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MEDICINE THROUGH TIME: REVISION BOOKLET

Core Content UNDERSTANDING (1=POOR; 5=EXCELLENT)1 2 3 4 5

1350-to the present dayDevelopments in medicine and medical treatment and their impactthroughout society;the nature and significance of changes,the extentof change and continuity and factors affecting these issues:the role of individuals, war, government, attitudes and beliefs in society, chance, science and technology.1350-1750Ideas about the cause of disease: belief in the supernatural; thesearch for a natural explanation of illness.Approaches to the treatment and prevention of disease and illness.The influence of the Church and the Renaissance on medicine.Medical ideas and practices at the time of the Black Death;continuitywith the Ancient World;the importance of Galen’s ideas and the influenceof religion.The medical Renaissance: new knowledge, ideas and technology;The development of printing and its significance;the influence of Vesalius;changes in the training of physicians and the reduction in Churchinfluence;the Royal Society: a scientific approach.Medicine and health care in the home and in hospitals.The significance of key individuals and events: William Harvey and thetheory of the circulation of the blood.1750-1900Ideas about the cause of disease: the development of the germtheory;the identification of microbes.Approaches to the treatment and prevention of diseases and illness;the development of vaccination.The influence of industrialisation and science on changes in medicine.New knowledge about the cause and prevention of disease: thesignificance of the work of Pasteur and Koch on microbes and vaccines;the importance of research teams.The fight against smallpox: Jennerand vaccination.Improvements in hospitals and training and the professionalisation ofthe roles of nurses, midwives, and doctors;the significance of Elizabeth

Garrett Anderson in the training of women.Informal medical treatment:within the home;patent medicines.The contribution of improvedcommunications and technology to medical research.The importance ofscience in the search for microbes and the ‘magic bullet’.The significance of key individuals and events: the Germ Theory;Florence Nightingale.1900 to the present dayIdeas about the cause of disease: growing understanding of microbesand of genetic conditions.Approaches to the treatment and prevention of diseases and illness;high-tech medicine.The influence of science and technology on changes in medicine.Increased understanding of the causes of disease and illness: thesignificance of Watson and Crick’s discovery of the DNA structure.Developments in the fight against disease: a new pharmaceuticalindustry and improvements in treatment; the development of antibiotics;increased use of vaccinations; work on genetic conditions. Improvedaccess to treatments available through state funding of medical andhospital care.Changes in the roles of doctors, nurses and midwives andthe increased regulation of training.Informal and alternative medicine: productsInformal and alternative medicine: products available for use at home,for example medicines and monitoring devices from pharmacies,alternative medicine such as acupuncture.The contribution of scienceand technology to research, diagnosis and treatment, for example inenabling x-rays, radiotherapy, scans and monitors.The significance of key individuals and events: Alexander Fleming; theestablishment of the National Health Service in 1948.Extension Study: Medicine and Public Health from Roman Britain to 1350The key features of medicine from Roman Britain to c1350,including theinfluence of the ideas of Hippocrates and Galen,the importance of publichealth and hygiene, the role of government and the effects of war.The role of religion and the work of the Catholic Church in the care of thesick.Supernatural and rational explanations for diseases and illness and thebelief in the Theory of the Four Humours.Changes in the training andwork of doctors.

The significance of key individuals and events: Galen; the Romanwithdrawal from Britain.

KEYWORDS:

For each of the keywords try and write a definition or meaning.

KEYWORD MEANINGALMSHOUSE

ANAESTHETIC

ANATOMY

ANTIBIOTICS

ANTISEPTIC

APOTHECARY

ASEPTIC

ASTROLOGY

BLACK DEATH

BLOODLETTING

CAUTERY

DISSECTION

DNA

EPIDEMIC

FLAGELLANTS

FOUR HUMOURS

HYGIENE

IMMUNISATION

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONINOCULATION

LAISSEZ FAIRE

LIGATURE

MAGIC BULLET

MEDIEVAL

MIASMA

MICROBES

NHS

PATENT MEDICINE

PHARMACY

PHYSIOLOGY

PLASTIC SURGERY

PUBLIC HEALTH

PURGING

RENAISSANCE

ROYAL SOCIETY

SEPSIS

SEWER

SPONTANEOUS GENERATIONSUPERNATURAL

SURGEON

TRANSFUSION

VACCINATION

ROMAN MEDCINE

IDEAS ABOUT THE CAUSE OF DISEASE

KEY TREATMENTSPUBLIC HEALTH

KEY INDVIDUALS MEDICAL TRAINING

EXAMPLES OF CONTINUITY/CHANGE

MEDIEVAL MEDCINE


KEY TREATMENTS THE BLACK DEATH

KEY INDIVIDUALS

THE ROLE OF THE CHURCH

CHANGE AND CONTINUITY FROM THE ROMAN PERIOD TO THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

Fill in the table below with example of change/continuity

CHANGE/CONTINUITY EXAMPLESCHANGE

CONTINUITY

RENAISSANCE KEY INDIVIDUAL 1: ANDREAS VESALIUS

What did he do?_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

How many of Galen’s errors did he correct?_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

What did he do differently?_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

What was the book called he wrote?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Why did his ideas have a limited impact?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

What factors were important in helping him make his discoveries and why?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

RENAISSANCE KEY INDIVIDUAL 2: WILLIAM HARVEY

What did he do?_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

How did he correct Galen?_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________





RENAISSANCE KEY INDIVIDUAL 3: AMBROSE PARE

What did he do?_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

How did he correct Galen?_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________





RENIASSANCE MEDCINE

KEY TREATMENTSEXAMPLES OF CHANGE/CONTINUITY

THE ROYAL SOCIETY KEY INDIVIDUALS

IMPACT

CHANGE AND CONTINUITY FROM THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD TO THE RENAISSANCE

Fill in the table below with example of change/continuity.

CHANGE/CONTINUITY EXAMPLESCHANGE

CONTINUITY

EDWARD JENNER AND VACCINATIONS: try and write a sentence to accompany each picture to explain the story of the Smallpox vaccination.

MEDICINE 1750-1900


KEY TREATMENTS

THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENTKEY INDIVIDUALS

EXAMPLES OF CHANGE/CONTINUITY

LOUIS PASTEURWHAT EXPERIMENTS DID I DO?___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHAT FACTORS HELPED ME MAKE MY DISCOVERIES?____________________________________________________________________

WHAT EXPERIMENTS DID I DO?___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHAT FACTORS HELPED ME MAKE MY DISCOVERIES?____________________________________________________________________

WHAT EXPERIMENT DID I DO TO CREATE THE GERM THEORY?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

ROBERT KOCH

WHAT EXPERIMENTS DID I DO?_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHY AM I IMPORTANT?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHAT FACTORS HELPED ME MAKE MY DISCOVERIES?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHY WAS THE STAINING OF BACTERIA IMPORTANT?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

FLORENCE NIGHTINGALEWHAT WAR WAS SHE INVOLVED IN? HOW WAS IT REPORTED? HOW DID SHE GET THERE?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHAT WAS NIGHTINGALE’S BACKGROUND? HOW DID SHE GET INTO NURSING? WHAT WAS PEOPLE’S ATTITUDE TO NURSES BEFORE HER?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHAT ABOUT NIGHTINGALE HOSPITALS?_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

ELIZBETH GARRET ANDERSON

WHAT OPPOSITION DID I FACE?_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHAT WAS MY BACKGROUND?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHY DID I GO TO FRANCE?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHY AM I IMPORTANT?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

EDWIN CHADWICK

JOHN SNOW

WHAT RECOMMENDATIONS DID MY BOOK MAKE?____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHAT BOOK DID I WRITE?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHY AM I IMPORTANT?__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHATY OPPOSITION DID I FACE?___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

HOW DID I PROVE CHOLERA WAS WATER BORNE?___________________________________________________

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sir_Edwin_Chadwick2.jpg

http://johnsnowbicentenary.lshtm.ac.uk/files/2012/07/John-Snow-cropped.jpg

JOSEPH BAZALGETTE

HOW DID I PROVE CHOLERA WAS WATER BORNE?___________________________________________________

WHAT WAS MY BACKGROUND?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHAT WAS MY ROLE IN BUILDING LONDON’S SEWERS?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

PATENT MEDICINES AND PHARMACIES

Fill in the missing words in the paragraphs below on patent medicines and pharmacies.

During the 19th century there was less use of herbal remedies. However, apothecaries sold many ‘p_________________’. These preparations tooks many forms such as coloured liquids; alchold; lard; wax; ginger and arsenic.

The ingredients for pills were made into a p_____________ and then shaped by hand. The use of pills was revolutionised in 1844 when William B_______________ invented a machine to make standardised pills that were produced far more quickly than being made by hand.

Thomas Beecham began selling his pills in 1847 and Jesse Boot transformed his family shop into a chain of pharmacies in the late 19th century. By the end of the 19th century British government r_________________ stopped many of the harmful ingredients being used. Meanwhile, the growth of the chemical industry meant that companies such as Wellcome, Boots and B________________ could produce their brand of medicines on a national basis, and they all used advertising in newspapers and posters to increase their sales. This type of business is called the p_____________________ industry.

MISSING WORDS:

Preparations/pharmaceutical/regulations/paste/Beecham/Brockedon

WHAT WAS MY BACKGROUND?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MAGIC BULLETS: PAUL EHRLICH

MEDICINE 1900 TO THE

PRESENT DAY


KEY TREATMENTS

NEW TECHNOLOGIES

KEY INDIVIDUALS

THE NHS

WHAT DID EMIL VON BEHRING DO?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHAT FACTORS HELPED ME MAKE MY DISCOVERIES?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHAT DID EMIL VON BEHRING DO?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

WHAT ARE MAGIC BULLETS?_________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

HOW WAS IT DISCOVERED?

WHAT WAS THE ROLE OF FLEMING?

WHAT ABOUT FLOREY AND CHAIN?

PENICILLIN

WHY WAS WORLD WAR TWO IMPORTANT? WHAT ABOUT THE ROLE

OF GOVERNMENT?

WHAT ABOUT THE DRUG COMPANIES AND COUNTRIES INVOLVED?

DNA

KEY QUESTION: ANSWER:WHO WERE WATSON AND CRICK?

WHAT WAS THE ROLE OF MAURICE WILKINS?

WHAT ABOUT ROSALIND FRANKLIN?

WHY WAS DNA SUCH AN IMPORTANT DISCOVERY?

WHAT FACTORS HELPED THE DISCOVERY OF DNA?

MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH FROM ROMAN BRITAIN TO 1350

KEY INDIVIDUAL 1: HIPPOCRATES

KEY REASON WHY HE IS IMPORTANT

WHY DOES THIS MAKE HIM IMPORTANT?

1. THEORY OF THE FOUR HUMOURS

2. HIPPOCRATIC OATH

3. CLINICAL OBSERVATION

4. CASE STUDIES

KEY INDIVIDUAL 2: GALEN

KEY QUESTION DETAILS:WHAT TIME PERIOD DID GALEN WORK DURING?

WHY IS HE IMPORTANT?

WHAT WAS HE NOT ALLOWED TO DO?

WHAT WERE HIS KEY DISCOVERIES?

WHAT MISTAKES DID HE MAKE?

WHY WERE HIS IDEAS ADOPTED BY THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

ROMAN PUBLIC HEALTH

KEY QUESTION DETAILSWHY WERE AQUEDUCTS IMPORTANT?

WHY WERE PUBLIC TOILETS IMPORTANT?

WHY WERE BATHS IMPORTANT?

WHY WERE SEWERS IMPORTANT?

WHAT ROLE DID THE GOVERNMENT PLAY IN PUBLIC HEALTH?

WHO DID THE ROMANS CREATE HOSPITALS FOR?

THE ROLE OF RELIGION AND THE CATHOLIC CHURCH IN CARE FOR THE SICK

Who were monastery hospitals for?________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Give an example of a medieval hospital?______________________________________________________________________________________________________

What does the above medieval picture show us about the care and treatment received in medieval monastery hospitals?______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Who did most people rely on for treatment?___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

CHANGES IN MEDICAL TRAINING

Read these statements and colour code according to whether they are examples of continuity or change in medical training between the Roman and Medieval periods

KEYEXAMPLES OF CHANGEEXAMPLES OF CONTINUITY

Doctors were not respected

Galen’s ideas were still taught.

In the Roman period doctors were not highly respected

The church became very powerful

Dissection was frowned upon or banned.

By the 12th century there was a separate course for doctors based on texts called the Ars Medicinae (Art of Medicine)

Doctors had to prove their qualifications to practice by the 13th century

There was little change as many doctors continued to read books or work with a successful doctor

Education and training were controlled by the church in the Middle Ages

The Theory of the Opposites was adopted from the Theory of the Four Humours

Students in the Middle Ages were not encouraged to study anatomy or look for mistakes in Galen’s teachings.

Bloodletting was common

CHANGES IN PUBLIC HEALTH

Read these statements and colour code according to whether they are examples of continuity or change in public health between the Roman and Medieval periods


Taxes were not collected for public health

There were few aqueducts, public baths and toilets.

When the Roman empire collapsed so did public health.

Strong government meant public health was good.

Animals were slaughtered in the street.

There was no strong government so public health was worse

Wealthy medieval people still had good public health.

Towns were not built near swamps because the Romans feared malaria.

There were public Human excrement Taxes were collected In the 13th century

toilets in London, Leicester and other places in the Middle Ages

was common on the street.

for public health. lead pipes were laid in London.

In 1281 the government attempted to stop pigs being allowed onto London’s streets.

The people in the Middle Ages were not taxed to pay for public health.

The standard of hygiene for monks and nuns was high in the Middle Ages.

In 1347 a Sanitary Act was passed to try and keep the streets cleaner.

CHANGES IN IDEAS ABOUT CAUSES AND TREATMENTS

Read these statements and colour code according to whether they are examples of continuity or change in public health between the Roman and Medieval periods


Jews were blamed for the Black Death.

People still followed Galen’s ideas.

The Catholic church discouraged dissection.

The Theory of the Opposites was developed from the Theory of the Four Humours.

Prevention of disease was important for the Romans.

Astrology or the movement of the planets was blamed for disease.

The Romans believed in the Gods.

People preyed to god.

Strapping a live chicken to your head was thought a cure for the Black Death.

Bloodletting was common

Flagellants whipped themselves during the Black Death of 1348

Miasma or bad smells was a cause of disease.

Most people relied on herbal remedies and cannot afford a doctor

The Romans didn’t build near swamps as they feared malaria

Most people relied on the wife or mother to provide simple healthcare.

CHANGES IN MEDICAL TRAINING

PERIOD EXAMPLES OF CONTINUITY EXAMPLES OF CHANGEROMAN

MEDIEVAL

RENAISSANCE

1750-1900

1900 TO THE PRESENT DAY

THE FACTORS IN MEDICINE

FACTOR EXAMPLESWAR

INDIVIDUAL GENIUS

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

CHANCE/LUCK

RESEARCH TEAMS

EXPERIMENTATION

MEDICINE THROUGH TIME: AN OVERVIEW

PERIOD EXAMPLES OF CONTINUITY EXAMPLES OF CHANGETHE ROMAN PERIOD

THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD

THE RENIASSANCE

1750-1900

1900 TO THE

PRESENT DAY

PRACTICE QUESTIONS:

Below are some practice questions. Have a good at the different question types and make sure you are happy with the success criteria for each question type. I am more than happy to give you feedback on any of these questions.

THE 8 MARK QUESTION:

Success Criteria:

Explain what can be learned from the sources Use the information from the sources-quote or explain what the picture shows Make a clear inference Use your own knowledge

EXAMPLE QUESTION 1: What do sources A and B show about changes in attitudes towards nurses between the start and end of the nineteenth century?

Source A An extract from Martin Chusslewitt, a novel by Charles Dickens, published in 1844. In his introduce Dickens wrote that ‘Mrs Betsy Prig is an accurate description of a hospital nurse.’

“How are we?” asked Mrs Gamp.

Mrs Prig said, “He’s as cross as two sticks. He wouldn’t have washed if he’d had his own way.”“She put soap in my mouth,” said the unfortunate patient, feebly.“Couldn’t you keep it shut them?” said Mrs Prig.

Source B: A picture of Florence Nightingale

EXAMPLE QUESTION 2: What do sources A and B show about changes in the role of government between the Middle Ages and the twentieth century?

Source A: Sanitation in the Middle Ages, from an old woodcut

Source B: Government legislation means that every cigarette packet carries an obvious health warning

EXAMPLE QUESTION 3: What do sources A and B show us about changes in medical training between the middle ages and the twenty first century?

Source A: A 14th century picture showing a physician treating a patient; the people behind the physician may be his apprentices.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cig.packet.750pix.jpg

Source B: Description of medical courses to become a doctor from the NHS website, 2014

Courses in medicine are offered by a number of medical schools. Please use our coursefinder to locate these.

"Standard" five-year degree course Courses including the pre-medical year, for candidates with non-science

subjects to offer at A level (or equivalent). The pre-medical year is a preliminary course in chemistry, physics and biology and lasts normally 30 weeks

Accelerated courses for graduates (four years)

THE 6 MARK QUESTION:

Success Criteria:

Spend 8-10 minutes on this type of question Aim for one PEA paragraph Explain the key features and give specific examples

QUESTION 1: The boxes below show two different periods. Choose one and describe the key features of the care that was available to patients in English hospitals during that period.

The late middle ages The late nineteenth century, after the work of Florence Nightingale

QUESTION 2: The boxes below show two different periods. Choose one and describe the key features of medical training in that period.

Training of doctors in the middle ages Training of doctors in the Twentieth Century

QUESTION 3: The boxes below show two different periods. Choose one and explain the key features of public health in that period

The middle ages The beginning of the nineteenth century

QUESTION 4: The boxes below show two different periods. Choose one and explain the key features of the role of government in that period.

The Roman period The Twentieth Century

THE 12 MARK QUESTION

Success Criteria:

Spend 15 minutes on this type of question Three paragraphs A conclusion-especially if it is a how far question

QUESTION 1: Why have science and technology been so important in improving medical understanding since 1850? (12)

Louis Pasteur published his germ theory in 1861.X-Rays were discovered in 1895.Crick and Watson discovered the structure of DNA in 1953.

QUESTION 2: How important for the prevention of disease was Edward Jenner’s discovery of a smallpox vaccination in 1796? (12)

Lady Mary Wortley Montague had her children inoculated against smallpox in 1721.The British government made vaccination against smallpox compulsory in 1852.Louis Pasteur tested a vaccine against rabies in 1886.

QUESTION 3: In what ways did the training of doctors change during the period c1350–c1900?

Vesalius carried out dissections during the Renaissance period.1815: The Society of Apothecaries and the Royal College of Surgeons introduced examinations.1884: Edinburgh University opened a new medical school, containing research laboratories.

QUESTION 4: Why did the standard of medical treatment improve so rapidly during the twentieth century?

1909: Salvarsan 606 was discovered.1948–49: In its first year, £373 million was spent on the NHS.1956: A dialysis machine was first used for people with kidney problems.

QUESTION 5: How far did the church have a positive role in medicine during the period c1350–c1750?

You may use the following in your answer and any other information of your own.A picture of the Hotel Dieu* in Paris during the fifteenth century. Similar buildings existed in Britain.

QUESTION 6: Why was there so much opposition to Jenner’s vaccination against smallpox? (12)

You may use the following in your answer and any other information of your own.

During the eighteenth century, many doctors were paid to inoculate people.

1797: The Royal Society rejected Jenner’s report about his theory of vaccination.

Cowpox samples sometimes became contaminated with smallpox.

QUESTION 7: Why have science and technology been so important in improving the treatment of illness since 1900?


1909: Salvarsan 606 discovered. 1958: Kidney dialysis became available at three hospitals in Britain. 1983: A drug was developed to prevent the body from rejecting

transplants.

QUESTION 8: How much have hospitals changed since 1800?


The women’s ward at the Middlesex Hospital, London, c1800.

QUESTION 9: How much impact did discoveries during the Renaissance period have on medicine? (12)


Harvey published his book about the circulation of the blood in 1628.

In 1673 a Dutch scientist described bacteria which he had seen under a

microscope. Many physicians used bloodletting and purging in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

THE 16 MARK QUESTION

Success Criteria:

Like a traditional essay Introduction PEA paragraphs Balanced argument Clear conclusion and most important reason

QUESTION 1: How much did the role of government in public health change from the Roman period until c1350? Explain your answer.


A Roman system in London provided fresh water to several thousands of people.

After 410AD, England became a number of rival kingdoms. In 1345, the local authorities in London increased the fine for

throwing litter in the street.

QUESTION 2: How much did the role of government in public health change during the period c1350–c1850? Explain your answer.


In 1345, the local authorities in London increased the fine for throwing litter in the

street. In 1611, King James I gave money to Hugh Myddleton’s project to

bring water from the River Ware to London. 1848: Public Health Act.

QUESTION 3: ‘The Roman withdrawal from Britain was a turning point in medicine and public health’. Do you agree? Explain your answer.


Roman villas in Britain usually had a good standard of hygiene. During the Anglo-Saxon period, collections of herbal remedies were known as ‘Leechbooks’. In the Middle Ages medical training was based on Galen’s teachings.

QUESTIONN 4: How effective were the actions taken by governments and local authorities to deal with the problems of epidemics in the period c1650–c1900? Explain your answer.


1665: The authorities in London ordered prayers to be said during a plague

epidemic. 1872: Compulsory vaccination against smallpox was enforced. 1875: A Public Health Act forced towns to appoint Health Inspectors.

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