiers, for free or
for a small price. This sort of charitable work by the American
Tract Societies undoubtedly earned the USCC an elevated reputation
among other religious publishing societies. Other publishing
societies quickly followed suit and were eager to share in the
Commissions work. The American Sunday-School Union, Tract Society
of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Presbyterian Board of
Publication, Presbyterian Publication Committee, American Baptist
Publication Society, Protestant Episcopal Book Society,
Massachusetts Sabbath-School Society, American Reform Tract and
Book Society, New York Sabbath Committee, and others, along with
many private publishers, gave their cooperation, and were desirous
of a share in the patriotic and Christian work of furnishing the
army with attractive and wholesome reading.[footnoteRef:61] [61:
Moss, Annals of USCC, 700.]
American publishing societies were taken by the Commissions
patriotic religiosity. Their work of supporting the Union was not
only a noble one, but harkened to the ideals of muscular, American
Christianity. Its mission catered to the vision of a strong, united
America, one without sin, where voluntarism and reformation were at
the forefront. In the monthly and weekly religious newspapers
distributed, all the evangelical publishing societies were
represented and all the evangelical denominations.[footnoteRef:62]
The success of the USCCs endeavor is evident in its statistics, The
figures show that the total newspaper circulation by the Commission
rose from less than two hundred and fifty thousand copies per month
in 1863, in which year it may be said really to have begun (the
previous distributions having been mainly donations of second-hand
papers), to more than one million five hundred thousand copies per
month in the beginning of 1865. With the cooperation of these
religious publishing societies the USCC was able to provide
soldiers with not just a way to pass time, but encouraged moral,
evangelical pursuits. [62: Moss, Annals of USCC, 700-701.]
The USCC sought to aid the widest possible audience. While the
Commissions original intentions were to aid the Union troops, their
work did extend to those in the Confederacy. Moreover, their work
extended to reach immigrants, and those practicing other religions.
The USCC sought to reach a wide audience, including in their
provided reading material, The various nationalities of our troops
were well shown by the several languages in which these Scriptures
were printedone request being for Testaments in English, German,
French, Danish, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese.[footnoteRef:63]
The Commission not only distributed Protestant reading materials,
but The Roman Catholic version (Douay) of the Bible was
gratuitously distributed to some extent, by the Christian
Commission and other agencies, to those soldiers and sailors who
preferred it. The Commission would not appropriate funds for this
version, but distributed such copies as were
donated.[footnoteRef:64]Despite their own evangelical Protestant
preferences, the members of the USCC were willing to supply the
soldiers with what they wanted. [63: Moss, Annals of USCC, 689. ]
[64: Moss, Annals of USCC, 698. ]
The Commission distributed secular literature as well, but on a
restricted basis. Allotting secular literature for troops was the
work of one man in particular, Chaplain Thomas. As early as
December 1862, he began to supply his regiment with the best and
freshest periodical literature, both secular and religious,
regularly at the least expensive cost to the USCC. [footnoteRef:65]
With publishers willing to provide publications at half price, and
the Adams Express Company willing to carry all packages for free,
other chaplains were eager to cooperate and join the movement. In
1863, Chaplain Thomas plan was greatly expanded. It soon included
the best books, and the formation of portable libraries for
regiments, hospitals, etc.[footnoteRef:66] [65: Moss, Annals of
USCC, 714-715. ] [66: Moss, Annals of USCC, 714-715. ]
The USCC, was of course, wary of dispensing non-religious
materials, especially considering its mission:
In September 1863, Chaplain Thomas was detailed by General G. H.
Thomas (not a relative) as General Reading Agent for the Army of
the Cumberland. He at once set about perfecting and carrying out
his plan. For some time he had felt the necessity of being in close
connection with one of the national societies at work in the army,
in order to give greater comprehensiveness and efficiency to his
movement, and urged its adoption by the Christian Commission. The
Commission hesitated about engaging in such an enterprise, partly
because it involved the receiving of pay from the soldiers for the
reading-matter distributed to them, and partly because it involved
the distribution of secular literatureneither of which were
sanctioned by the Commissions ordinary methods of operation. After
a few months, however, the work was undertaken, with very
beneficial results.[footnoteRef:67] [67: Moss, Annals of USCC, 715.
]
Secular reading was only provided for certain parts of the army,
The distribution of secular periodical literature through the
Commission did not include newspapers, but only magazines and
reviews; nor did it become general, but was confined to the Western
armies.[footnoteRef:68] Despite their hesitations, the USCC still
provided soldiers, albeit a small portion of them, with the reading
material they craved. In April 1864, the Christian Commission began
distributing leading secular magazines and reviews in the Army of
the Cumberland.[footnoteRef:69] While Chaplain Thomas could only
secure secular reading for troops within the Army of the
Cumberland, his plan did create the successful portable lending
libraries for soldiers. [68: Moss, Annals of USCC, 716. ] [69:
Moss, Annals of USCC, 713. ]
Loan Libraries
In 1864 the Commission established and maintained libraries at
stations of the Commission, military posts, in general hospitals,
and on the naval vessels and river gunboats.[footnoteRef:70] They
provided soldiers with a moral, educational pastime. The libraries
included both secular and non-secular works. These libraries were
an immense success, with both the soldiers and delegates singing
their praises. [70: Moss, Annals of USCC, 687.]
Chaplain Thomas created the plan for libraries throughout the
Commission. The loan library system functioned as follows: books
were purchased from leading publishers at half price. Like the
unsecular papers and tracts, publishers gave the USCC generous
discounts to supply their libraries. Chaplain Thomas compiled an
army catalog where books were chosen under this restriction, None
but the best works; none but the best, most suitable and cheapest
editions; secular works as well as religious; utility rather than
variety; publishing centers in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and
Cincinnati acted as agents to receive, pack, and forward all
purchases without charge. These houses were, Gould & Lincoln,
Boston; Chas. Scribner & Co., New York; Ashmead & Evans,
Philadelphia; and Poe & Hitchcock, Cincinnati. The government
supplied the cases for the libraries. The first sixty cases were
made by order of General Thomas, subject to the approval of the
Secretary of Warthe Commission being meanwhile responsible for the
expense. The Secretary approved the order, and granted a
requisition also for two hundred and forty more. Each library
contained 125 volumesstandard popular books of history, biography,
poetry, fiction, science, religion, etc.all appropriately labeled
and numbered, and neatly covered and numbered on the cover. On the
inside door of each library was a catalogue, in large type, with
the names of the books arranged alphabetically by authors, and
numbered, with additional numbers and spaces up to 160. Additional
catalogues on cards were also provided, for the special convenience
of patients who were unable to go to the library. [footnoteRef:71]
The Commission then loaned the libraries to hospitals, camps,
vessels, or other places of deposit to be returned when the library
was no longer needed. The role of caring for the library was thus
an onerous task: [71: Moss, Annals of USCC, 717-720. ]
The library was confided to the chaplain, surgeon, or other
responsible person who consented to act as librarian. He was
required to sign a pledge, promising attention to his duties as
librarian, a faithful care of the books, and promptness in sending
monthly reports of the condition and use of the library. Each
library was provided with a register or record book, so arranged as
to preserve, with little trouble, a complete history of every
volume.[footnoteRef:72] [72: Moss, Annals of USCC, 717-720. ]
The cases secured the books while the library was not in use,
and only the delegate overseeing the library had access to the key,
safeguarding its contents. The catalogs not only kept track of
circulation but served as an additional security measure. Moreover,
it justified the purchase of certain kinds of books. Citizens also
donated books. Those that were not used in libraries were given to
troops, Frequent appeals were addressed to the public for valuable
books for the soldiersspecial efforts being made in this direction
at the holiday seasonsand these were responded to with more or less
liberality. The books thus secured were variously usedsome being
put into Loan Libraries and the rest otherwise
distributed.[footnoteRef:73] Initially, the Commission prepared two
hundred fifteen libraries, containing the full number of 125
volumes each. Besides these there were 70 Libraries of half the
size, containing 75 volumes each, making in all 285 Libraries and
32,125 volumes at a cost of not less than one dollar per
volume.[footnoteRef:74] The USCC delegates cared for and ran these
libraries. The delegates kept strict records of what books were
checked out, by whom, and how many times. [73: Moss, Annals of
USCC, 724.] [74: Moss, Annals of USCC, 721. ]
Delegates kept strict reports for their libraries with registers
to detail all pertinent information. Each contained 172 pages160
for regular entries and 12 for incidental memorandaFrom this
register were made up the monthly reportsshowing how many times a
volume had been drawn during the month, or that it had remained in
the library, or that it had been lost, with such illustrative
incidents as were deemed valuable. The monthly reports were
forwarded to the General Library Agent, who thus knew the exact
location and condition of every library.[footnoteRef:75] The
reverence for the libraries can be observed in their monthly
reports. While there are several examples of reports singing the
praises of these libraries, only a select few appear here: [75:
Moss, Annals of USCC, 720-721. ]
Library 11. Volumes drawn, two hundred and eighty-nine; volumes
lost, none. Marked improvement in the social life and general
deportment of the patients and attendants of this hospital has
taken place since the introduction of the libraries. We have more
correspondence between soldiers and their friends; more social
purity, less boisterous and rude conduct. The mental and moral
conditions of the men have been revealed, and not a few scholars,
Christians, and gentlemen have been found beneath the humble attire
and title of private.[footnoteRef:76] [76: Moss, Annals of USCC,
722. ]
Delegates and officers alike observed the benefits of the loan
libraries. For soldiers, it provided them with a replacement for
bad behavior. Instead of gambling or drinking, soldiers were
learning and reading. As a result, there was increased friendliness
and comradery. Another Chaplain detailed the praises of his
regiments library:
Library 70. Second Wisconsin Cavalry, Alexandria, La. Report, by
Chaplain B. L. Brisbane. For June, 1865: Volumes drawn, one hundred
and eleven; volumes lost, none. The library is a fine collection.
It is doing immense good. It is the best thing the Christian
Commission has done for the service. Every regiment should have
one. It has deep and abiding influence intellectually, morally, and
spiritually. For July: Volumes drawn, two hundred; volumes lost,
none. The longer we have the library, the more useful we find it.
For August: Volumes drawn, sixty-one; volumes lost, none. Have been
on the march to Hempstead, Texas. For September: Volumes drawn,
three hundred and thirty; volumes lost, seven. Some men in the
hospital were sent off and discharged, without returning, some of
whom carried off books. We are very thankful for the library. No
estimate can be made of the good it is doing. For October: Volumes
drawn, one hundred and twenty-nine; volumes lost, three. Some books
carried off by deserters, or others. Library has already well paid
for itself. A number of souls lately converted. A good work going
on in the regiment. I ascribe much to the library.[footnoteRef:77]
[77: Moss, Annals of USCC, 722-723.]
The library not only caused good behavior among the men, but
grew the number of conversion the Commission was able to obtain.
This can be observed in another librarys report log:
Library 99. Hempstead, Texas. Report for September, 1865, by
Rev. S. J. Orange, Agent Christian Commission. Volumes drawn, five
hundred and twenty-five; volumes lost, none. The library has been
invaluable to the men. They all praise the selection of books; and
so interested were they that I turned the library over to the First
Iowa Cavalry. For November, by Chaplain J. S. Rand: Volumes drawn,
three hundred and seven; volumes lost, three. At the end of October
we were on the march to Austin, Texas. The soldiers have employed
much of their time in reading, instead of card-playing. We have a
chapel tent, in which we keep the library, and have prayer-meetings
every evening. We have some clear conversions.[footnoteRef:78] [78:
Moss, Annals of USCC, 723.]
Even with long marches and men returning home after the war, the
libraries lost relatively few books.
The libraries succeeded in turning the soldiers away from
immoral behaviors such as drinking, card playing, and drinking.
Furthermore, it increased interactions between soldiers and those
aiding them, and fostered a friendly environment between the two.
It provided soldiers with a way to effectively pass time, while
also serving to educate them. The libraries even worked to convert
some souls to Christianity, a clear victory for the USCC. The
following report demonstrated not only an example of a naval
library, but of the impact the libraries have on the soldiers
overall morale, Library 228. United States Flag Ship New Hampshire,
Port Royal Harbor, S. C. Report for October 1865, by Chas. Wiener,
Librarian. Volumes drawn, two hundred and sixty-six; volumes lost,
one. The library is having a good effect. It is lessening profanity
and intoxication.[footnoteRef:79] The libraries were an immense
success for the Commission. They increased morale, promoted moral
behavior, and even converted soldiers to Christianity. Their
effectiveness cannot be overestimated. [79: Moss, Annals of USCC,
723. ]
Unfortunately, Many of the Libraries were lost in the final
breaking up of hospitals, camps, etc., at the close of the war. But
more than fifty permanent forts and posts throughout the country,
and twenty-five United States war steamers, were supplied, and the
libraries were still in use by them at the beginning of
1867.[footnoteRef:80] Fewer than half of the libraries survived the
end of the war. Moss ended his discussion of the Loan Libraries, by
again stating the popularity of the program, The library work of
the Commission, in a systematic form, was one of its latest
movements, but none was more thoroughly appreciated by the
soldiers, and it was very fruitful in permanent
good.[footnoteRef:81] The USCCs loan libraries furthered the work
of catering to the spiritual needs of soldiers while also providing
them with educational secular texts. [80: Moss, Annals of USCC,
723. ] [81: Moss, Annals of USCC, 723. ]
Literacy Programs and Schooling
Not only did the Christian Commission provide literature to
soldiers, but they actively promoted literacy wherever they went.
They created schools in Commission chapels, provided the necessary
materials, and taught the illiterate children, poor adults,
soldiers, and African American troops how to read and write. The
success of this facet of their work is evident.
It is difficult to discuss the Commissions education efforts,
without first discussing the creation and use of chapels. Prior to
1864, there were few chapels within the Union Army, In November,
1863, the Commission had but four chapel tents in the Army of the
Potomac. In the correspondence between the Central Office and Mr.
Cole, General Field Agent, it had been suggested that the
Commission could perhaps furnish to each brigade a canvas roof,
technically called a fly, as a covering for a chapel, if the
soldiers would put up the walls.[footnoteRef:82] At the December
29, 1863 meeting of the Executive Committee of the USCC, it was
voted to furnish, as needed, six chapel tents and forty canvas
roofs for chapels to be erected by the soldiers.[footnoteRef:83] It
was then reported that an unusual religious interest pervaded the
army and that multitudes were converted to Christ.[footnoteRef:84]
It was also observed that some of these houses of worship were very
largesixty feet in length by thirty-five feet in widthseveral of
this size being put up in the Twenty-fifth Corps, and used both as
chapels and school-rooms.[footnoteRef:85] It was common for these
chapels to serve multiple purposes: places of worship, meeting
spaces, libraries, and classrooms. They provided both the
classrooms, and all the classroom supplies including roofing,
stoves, lights, primers, blackboards, pens, slates, ink, and
readers. The USCC even provided their student soldiers with
teachers.[footnoteRef:86] Because of these efforts, the USCC was
able to educate a large number of students. [82: Moss, Annals of
USCC, 177.] [83: Moss, Annals of USCC, 178. ] [84: Moss, Annals of
USCC, 178. ] [85: Moss, Annals of USCC, 442. ] [86: Moss, Annals of
USCC, 442. ]
Seeking educational reform, the USCC worked to promote literacy
among marginalized groups. In the latter part of the war, the
Commission worked heavily with the black troops in the Twenty-Fifth
Corps, For this work the Commission employed experienced teachers,
and furnished to each regiment or brigadeeverything that was needed
to give to all an opportunity for mental improvement. The soldiers
were very thankful for these advantages, and showed great eagerness
to learn.[footnoteRef:87] The delegates for these troops
established Brigade schools and there was great anxiety on their
part is manifested to improve the advantages thus extended to
them.[footnoteRef:88] The Commission not only offered education to
soldiers, but also opened schools to the poor children and adults
affected by the war, The quartermaster of the post offered a tent,
benches, and desks, if the Commission would open a school for the
children of the poor white employees of the
government.[footnoteRef:89] Another example can be observed at
Bridgeport in the Eleventh Corps, In addition to the usual
religious services in the chapel, a Sabbath-school was organized
for soldiers and the children and the adult poor whites. General
Howards adjutant was superintendent, and the General had a class of
poor girls, none of whom could read.[footnoteRef:90] Despite its
focus on aiding Union troops, the Commissions literacy efforts
extended to former members of the Confederacy. Supplemental to
their other work, and at the request of General William T. Sherman,
this Branch assisted in relieving the wants of the many refugees
and deserters from the rebel army that gathered [in Louisville,
Kentucky]. They were helped to employment, gathered into
Sunday-schools, taught to read, and they had opportunities of
hearing the gospel preached.[footnoteRef:91] By extending their
services to those not in the army, the Commission went above and
beyond its mission to Union soldiers by delivering to education and
reform to others affected by the war. [87: Moss, Annals of USCC,
437-438. ] [88: Moss, Annals of USCC, 196. ] [89: Moss, Annals of
USCC, 464. ] [90: Moss, Annals of USCC, 480.] [91: Moss, Annals of
USCC, 329.]
The literacy programs and schools proved quite successful.
Schools were established in each regiment at Wild Station, and it
was reported that hundreds of those who could not read at the
beginning of the winter were sufficiently advanced at its close to
read in the Testament; and many of them had learned to write with
rapidity and elegance. It was no uncommon thing for one, riding
along the line of works held by his corps, to see men at every step
of his progress, reading or studying in their primers, politely
bowing as he passed, as if they recognized in him the giver of the
blessings they had found.[footnoteRef:92] The success of these
schools inspired innumerable soldiers to attend, and provided an
outlet for their spare time. The men came in by reliefs, as picket
and fatigue duty would allow, three thousand in a week, for their
turn to drink at this little stream of knowledge. They showed great
eagerness to learn.[footnoteRef:93] The schools were held during
day and evening sessions. With soldiers spending so much time
learning, reading, and writing, there wass little time for sinful
behavior such as drinking or card playing. The efficacy of this
program was evident: [92: Moss, Annals of USCC, 453.] [93: Moss,
Annals of USCC, 453.]
Some, without any knowledge of the alphabet, learned to read in
easy sentences in six days. And for the majority, according to the
uniform report of the teachers, the average time required to learn
to read in easy sentences was only four weeks. The pupils carried
out the normal system thoroughly, for as soon as they had acquired
one letter they cast about at once to teach it to someone more
ignorant than themselves. So that one teacher, multiplied in this
geometrical ratio, was very soon felt as an educating power in the
entire regiment.[footnoteRef:94] [94: Moss, Annals of USCC,
453.]
The soldiers thus spent their time teaching each other how to
read and write, amplifying not only the overall education of the
regiment, but the will to learn. Those soldiers who did learn were
perceived to be more disciplined, respectful, and free from
vice.
The Commissions literacy efforts made by the Commission not only
served to educate soldiers, but increased comradery between them.
It was reported that the results of these school were very
satisfactory, the soldiers learning rapidly, and showing a great
desire to improve.[footnoteRef:95] The soldiers became more
cooperative as a result of their teachings: It was the uniform
testimony of the chaplains and the officers of the regiments that
those taught in our schools were more obedient and respectful to
their officers; discipline was improved; habits of vice were
checked, and in many cases genuine religious interest was excited.
[footnoteRef:96] Another such example is found here, I gave primers
to boys employed in the regiment. One of them, the colonel told me
to-day, lay by his fire until midnight, trying to decipher his
letters. I gave another to a bright youngster, and a few minutes
after I saw him sitting on a stump, while a little drummer-boy was
teaching him to read.[footnoteRef:97] [95: Moss, Annals of USCC,
442. ] [96: Moss, Annals of USCC, 453. ] [97: Moss, Annals of USCC,
712. ]
The USCCs reform efforts were certainly attained when it came to
their schools and literacy programs. The USCCs literacy programs
harkened back to the educational reform of pre-war evangelical
culture.
Women and the USCC
Initiated by a group of men belonging to a male Christian group,
the USCC did not formally incorporate women into its relief
programs until 1864. Several Ladies Christian Commissions did exist
in major cities such as Buffalo, Detroit, and San Francisco, but
not until May 1864 did the USCC actively seek to establish a Ladies
Christian Commission in every community throughout the loyal
states.[footnoteRef:98] Spearheaded in Philadelphia, the movement
grew rapidly, with women providing ideas and services for the USCC.
Of the 266 ladies auxiliaries that formed at this time, eighty of
them were in the city of Philadelphia alone.[footnoteRef:99] These
auxiliary groups were located in seventeen different states of the
Union. [98: Moss, Annals of USCC, 356. ] [99: Moss, Annals of USCC,
358.]
The Commission sought a wide range of contributions from women
with several proposed ways for them to serve.
If the Ninevites could consent to fast, and clothe themselves in
sack-clothe at the call of a strange prophet, surely the Christian
women of the Republic can consent to express a sympathy with their
suffering and imperiled country, by self-denial in dress and food;
by simplicity in both, to give outward and appropriate expression
to their grief for sins which have so provoked their beloved
Redeemer, and called forth from him such expressions of
displeasureAnd this leads me to show another thing each of you can
do. Love your country, and judge the characters of others in part,
by their regard for it. Love your country, and willingly sacrifice
anything its interests demand.[footnoteRef:100] [100: Ladies'
Christian commission, 6.. ]
This not only highlights the patriotic evangelicalism favored by
the Commission, but places the Civil War as punishment for the sins
of the nation, namely slavery, from God. The Commission told women
to Love your country. It is worthy of your love. None was ever more
so. Its institutions, its national character, its relations to the
human race, and its coming history, its relations to the church of
Christ, all claim for it a high place in our affections.
[footnoteRef:101] The nurturing idyllic vision of women was used to
portrayed the United States as some heroic lover, worthy of love
from the Ladies Christian Commission. Of course, the religious
nature of the Commissions goals was never forgotten, Pray for your
country, the government, the army, and the navy.[footnoteRef:102]
Moreover, the sacrifices of the enemy were used to inspire Northern
women into their own sacrifice, If Southern women will dress in
calicoes for such a government as their leaders are seeking to
establish, surely Northern women can for as much for our
Government.[footnoteRef:103] This sentiment also harkens back to
the economic purchasing power of women; in times of need or
political turmoil, this force has been called upon for boycotts and
resource conservation. Furthermore, the women were encouraged to
influence others within their community to join the relief effort.
The USCC sought women to establish monthly collections, to make
clothing for the soldiers, to gather stores, and to collect
contributions.[footnoteRef:104]This puts the women serving the
Commission as influential participants of society, having the
persuasive means to garner donations of time, money, and materials
from various members of their communities. Women purchased goods,
made clothing, cooked meals, You cannot over-estimate the power of
your sex in certain directions.[footnoteRef:105] The Commission
suggested activities that would even have been deemed
inappropriate, Might not every lady send a letter to the army every
month; not only to kindred there, but to friends, or even
strangers? The times and circumstances would remove from it every
shade of impropriety. Ascertain if any young man from your
neighborhood is without friends, or if a family find it difficult
to write frequently to the husband and father.[footnoteRef:106]
These activities allowed women the opportunity to participate in
the war effort. [101: Ladies Christian Commission, 7.] [102: Ladies
Christian Commission, 8.] [103: Ladies Christian Commission, 8.]
[104: Ladies Christian Commission, 19.] [105: Ladies Christian
Commission, 7.] [106: Ladies Christian Commission, 7.]
The war effort challenged social practices and even gave women
the power to organize their own groups within the Commission. In
the movement to initiate a Ladies Christian Commission, the
Reverend J. G. Maxwell offered a demanding course of action, Do
what you can to sustain the Christian CommissionWithin your own
parish see to it that a society be organized, if agree-able to the
officers and members of the Church, to secure a yearly subscription
in money, and such labor for the army as the Central Committee,
from time to time, may show to be needed for furnishing the
soldiers with hospital garments. See to it that while the necessity
for this kind of effort shall continue, your association be kept in
vigorous operation.[footnoteRef:107] The USCC was not just asking
for help from these women, but full participation. The women
responded with fervor and excitedly took on the resolutions the
Reverend put forward: [107: Ladies Christian Commission, 9.]
The Reverend J. G. Maxwell also put forth these resolutions,
which were unanimously adopted:
Resolved, As the unanimous expression of the sentiment of this
meeting that we recommend to the ladies of the various Evangelical
Churches in the loyal States, that they organize Ladies Christian
Commissions in each congregation, auxiliary to the United States
Christian Commission.
Resolved, That the United States Christian Commission be
requested to issue a circular embodying a form of organization,
with hints as to the process of organizing.[footnoteRef:108] [108:
Ladies Christian Commission, 10.]
The creation of Ladies Christian Commission groups throughout
the loyal states gave women the opportunity work within their own
congregations to further the goals of the USCC. Women thus took
charge of their own sub-groups of the USCC assuming the leadership
roles, fundraising, and work assignments. This empowered the women
to take control of not only their own work, but their own finances
as well. These Ladies Commissions were to be organized either by
establishing one in each church, or by forming a union society for
all the churches in the same neighborhood, as it might seem most
desirable in several localitiesMembership in the ladies societies
was to either be associate or active. Associate membership might
include all of either sex and every age who should pay into the
treasury one dollar annually; active membership would include the
ladies who gave also their time and service in collecting and
preparing clothing and stores for the soldiers.[footnoteRef:109]
Women had a say in whether or not they would be active or passive
members. Finally, charging the women a membership fee not only
ensured the cooperation of the women involved, but also raised
funds for the Commission to enact new programs and purchase
supplies. [109: Moss, Annals of USCC, 356-357.]
The Ladies Christian Commission not only inspired excitement in
the women, but the men of the USCC were grateful for their aid. The
confidence in the women was strongly felt,
Of them, and for them, we may confidently say, that nothing will
be left undone, which Christian women can with propriety possibly
do, to promote either the bodily welfare or religious benefit of
those who fight the battles of our nation. The loyal Christian
women of our beloved country will take double pleasure in honoring
our dear Redeemer while they bless the defenders of the Union, and
relieve those who suffer in its cause. It will give them the
profoundest joy to add to the cup of cold water ministered to the
thirsty soldier on the field of blood, the Christian grace of
having it given by a disciple of Jesus, and accompanied by the
comforting words of salvation. If, while they aid in saving the
nation by saving, cheering, strengthening its defenders, and serve
the cause of humanity by mitigating anguish and ministering comfort
to the sick, the wounded, the dying, they can at the same time in
all they do, glorify the precious Saviour who died for us, their
delight will be full, their reward abundant.[footnoteRef:110] [110:
Ladies Christian Commission, 10-11.]
It is clear that the work of the women was not just to aid
soldiers but to honor Jesus. Just as Jesus relieved believers
suffering, so too did the women of the Ladies Christian Commission
relieve the soldiers suffering. By serving the USCC, they act as
conduits of God. The feasibility and confidence in the
establishment of the Ladies Christian Commission can be observed in
its plan of action. The Commission was certain that few churches
will refuse to enter into it because Most of them will rejoice in
placing themselves side by side with the great body of the churches
of our Lord Jesus in so great a movement and so good a work. Few,
if any, who love our Saviour, our country, and the brave men of our
army and navy, will refuse to aid by giving their names and the
small fee required.[footnoteRef:111] There was general sureness
that churches would organize at once and the women in particular,
would be willing to cheerfully visit, without salary, such churches
as need any one to aid them in organizing, and thus this great
national movement can be thoroughly carried out without the expense
of a salaried agency.[footnoteRef:112] The USCCs work would bring
together nearly all in all our evangelical congregations, present
the whole church united in one grand work of patriotic Christian
benevolence, and secure to the United States Christian Commission
an immense fund, not less than a million of dollars, for the
unlimited expansion and vigorous prosecution of its great work in
all parts of the army and navy.[footnoteRef:113] [111: Ladies
Christian Commission, 11-12. ] [112: Ladies Christian Commission,
11-12.] [113: Ladies Christian Commission, 11-12.]
The establishment of the Ladies Christian Commission not only
provided women with the opportunity to contribute, but established
a web of evangelical congregations, all working together in
patriotic harmony to assist the Union troops. The needs of the
country and the love of Jesus were so intertwined that one could
not be separated from the other, Happily, a plan has been formed,
which, if carried out, cannot fail of honoring the Saviour,
benefiting the soldier, and helping the country on a truly national
scale.[footnoteRef:114] Contributing to the relief effort was
intrinsic to their faith. The Commission firmly believed its
honorable mission would be enacted swiftly, without compensation
for those involved, but that they would be willing to take up its
noble sacrifice. [114: Ladies Christian Commission, 11.]
The Ladies Christian Commission undoubtedly provided
immeasurable aid to not only the overall efforts of the USCC, but
to the broader war relief effort. The amassed money from these
groups, as reported to the Commission, amounted to nearly two
hundred thousand dollars.[footnoteRef:115] While the Commission
recognized potential discrepancy within these numbers, these
figures can by no means convey an adequate idea of the amount of
self-denying labor performed by these societies, or the results of
such labor. They cannot be estimated. Neither are they complete as
regards to the amount contributed, for the reason that a very large
amount of stores and boxes of clothing, prepared by ladies
societies, were forwarded to the Commission, whose valuation could
not be obtained.[footnoteRef:116] It was felt that And everywhere,
whether distinctly named or not, the ladies were the most numerous
and successful workers in providing means for the
Commission.[footnoteRef:117] The women, while providing the most
basic bodily needs for soldiers, also were able to advance their
work and gain managerial roles within the USCC, as displayed by the
creation of special diet kitchens. [115: Moss, Annals of USCC, 358.
] [116: Moss, Annals of USCC, 358-359. ] [117: Moss, Annals of
USCC, 356.]
Special Diet Kitchens
The USCC established special diet kitchens in the beginning of
1864. They provided soldiers in hospitals with diets specifically
designed for them to aid in their healing. The special diet
kitchens were an invention of Annie Wittenmyer, a former Sanitary
Agent for the state of Iowa. During her work with the Iowa troops
in the Western armies, she received and distributed donated
supplies under the direction of the state government. Being granted
such close access to troops, Wittenmyer turned her attention to
relieving the mens suffering within hospitals. Lemuel Moss
stated
Her observation of the sufferings and necessities of the men,
and her desire to see them effectually relieved, turned her
thoughts to the subject of hospital diet. While noticing the
efforts made by surgeons and their assistants to give to their
patients a suitable diet, and also noticing the endeavors to
supplement these efforts by voluntary labors, as described above,
she saw that the great want could not be overcome except by some
plan, comprehensive and exact, that should maintain military
discipline on the one hand while on the other it met the special
necessities of every individual patient. The result of her
observations and thoughts took shape in the system of Christian
Commission Special Diet Kitchens, with which her name will be
forever associated.[footnoteRef:118] [118: Moss, Annals of USCC,
663-664. ]
She quickly developed a plan for the special diet kitchens.
Wittenmyer, who became the General Superintendent of this service,
proposed her plan in the latter part of 1863, and it was adopted by
the USCC January 29, 1864.[footnoteRef:119] The Commission
authorized Wittenmyer to act in consultation and co-operation with
Reverend Edward P. Smith, General Field Agent of the United States
Christian Commission for the Army of the Cumberland, and with the
Field Agents for the other armies of the West and Southwest, and
with the Branches of the United States Christian Commission in
Pittsburg, Indianapolis, Louisville, St. Louis, Peoria, Chicago,
and other places, for the establishment of special diet kitchens in
connection with such hospitals in the Western and Southwestern
departments, and for their supply with the proper stores for
preparation, as they mutually deem wise and best.[footnoteRef:120]
[119: Moss, Annals of USCC, 666-667. ] [120: Moss, Annals of USCC,
668. ]
Wittenmyers plan for special diet kitchens took a disciplined,
multi-faceted approach. Her plan placed medicine and food on an
equal level when it came to the overall health of troops. Moreover,
special diets were only to be prescribed by physicians. Her plan
embraced the following points: the special diet kitchens, while
part of the regular hospital, were government kitchens and under
the control of the surgeon in charge, thus distinct from general
hospital kitchens; the USCC supplemented the government kitchens
with cooking utensils and supplies to secure the highest standards
and the variety of food necessary for such specialized diets;
experienced and competent Christian women managed each of the
special diet kitchens; these women derived their authority from the
USCC, received compensation from, made reports to, and cooperated
with agents and delegates of the Commission; these women were in
charge of all supplies and stores furnished; they also had the
privilege of visiting patients, reading to them, writing letters
for them, etc.; ward surgeons prescribed diets based on regular
diet lists with as much care as he prescribed medicine, these lists
were then returned to the kitchen, and governed the distribution of
the food; finally, all patients who were in too poor a condition to
go to the general table or to eat the food prepared in the general
kitchen, had their meals ordered from the special diet
kitchen.[footnoteRef:121] [121: Moss, Annals of USCC, 665-666.
]
Since the special diet kitchens were under the control of the
government, the soldiers were in some small way able to hold onto
their regimented lifestyle even when sick or wounded. The surgeon
prescribed and controlled their diet, while kitchen workers
prepared everything the soldiers consumed. The special diet
kitchens assured their needs would be met through supplemental
supplies, food, and funding coming from the USCC. These also
ensured that high-quality food would remain available to soldiers.
Moreover, the Commission provided and selected women to work within
the special diet kitchens, ensuring the constant presence of
available workers. These women workers not only prepared the food,
but delivered it to patients in a home-like manner, read to them,
prayed with them, and wrote letters for them, just as male USCC
delegates did. Not only did women start the kitchens but the
kitchens also served as an important avenue of service for women.
The women carried with them some authority, and were treated as
managers by fellow workers, and even received compensation for
their work, though it is not clear how much. The women, in
preparing these meals for soldiers, were in a sense concocting
their medicationsthe special diets were prescribed as carefully,
and their healing properties were strongly felt.
The value of a good diet in easing the wounded soldiers
suffering cannot be overestimated. Moss stated that It can hardly
be needful now to dwell upon the importance of a proper diet for
the sick. And yet Miss Nightingales terrible statement is probably
still true, that thousands of patients are annually starved, in the
midst of plenty, from want of attention to the ways which alone
make it possible for them to take food.[footnoteRef:122] The
special diet kitchens sought to combat this desire for attentive
care. In order to accomplish their goals, the special diet kitchens
were heavily regulated: [122: Moss, Annals of USCC, 664. ]
A Diet Bulletin is issued every day to the wards, exhibiting the
articles of full, half, and low diet appropriate for that day,
together with a list of articles which can be ordered on extra
d