Tampere University of Technology Modelling of Spray Combustion, Emission Formation and Heat Transfer in Medium Speed Diesel Engine Citation Taskinen, P. (2005). Modelling of Spray Combustion, Emission Formation and Heat Transfer in Medium Speed Diesel Engine. (Tampere University of Technology. Publication; Vol. 562). Tampere University of Technology. Year 2005 Version Publisher's PDF (version of record) Link to publication TUTCRIS Portal (http://www.tut.fi/tutcris) Take down policy If you believe that this document breaches copyright, please contact [email protected], and we will remove access to the work immediately and investigate your claim. Download date:05.05.2018
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Tampere University of Technology
Modelling of Spray Combustion, Emission Formation and Heat Transfer in MediumSpeed Diesel Engine
CitationTaskinen, P. (2005). Modelling of Spray Combustion, Emission Formation and Heat Transfer in Medium SpeedDiesel Engine. (Tampere University of Technology. Publication; Vol. 562). Tampere University of Technology.
Year2005
VersionPublisher's PDF (version of record)
Link to publicationTUTCRIS Portal (http://www.tut.fi/tutcris)
Take down policyIf you believe that this document breaches copyright, please contact [email protected], and we will remove access tothe work immediately and investigate your claim.
Tampereen teknillinen yliopisto. Julkaisu 562 Tampere University of Technology. Publication 562 Pertti Taskinen Modelling of Spray Combustion, Emission Formation and Heat Transfer in Medium Speed Diesel Engine Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Technology to be presented with due permission for public examination and criticism in Konetalo Building, Auditorium K1702, at Tampere University of Technology, on the 2nd of December 2005, at 12 noon. Tampereen teknillinen yliopisto - Tampere University of Technology Tampere 2005
ISBN 952-15-1476-0 (printed) ISBN 952-15-1498-1 (PDF) ISSN 1459-2045
i
ABSTRACT This thesis deals with the spray combustion, emissions (NOx and soot) formation and heat transfer
theories of phenomena and their modelling related to medium speed diesel engines. The modelling
work was done with the Marintek A/S version of the open source code KIVA-II program by
implementing new sub-models or by modifying old models of the phenomena into the code.
The aim of the work has been to develop a simulation tool for medium speed diesel engines that can
be applied later in the optimisation process of the engine economy with the allowed pollution level
by computing different cases with the different engine parameters such as compression ratio, fuel
injection timing, injection rate shaping, direction of injection, diameter of the nozzle hole etc. In
developing work of the KIVA-II code main attention was focused on the following phenomena: the
drop vaporisation under a high-pressure environment, the soot formation modelling by the Hiroyasu
TM models and the or the oxidation by the NSC model, the soot radiation modelling by the
simplified model (pure emission) or the DOM, the convective heat transfer modelling and the spray
turbulence modelling by the RNG/STD k-e turbulence models.
The high pressure drop vaporisation model was developed based on the equality of the fugacity of
the fuel in liquid and the vapour phase on the drop surface. The mass fraction of fuel vapour in the
drop surface is much larger with the high pressure model than with the original low-pressure model
yielding a more realistic ignition of the fuel vapour and air mixture and the combustion.
The original TM soot formation model of the code was a failure and this was rectified. The
Hiroyasu soot formation and the NSC soot oxidation model were added into the code and
formulated into the source term form using either the computational cell average or the EDC-
weighted values of the cell quantities in the soot transport equation. The soot emissions after
modifications were a more realistic level than in the case of the original formulation and the
models. Also the lack of an NSC soot oxidation model able to predict the soot oxidation rate
correctly was taken into account by the extra constant in the model.
The soot radiation was taken into account in the internal energy transport equation by the simplified
model (optically thin radiant media), i.e. pure emission from the radiant media or the RTE solved
by the DOM. The radiant heat flux to piston top becomes the more realistic level with the DOM
than with the simplified model compared to the experimental values of the slightly other type diesel
ii
engine than the modelled medium speed diesel engine. This shows that the absorption of soot
radiation in the radiant region must also be taken into consideration. Effect of the soot radiation on
temperature of the gas appears only in the soot region, not in the fuel vapour reaction zone where
the soot is not found. Therefore the soot radiation does not reduce maximum temperatures of the
gas in the fuel vapour reaction zone or in the nitrogen oxide (NOx) formation regions near the
reaction zone and so influence in the NOx emissions from the engine.
The original temperature wall function of the KIVA-II based on the modified Reynolds analogy
under-predicts the heat flux to wall considerably. The model was replaced by the model which was
based on the use of a one-dimensional energy equation and the correlation of dimensionless
temperature including an increasing turbulent Prandtl number near the wall. The heat flux to piston
top with the new model was a more realistic level than with the original model of the code
compared to the experimental values of the other type diesel engine.
The modified RNG k-epsilon model was developed based on the results obtained with the STD and
the basic RNG k-e models. According to the results mentioned above the STD model is too
diffusive while the basic RNG is too less diffusive in the high rate of the strain region (spray region)
and therefore the fuel vapour mixing (combustion) occurs in an un-satisfactorily way. In the
turbulence model developed the additional term of the epsilon equation was modified suitably and
therefore the spray spreading and the combustion occur more realistically compared to either the
basic RNG or the STD k-e turbulence model cases. The gas turbulence intensity was reduced in the
early phase of combustion and emphasized in the later phase of combustion compared to the
situation with the STD model. The cylinder pressure curve becomes by far the closest with the new
turbulence model than either of both the models mentioned above. In the work the failure of the
basic RNG turbulence model of the KIVA-3V was found and rectified.
iii
PREFACE This work has been carried out at the Institute of Energy and Process Engineering, Tampere
University of Technology (TUT). The work has been funded by the PROMOTOR program
(Mastering the Diesel Process (MDP)) of the National Technology Agency of Finland (Tekes) and
the CFD Graduate school program of the Aerodynamic Laboratory of Helsinki University of
Technology (HUT).
I wish to express my gratitude to Professor Reijo Karvinen, advisor of my dissertation for his
guidance during this work. I would also like to thank all the staff at the Institute of Energy and
Process Engineering.
Furthermore, I wish to extend my thanks to Dr. Eilif Pedersen at the Marintek A/S Research Centre
of the Sintef Group, Trondheim, Norway for his unique guidance with the KIVA-II code and to
Professor Martti Larmi at the Internal Combustion Engine Laboratory (ICEL) of Helsinki
University of Technology for the discussions and meetings on the MDP project. I would also like
to thank Mr. Gösta Liljenfeldt at the Wartsila Diesel Company in Vaasa for the support during the
entire co-operation time of the medium speed diesel engine process modelling and Mr. James
Rowland for the high quality reviewing the English of the manuscript.
Finally, I must thank to my roommate Licentiate of Technology Vesa Wallen, for the interesting
and inspiring discussions on the work.
Tampere, May 2005
Pertti Taskinen
iv
v
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT i
PREFACE iii
CONTENTS v
NOMENCLATURE ix
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 General aspects 1
1.2 Diesel process modelling 2
1.3 Goal and outline of this thesis 5
2. THEORY OF DIESEL PROCESS MODELLING 7
2.1 Governing field equations 7
2.2 Main sub-models in diesel process modelling 8
2.2.1 Turbulence modelling 9
2.2.2 Fuel spray modelling 12
2.2.2.1 General aspects 12
2.2.2.2 Fuel jet break-up/atomisation regimes 13
2.2.2.3 Short review of the fuel spray models 15
2.2.3 Drop dynamics 21
2.2.4 Drop vaporisation 23
2.2.5 Fuel vapour combustion 27
2.2.5.1 General aspects 27
2.2.5.2 Premixed combustion 29
2.2.5.3 Diffusion combustion 30
2.2.6 Emissions modelling 39
2.2.6.1 Nitrogen oxide emissions 40
2.2.6.2 Soot emissions 41
2.2.6.2.1 Soot formation 41
2.2.6.2.2 Soot oxidation 45
2.2.6.3 Soot modelling by EDC-model formulation 47
vi
2.2.7 Heat transfer 49
2.2.7.1 Convective heat transfer 49
2.2.7.2 Heat transfer by radiation 51
3. AUTHOR’S IMPLEMENTED/DEVELOPED SUBMODELS AND
THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO THE MODELLING TOOL FOR
DIESEL PROCESS ANALYSIS 57
3.1 Sub-models in baseline Marintek KIVA-II 57
3.2 Sub-models used in current KIVA-II 57
3.3 List of author’s publications related to this work 59
4. MODELLING RESULTS AND THEIR EXPERIMENTAL
VERIFICATION 61
4.1 Turbulence results with the STD, basic RNG and modified RNG k-e models 61
4.1.1 Turbulence intensity 61
4.1.2 Turbulence kinetic energy distribution 64
4.1.3 Turbulence viscosity 66
4.1.4 Spray spreading 67
4.2 Results of drops high/low-pressure vaporisation formulation 69
4.2.1 Amount of fuel vapour in combustion chamber 70
4.2.2 Pressure of cylinder gas 71
4.2.3 Cumulative heat release 71
4.3 Effect of turbulence model on combustion results 72
4.3.1 Pressure of cylinder gas 73
4.3.2 Cumulative heat release 74
4.3.3 Temperature of gas 75
4.4 Nitrogen oxide emissions 78
4.5 Soot emissions 82
4.6 Heat transfer 88
5. CONCLUSIONS 93
6. REFERENCES 97
vii
APPENDIX A: Modelled engine specifications
Computational mesh of modelled engine
APPENDIX B: Flow chart of numerical modelling tool
viii
ix
NOMENCLATURE Latin a Parent drop radius [ ]m
a Premixed combustion model constant [ ]−a Soot formation model constant [ ]s/1
0a Soot nucleus formation model constant [ ]sgpart /
( T,fa v ) Soot absorption coefficient [ ]m/1
A Combustion model constant [ ]−
fA Hiroyasu soot formation model constant [ ]s/1
wallA Total surface area of combustion chamber [ ]2m
b Premixed combustion model constant [ ]−b Soot formation model constant [ ]spartcm /3
10 B,B Wave, drop break-up model constants [ ]−
MH B,B Spalding heat and mass transfer number [ ]−
SC
CCC
CCCC
,,,
,,,,
µηη
η
21
321
Turbulence model constant [ ]−
4321 C,C,C,C HG spray model constants [ ]−
vk
Fdb
C,C,C,C,C TAB spray model constants [ ]−
DC Drop drag coefficient [ ]−
d,vc Specific heat of drop at constant volume [ ]kgKJ /
d,pc Specific heat of drop at constant pressure [ ]kgKJ /
gas,pc Specific heat of gas at constant pressure [ ]kgKJ /
χC Time scale ratio of LFM combustion model [ ]−
MC Turbulent time scale constant of CHTC combustion model [ ]−
NSCC Extra constant in NSC soot combustion model [ ]−
x
d Diameter [ ]m
D Diffusion coefficient [ ]sm /2
RE / Activation temperature [ ]K
1E Activation energy [ ]molkJ /
f Soot formation model constant [ ]s/1
f Weighted function [ ]−
Cf Carbon factor in soot formation model [ ]−VL f,f Fugacity of fuel liquid and vapour [ ]Pa
F Aerodynamic force in TAB spray model [ ]N
TM F,F Correction factors in drop vaporisation model [ ]−g Soot formation model constant [ ]s/1
0g Soot formation model constant [ ]spartcm /3
jg Acceleration due to gravity [ ]2/ sm
Ch Heat transfer coefficient [ ]KmW 2/
h Specific enthalpy [ ]kgKJ /
i Dummy index [ ]−I Specific internal energy [ ]kgJ /
( )ω,rI Local directional intensity of radiation [ ]srmW 2/
( )TIb Intensity of black body radiation [ ]srmW 2/
( )rI i Local intensity of radiation in direction i [ ]2/ mW
j Dummy index [ ]−
wJ Convective heat flux to wall [ ]2/ mW
J Total heat flux vector [ ]2/ mW
k Dummy index [ ]−k Turbulent kinetic energy [ ]22 / sm
k Heat conductivity of gas [ ]mKW /
k TAB spray model (spring) constant [ ]mN /
fik Rate constant of forward reaction i [ ]scmmol 3/
xi
Ak , Rate constant of soot oxidation reaction Bk [ ]sPacmg 2/
Tk Rate constant of soot oxidation reaction [ ]scmg 2/
Zk Rate constant of soot oxidation reaction [ ]Pa/1
K Mass transfer coefficient [ ]smkg 2/
1K Pre-exponential factor of combustion reaction [ ]scmmol 3/
iKC
, Equilibrium constants of reactions i and ii iiKC
[ ]−
l Dummy index [ ]−l Length scale [ ]m
L Latent heat of vaporisation [ ]kgJ /
Le Lewis number [ ]−
AL , , Atomisation, turbulence and wave perturbation length scales TL WL [ ]m
IL , Intact core and break-up lengths BUL [ ]m
λL Taylor micro scale of turbulence [ ]m
m Mass [ ]kg
m Number of hydrogen atoms in fuel molecule [ ]−M Mole mass [ ]molg /
n Soot refractive index [ ]−n Number of carbon atoms in fuel molecule [ ]−N Number of drops after break-up [ ]−
0N Number of parent drops [ ]−
Oh Ohnesorge number [ ]−p Pressure [ ]Pa
Pr Prandtl number [ ]−
P~ Probability density function [ ]−
rq Radiation heat flux [ ]2/ mW
rQ Reaction enthalpy [ ]molJ /
dQ& Heat transfer rate from the gas to the drop [ ]W
*Q Heat release in fine structure [ ]kgW /
xii
r Radius of drop [ ]m
fur Stoichiometric oxygen requirement pr. unit mass of fuel [ ]−
32r Sauter mean radius [ ]m
R Universal gas constant [ ]molKJ /
ijR EDC-combustion model factor [ ]−
C,R& Soot or its nucleus oxidation rate [ ]sm3/1
f,R& Soot or its nucleus formation rate [ ]sm3/1
OH,sR& Soot oxidation rate by OH-radical [ ]sm3/1
totalR Surface mass oxidation rate of soot particle [ ]smg 2/
Re Reynolds number [ ]−
is Direction vector in direction i [ ]−
IS~ Source term of specific internal energy [ ]smJ 3/
mS~ Source term of mass [ ]smkg 3/
jUS~ Source term of momentum [ ]3/ mN
lYS~ Source term of species concentration [ ]smkg 62 /
Sc Schmidt number [ ]−Sh Sherwood number [ ]−t Time, time scale [ ]sT Temperature [ ]K
Ta Taylor number [ ]−
iu′ , Fluctuation of velocity component of gas by turbulence ju′ [ ]sm /
i,pu′ Velocity component of drop by turbulent dispersion [ ]sm /
τu Shear speed [ ]sm /
iU~ , jU~ Reynolds average velocity component of gas [ ]sm /
lkv Stoichiometric coefficient [ ]−
xiii
V Drop velocity [ ]sm /
LdV Liquid fuel molar volume [ ]molm /3
relV Drop and gas velocity difference [ ]sm /
sV Volume of the radiation layer [ ]3m
iw Weight factor in direction i [ ]−
kw Difference of weight of specie after chemical reaction k [ ]scmmol 3/
sprayW& Rate of work of spray on the turbulence [ ]3/ mskg
We Weber number [ ]−x Drop displacement from its equilibrium position [ ]m
ix Coordinate [ ]m
y Drop dimensionless displacement from its equilibrium position [ ]−y Distance from wall [ ]m+y Dimensionless distance from wall [ ]−
Y Mass fraction [ ]−Z Compressibility factor [ ]−
Greek
β Soot absorption model constant [ ]−
lβ Conversion parameter of combustion products [ ]−χ Reacting fraction of the fine structures [ ]−
heatχ Fraction of the heated fine structures [ ]−
ijδ Kronecker delta [ ]−
ε Dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy [ ]32 / sm
*γ Mass fraction occupied by the fine structures [ ]−
λγ Mass fraction occupied by fine structure regions [ ]−
xiv
η Ratio of turbulent to mean-strain time scale [ ]−η Parameter of EDC combustion model [ ]−η Collision efficiency [ ]−κ Von Karman constant [ ]−Λ Wave length [ ]m
µ Dynamic viscosity [ ]mskg /
ν Kinematical viscosity [ ]sm /2
ρ Density [ ]3/ mkg
σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant [ ]KmW 2/
k,σσε Turbulent Prandtl number of ε and k [ ]−τ Break-up time [ ]sτ Time scale [ ]sτ Residence time of the fine structure reactor [ ] s
*τ Residence time of the fine structure [ ]s
Cτ Characteristic time scale [ ]sΩ Solid angle [ ]sr
Subscripts
A Atomisation
C Carbon, Chemical, Critical
d Drop
e Eddy break-up
F Fuel
g Gas
l Laminar, specie l
min Minimum
n Nucleus
OH Hydroxyl radical
xv
ox Oxygen
s Soot
t Turbulent
vap Vapour
w Wall, Surface wave
∞ Ambient
Superscripts
‘ Fluctuating part of variable
* Fine structure
o Fine structure surroundings
~ Favre average
+ Drop surface
- Time average
n At time step n
Comb Combustion
Htr Heat transfer
Liq Liquid
Spray Interaction with the spray
Vap Vapour
Acronyms
AS Abramzon and Sirignano
CHTC Characteristic time combustion model
CL Cliffe-Lever
DOM Discrete ordinate method
EDC Eddy dissipation concept
FS Fine structure
xvi
HG Huh-Gosman
KH Kelvin-Helmholz
LFM Laminar flamelet model
MH Magnussen and Hjertager
NSC Nagle and Strickland-Constable
NSP Number of species component
RK Redlich-Kwong
RM Ranz-Marshall
RTE Radiative transport equation
SMR Sauter mean radius
TAB Taylor analogy break-up
TM Tesner-Magnussen
1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 General aspects
Medium speed diesel engines are used in ships and small power plants. High reliability, efficiency
(economy) and nowadays especially low nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate emissions are the
desirable features of these engines (Taskinen et al., 1997, Taskinen et al., 1998, Taskinen, 2000,
Taskinen, 2001, Weisser et al., 1997). Advantages of the diesel engine compared to the spark
ignition (SI) engine are its high fuel economy and therefore its low carbon dioxide emissions as
well as low un-burnt hydro-carbon emissions. Correspondingly a major drawback of it has been the
high particle (soot) matter emissions, but nowadays these harmful to health emissions have been
succeeded to reduce by new fuel injection and exhaust gas after treatment techniques. Nitrogen
oxide emissions depend highly on the temperature of the gas in the cylinder and its residence time
at high temperature. High speed diesel and typical SI engines produce almost the same level of
nitrogen oxide emission, while medium or low speed diesel engines may produce much larger NOx
emission due to the much longer residence (reaction) time of gas at high temperature.
The improvement of the efficiency and reduction of emission formations of diesel engines can
nowadays be done by a sophisticated numerical simulation tool and/or experimentally. The
numerical simulation of the spray combustion process of a medium speed diesel engine is quite a
new field, whereas from a small engine field a lot of references/data are available. The reason for
this is that competition in the passenger car industry is so intensively keen to develop new engines
that have both the best low emissions and economies possible. The engine process modelling saves
time and is an investment in the developing process to get the engine to the market. A numerical
simulation tool obtains solutions with the different engine construction parameters such as fuel
The divergence of radiation heat flux in Equation (131) is obtained by integrating the RTE over the
solid angle 4π . The result is:
(134) ⎥⎦⎤
⎢⎣⎡ ΩΩ∫−⋅⋅= drITTfa gasv ),(4),(
4
0
4π
σr⋅∇ q
If the radiation medium is optically thin (an absorption path length is large) the absorption integral
can be neglected and this leads to a simplified model of the soot radiation (pure emission). In Fig.
2.8 is shown the principle of the simplified model of soot radiation.
53
Soot region
Piston top
Spray region
Fig. 2.8 Soot radiation into walls in optically thin radiation media
In this case all the radiation of soot in the flame region goes into the walls of combustion chamber.
(135) 4),(4 gasgasv TTfa ⋅⋅⋅=⋅∇ σrq
),( gasv Tfa
vf
( )Tf vv ⋅
In the absorption coefficient takes into consideration the effect of soot by the volume
fraction of soot as follows:
Tfa ⋅⋅= β66.2,
7
(136)
The model constant is (Kaplan et al, 1994). ≈β
Equation (136) is known to be the soot absorption coefficient model of Kent and Honnery, 1990
developed for ethylene-air diffusion flames.
If the flame radiation is strong (as is the case when using heavy fuel oil in medium speed diesel
engines) then the absorption into the radiation media cannot be omitted. The radiation changes the
information (heat fluxes) in the soot region by smoothing temperatures of the gas there and only the
radiation from the outer surface of the soot region goes into the walls. Fig. 2.9 illustrates the
principle of the optically thick soot region radiation.
54
Spray region
Soot region
Piston top
Fig. 2.9 Soot radiation into walls in optically thick radiation media
The RTE has to then be solved by DOM (Discrete Ordinate Method) or DTM (Discrete Transfer
Method) or other sophisticated methods (Modest, 1993; Kaplan et al., 1994; Abraham et al.,
1997b). In the case of DOM, the solid angle 4π has been divided into 24 different directions and
the control volume equations obtained are solved by iteratively taken into consideration the
radiation source term and the boundary conditions. When the radiation intensity is known in every
computational cell and in an every direction i , the divergence of radiation heat flux can then be
calculated as:
(137) rq⋅∇− ( ) ( ) ⎥⎦⎤
⎢⎣⎡∑ ⋅⋅−⋅⋅==
24
1
44,i
gasiigasv TrIwTfa σ
5236.0=iw
( ) wallsootgas AVTn /42 ⋅⋅⋅⋅ σ
n
Where the weight factor (Modest, 1993)
The radiation heat flux from the radiating regions into the surface of combustion chamber with the
simplified model is calculated from the equation (all the emitted radiation distributed smoothly into
the surface):
(138) gasvpistonr Tfaq ,4, ⋅=
In the above equation the soot refractive index, is about two (Modest, 1993). In this study value
of 1.8 was used. In the case of DOM the radiation heat flux to the piston top was calculated from
55
equation (Modest, 1993):
(139) ( )⎥⎥⎥
⎦
⎤
⎢⎢⎢
⎣
⎡
∑ ⋅⋅=
<=
24
01
,
µi
iiipistonr rIswq
56
57
3. AUTHOR’S IMPLEMENTED / DEVELOPED SUBMODELS AND THEIR CONTRIBUTION TO THE MODELLING TOOL FOR DIESEL PROCESS ANALYSIS The starting point of the work was to develop a modelling tool for a spray combustion, emission
formation and heat transfer processes in medium speed diesel engines based on the Marintek
version of the KIVA-II program (Marintek Report, 1995). The program mentioned above has been
further developed from the basic KIVA-II program (Amsden et al., 1989). Into the Marintek version
of KIVA-II have been implemented at the Marintek Research Centre the following sub-models:
Magnussen EDC-combustion model, NOx formation model and the solution method procedure for
the transport equation of an arbitrary field quantity (soot and its nucleus). The flow chart of the
updated KIVA-II program is seen in the APPENDIX B.
3.1 Sub-models in baseline Marintek KIVA-II
1. Ideal gas law for equation of state
2. Low pressure drop vaporisation model
3. Drop drag coefficient model of Putnam
4. Standard temperature wall functions for convective heat transfer
5. Standard k-epsilon turbulence model for gas
6. No soot oxidation and radiation models
3.2 Sub-models in current KIVA-II
The author has developed and/or implemented the following sub-models into the code.
1. The ideal gas law for equation of state has been replaced by the RK real gas equation of
state. This was necessary in order to obtain a more precise description of the behaviour of real
gases under diesel cylinder conditions. The equations can be found in Section 2.2.4.
58
2. The low-pressure formulated drop vaporisation model of KIVA-II has replaced by the
corresponding high-pressure model. The AS drop vaporisation model has also been
implemented into the code in order to see the difference of the drop vaporisation rates
between the original model and the AS model. In the low-pressure model due to high cylinder
pressure the mass fraction of fuel vapour in the surface of the drop is low, therefore the gas
ignition and further combustion remain poor. This shortage was avoided by changing the low-
pressure model into the high-pressure model, which was based on the equilibrium of fugacity
of the fuel vapour and liquid at the surface of the drop. The basic equations of formulation are
described in Section 2.2.4.
3. The drop drag coefficient model of the baseline KIVA-II has been replaced by the model of
CL and this was modified by the Spalding heat transfer number in order to describe the
reduction of the drop drag during the drop vaporisation as is presented in Section 2.2.3.
4. The TM soot formation model has been fixed, the Hiroyasu soot formation and the NSC
soot oxidation models have been added and formulated into the EDC form. The Hiroyasu
formation model has been implemented in order to compare the effect of the soot formation
models. The NSC soot oxidation model in a slightly modified form is necessary in order to
get more realistic soot emission levels. These have been described in Section 2.2.6.2 and
2.2.6.3.
5. The standard temperature wall functions for the convective heat transfer has replaced by the
slightly modified form of the Han & Reitz model. This was very necessary in order get more
realistic heat fluxes into the wall. This was described in Section 2.2.7.1.
6. The simplified and the DOM soot radiation models have been developed and implemented
into the code in order to be able to solve the radiation transport equation. These were
necessary in order to obtain more realistic gas temperatures in the soot region and heat fluxes
to the wall. These formulations have been described in Section 2.2.7.2.
7. The modified RNG k-epsilon turbulence model has been developed in order obtain more
realistic spray spreading, fuel vapour mixing rate and vapour combustion results. These have
been described in Section 2.2.1.
59
3.3 List of author’s publications related to this work
1. Taskinen, P. (2000): Modelling Medium Speed Diesel Engine Combustion, Soot and
NOx-emission Formations, SAE technical paper 2000-01-1886.
2. Taskinen, P. (2000): Modelling of medium speed diesel process, Topical Meeting on
Modelling of Combustion and Combustion Processes, Abo/Turku, 15-16 Nov., Finland.
3. Taskinen, P. (2001): ”Modelling of Emission Formations in a Medium Speed Diesel
Engine”, First Biennial Meeting of the NSSCI, Gothenburg, Sweden.
4. Taskinen, P. (2002): “Effect of Soot Radiation on Flame Temperature, NOx-Emission and
Wall Heat Transfer in a Medium Speed Diesel Engine”, ICE Fall Technical Conference,
ICE-Vol39, ASME2002, New Orleans, USA.
5. Taskinen, P. (2003): Modelling of Turbulence/Combustion in a Medium Speed Diesel
Engine with the RNG k-epsilon Model, 13th International Multidimensional Engine
Modelling User’s Group Meeting, Detroit, Michigan, USA.
6. Taskinen, P. (2004): Modelling of Spray Turbulence with the Modified RNG k-epsilon
Model, 14th International Multidimensional Engine Modelling User’s Group Meeting,
Detroit, Michigan, USA.
60
61
4. MODELLING RESULTS AND THEIR EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
When the source terms of sub-models included governing equations of the field quantities have
been solved numerically, for the modelling results have been obtained the turbulence intensity and
viscosity of gas, pressure of cylinder gas, rate of heat release, cumulative heat release, nitrogen
oxide and soot emissions, fuel vapour concentration in cylinder, convective and radiation heat
fluxes to walls of combustion chamber as a function of crank angle.
The verification of modelling results is difficult because only the cylinder gas pressure is available
and easy to measure reliably. Other quantities such as temperature of gas, nitrogen oxide, soot or
fuel vapour concentrations are nearly impossible to measure from cylinder. The assessment of other
results such as turbulence intensity, spray spreading rate, etc., due to unavailable the experimental
results can only be done by comparing different computed results to each other.
The input data used of a modelled medium speed diesel engine and the computational grid are given
in the APPENDIX A. The grid sensitivity test has been carried out earlier in order to ensure the
results independences of the grid used.
4.1 Turbulence results with the STD, basic RNG and modified RNG k-
e models
4.1.1 Turbulence intensity
The turbulence intensity in the isotropic turbulence case is defined as:
32' ku ⋅= (140)
The turbulence models used were discussed in Section 2.2.1. They are widely used in the internal
combustion engine modelling, except the modified RNG k-e model, which is the author’s
developed model.
62
In Table 4.1 is presented the constants of calculated modified RNG k-e model cases.
Table 4.1. Modified RNG k-e model constants
η1C η2C 0η β εσσ =k µC
Case 1 1.0 1.0 4.80 0.013 1.0 0.085 Case 2 1.0 2.0 5.00 0.015 1.0 0.085 Case 3 1.0 1.5 5.00 0.014 1.0 0.085 Case 4 0.6 1.6 4.80 0.020 1.0 0.085 Case 5 1.0 2.0 4.70 0.015 1.0 0.085 Case 6 1.0 1.5 5.00 0.012 1.0 0.085
In Fig. 4.1 is presented the average turbulence intensity of the cylinder gas as a function of crank
angle with the turbulence models mentioned above.
Fig. 4.1 Average turbulence intensity of gas
The turbulence intensity and therefore the turbulence kinetic energy is the weakest with the basic
RNG k-e model (later for shortly the basic RNG model) compared to the other cases as can be seen
in Fig. 4.1 and in the colour images Figs. 4.2a-c. With the STD model the corresponding quantities
63
are the largest in the early phase of combustion (turbulence generated by the spray), while with the
modified RNG model the values are in between them. This behaviour is due to the turbulence
viscosity, which is with the basic RNG model smallest, because in high the rate of strain regions the
additional term, in the epsilon equation is negative. Therefore the epsilon tend to increase and
consequence of it, the turbulence viscosity decreases from the equilibrium value defined by
ηC
0η ,
while in low the rate of strain regions the viscosity increases from the value mentioned above.
Effect of the additional term in the case of the basic RNG model is too large and the change of sign
of the term occurs too low the rate of strain value. The well-known problem with the STD model is
that it tends to over-predict the spray spreading, while the basic RNG model under-predicts the
corresponding quantity as can be seen in Figs 4.4a-b. The Rodi’s correction (1979) of the STD
model remedies the situation to some extended by adjusting the model constant C2 as a function of
velocity gradient over the spray. The correction would reduce the effect of the sink term of C2 in
the epsilon equation, which decreases epsilon too much and therefore causes too large a turbulence
viscosity in the early phase of combustion with the standard form (without correction) STD model
as can be seen in Fig. 4.1 and as too large a spray spreading in Fig. 4.4a.
The basic idea in the developing process of the modified RNG model was to find a compromise
solution between the STD and the basic RNG models in which drawbacks of the both models are
minimised. Since the additional term in the epsilon equation is an ad hoc model (Pope, 2000) so the
term can be modified in order to find the more realistic turbulence behaviour of the gas. In low the
rate of strain regions the largeness of additional term with the basic RNG model is in the order of
magnitude of one and therefore it causes un-physical high diffusivity of the gas in these regions.
This can be prevented by parameter in Equation (13), which should be about 1.5-2.0. The
largeness of the additional term can be controlled by parameter and partly also
2ηC
1ηC β in the same
equation and the experience of earlier studies (Taskinen, 2003; Taskinen, 2004) indicated that
should be about 0.6-1.0 and
1ηC
β about 0.012-0.015. The value of 0η influences to the sign of the
additional term, i.e. how high the value of the rate of strain is needed when the additional term starts
to increase the value of the dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy. According to the test
computations it should be about 4.7-5.0.
In the basic RNG model a shortage of diffusivity is tried to compensate by large diffusivity
coefficients ( 39111 .== εσσ k ) while in the modified RNG model cases this type of effect has
64
been reduced and more diffusivity was obtaining to the behaviour of the model by additional term
in the epsilon equation. When choosing the parameters of the modified RNG model as in Case3 or
Case6 shown in Table 4.1, more realistic the spray behaviour was obtained as can be seen in Fig.
4.4c (Case3) compared to the baseline and other modified cases Figs. 4.4a-b. The improving in the
model behaviour due to turbulence viscosity, which is now on more realistic level than in the other
baseline cases shown in Fig. 4.3.
4.1.2 Turbulence kinetic energy distribution
The colour images of the turbulence kinetic energy at certain crank angle in Figures 4.2a-c will
show the spatial differences of quantity in the different cases.
Fig. 4.2a Turbulence kinetic energy with the STD k-e model
65
Fig. 4.2b Turbulence kinetic energy with the basic RNG k-e model
Fig. 4.2c Turbulence kinetic energy with the modified RNG k-e model (Case3)
66
Figs. 4.2a-c show how much larger the turbulent kinetic energy is in the case of STD k-e model
compared to the situation in the basic RNG k-e model. Also the distribution of it is wide spreading
in the combustion chamber as can be clearly seen. With the modified RNG the turbulent kinetic
energy is between both models mentioned above and probably more realistic level than in other
models. The behaviour of STD and the basic RNG is expected. The STD model yields too large,
while the basic RNG too small a turbulence viscosity as can be seen in Fig. 4.3 and these results
appear in all their other results, e.g. spray spreading in Figs. 4.4a-b.
4.1.3 Turbulence viscosity
The turbulence (eddy) viscosity is defined in Section 2.2.1. In Fig. 4.3 is presented the average
turbulence viscosity of the cylinder gas in different cases as a function of crank angle.
Fig. 4.3 Average turbulence viscosity of gas
In Fig. 4.3 can be seen that the eddy viscosity with the standard model is too high in the early phase
of combustion while in the later phase of combustion it is slightly too small. This can be concluded
based on the cylinder pressure curve in Fig. 4.8a-b. Better combustion results can be achieved with
67
such a turbulence model, in which the eddy diffusivity is smaller in the early phase of combustion
while in the later phase of combustion it is larger than compared to the corresponding values of the
standard k-epsilon model. In Fig. 4.3 can also be seen that increasing the value of parameter 0η in
the modified RNG model cases when the additional term changes the sign from positive to
negative, the turbulence viscosity increasing also as take places between in Case2 and Case5. This
can be concluded from Equations (10, 11, 12 and 13). In Case2 the additional term is positive with
higher
ηC
η values than in Case5 and therefore the term tends to decrease the value of the dissipation
rate of the kinetic energy. At the same time through Equation (10) the value of kinetic energy
increases and therefore the value of the turbulence viscosity increases based on Equation (12).
Reducing the largeness of the additional term as in the Case4 the turbulence model behaviour is
somewhat in the middle of the basic RNG and standard k-epsilon models. In Case3 and especially
in Case1 the additional term is slightly too large because it decreases too much for the value of
epsilon in the early phase of combustion when the fuel spray still exists (from –5 ATDC to 15
ATDC) while in the later phase of combustion (from 15 ATDC to 30 ATDC) the behaviour is
opposite. The eddy viscosity is even larger in these cases than it is in the standard k-epsilon model.
It is absolutely realistic that the eddy viscosity with the modified RNG model can be larger than the
corresponding value with the standard model in the later phase of combustion when the generation
of turbulence is small. Higher value of the eddy viscosity improves the turbulence diffusion
combustion process in the later phase of combustion to obtain it more realistically than in the
situation of the standard k-epsilon model case is. In Case2, 4 and 5 the largeness of the additional
term is correct but in Case5 the value of 0η is slightly too small.
4.1.4 Spray spreading
Colour images of the spray at certain crank angle in Figures 4.4a-c clearly shown the differences of
spreading rate in different cases. The spray penetration with the basic RNG model is much longer
than it is with the standard model, while the behaviour of the spray spreading is opposite. With the
modified model both quantities are in between of the corresponding quantities of the basic RNG
and the standard model. Difference of behaviour naturally influences to the spray combustion and
the emission formations also.
68
Fig. 4.4a Spray behaviour with the STD k-e model
Fig. 4.4b Spray behaviour with the basic RNG k-e model
69
Fig. 4.4c Spray behaviour with the modified RNG k-e model (Case3)
4.2 Results of drops high/low-pressure vaporisation formulation
In Section 2.2.4 was discussed both approaches to describe the drop vaporisation processes in a
high temperature and pressure environment. The effect is seen on the amount of fuel vapour in
cylinder and if the higher amount fuel vapour able to mix into the air and combusts, the result
appears as higher cylinder pressures. Two of the drop vaporisation models were used, the original
model of the KIVA-II (the RM correlations) and the AS model. They are both tested in the high-
pressure mode. The low vs. high-pressure mode was tested with the original model of the KIVA-II.
70
4.2.1 Amount of fuel vapour in combustion chamber
In Fig. 4.5 is presented the amount of fuel vapour mass with the drop high/low-pressure
vaporisation model formulations with the original model of the KIVA-II (the RM correlations) and
the AS models as a function of crank angle.
Fig. 4.5 Amount of fuel vapour in cylinder
The effect of drop low vs. high-pressure vaporisation model on the mass of fuel vapour is clearly
seen in Fig. 4.5. Especially during the ignition of gas and early phase of combustion when the
temperature of drops and their surrounding gas are still low compared to the situation at the main
combustion phase the drops vaporisation rate with the low-pressure model remains too weak. The
shortage mentioned due to the calculation method of fuel vapour mass fraction at the surface of
drop. In high-pressure models where the fuel vapour mass fraction at the surface of drop based on
the equality of fugacity of drop in a liquid and gas phase as explained in Section 2.2.4 yield more
realistic amount of fuel vapour mass and therefore the drop vaporisation does not control the
combustion rate as takes place in the case of low-pressure model. The AS model yields a little
larger amount of fuel vapour especially at the later phase of combustion which means that the heat
and mass transfer rate are both larger than compared to the original model.
71
4.2.2 Pressure of cylinder gas
In Fig. 4.6 is presented the pressure of cylinder gas with the drop low and high-pressure
vaporisation formulated the original (the RM correlations) and the AS models. Difference of the
cylinder gas pressures with the drop low vs. high-pressure formulation is seen clearly in the figure.
Fig. 4.6 Cylinder gas pressure as a function crank angle
Naturally also in the cumulative heat release is seeing the difference of model formulation
especially at the early phase of combustion as shown in Fig. 4.7. Later when the temperature of
drops increases high enough, the low-pressure model able to produce the required amount of fuel
vapour.
4.2.3 Cumulative heat release
In Fig. 4.7 is presented the cumulative heat release with the drop high and low-pressure
vaporisation formulated methods. The “Measured” cumulative curve is too gently sloping due to its
72
calculation method. It is based on the measured cylinder pressure data and using the first law of
thermodynamics as explained later.
Fig. 4.7 Cumulative heat release
4.3 Effect of turbulence model on combustion results
Especially with the drop high-pressure vaporisation model, the combustion rate is controlled by the
turbulent mixing because there is enough fuel vapour accumulated in the cylinder, which could
combust/ignite, if it is able to mix in the air. In the case of the drop low-pressure vaporisation
model, the combustion rate may be controlled by the drops vaporisation rate especially at the early
phase of combustion. In this case the effect of turbulence on the combustion rate does not appear
reliable. In next Figures are presented the main combustion results with the STD, the basic RNG
and the modified RNG k-e models. Parameters of the cases are recorded in Table 4.1 and in all
cases the drop high-pressure vaporisation model was used.
73
4.3.1 Pressure of cylinder gas
In Figs. 4.8a-b are clearly shown the effect of turbulence model on the pressure of cylinder gas due
to different combustion rates especially between the STD and the basic RNG model cases. With the
modified RNG model cases the pressure of cylinder gas are closer with the measured curve than in
other cases mentioned above, because the fuel vapour combustion rate as a function of crank angle
is on a more realistic level compared to the baseline cases. Difference of the spray behaviour in Fig.
4.4a-c influences to the combustion results on two ways, at first the spray spreading (spray tip
penetration and spray angle) and the secondly the fuel vapour turbulent mixing (combustion) rate
are different.
The same trend sees also in cumulative heat release curves, Fig. 4.9, naturally the basic RNG is
weakest, because the pressure of cylinder gas was the lowest, while the STD model is too intense in
the early phase of combustion.
Fig. 4.8a Pressure of cylinder gas as a function crank angle
74
In Fig. 4.8b are shown the cylinder pressure curves on more precisely where the differences of the
maximum cylinder pressures in different cases appear better. From the figure can be seen that the
STD model yields too high while the basic RNG model too low the maximum cylinder pressure.
Almost all the modified RNG models yield the same maximum pressure but Case2, 3 and 4 are best
in agreement with the measured curve. In the later phase of combustion Case3 seems to be closest
to the measured curve.
Fig. 4.8b Pressure of cylinder gas as a function crank angle
4.3.2 Cumulative heat release
In Fig. 4.9 is presented the cumulative heat release with the turbulence models mentioned above as
a function of crank angle. The “Measured” curve is so called semi-empirical, because it has been
calculated based on the first law of thermodynamics and using the measured pressure of cylinder
gas shown in Fig. 4.8. Before the derivation some basic assumptions and simplifications such as a
constant heat capacity of gas and homogenous mixture of fuel and air have been done in order to
ease the calculations.
75
Fig. 4.9 Cumulative heat release
4.3.3 Temperature of gas
In Figure 4.10 is presented the effect of soot radiation model on the maximum temperature of the
gas in cylinder as a function crank angle. As can be seen the maximum temperature of the gas does
not much depend on the soot radiation, because the maximum temperature of the gas appears in the
fuel vapour combustion zone, where the amount of soot is minor. The effect of soot radiation on the
temperature of the gas appears only in the soot region. With the simplified radiation model only a
small temperature drop appears in the later phase of combustion, when the amount of soot has
become a remarkable level near the combustion zone.
The effect of the turbulence model on the temperature distributions of the gas will be seen in Figs.
4.11a-c. Because the fuel vapour mixing rate depends much on the turbulence level of the gas so it
will be expected that the turbulence models used will yield quite different temperature distribution
results. Location of the highest temperature region in the gas is quite different especially between
the STD and the basic RNG models. The penetration of spray and therefore the flame region is
76
much deeper with the STD model than the basic RNG model. This again is due to the turbulence
viscosity of the gas and therefore the behaviour of spray drops and their surrounding gas is much
more diffusive with the STD model than the corresponding behaviour with the basic RNG model.
With the modified RNG model the gas temperature distribution and spray behaviour is in the
middle of behaviours of the models above. In Figures 4.11a-c are presented colour images of the
temperature distributions of the gas in the cylinder at a certain crank angle in the cases mentioned in
Table 4.1.
Fig. 4.10 Maximum temperature of gas
77
Fig. 4.11a Temperature of gas with the STD k-epsilon model
Fig. 4.11b Temperature of gas with the basic RNG k-epsilon model
78
Fig. 4.11c Temperature of gas with the modified RNG k-epsilon model (Case3)
4.4 Nitrogen oxide emissions
Nitrogen oxide emission was modelled with the Zeldo’vich-mechanism. In Fig. 4.12 is shown the
effect of turbulence models on the average nitrogen oxide emission. Turbulence models influence
the fuel vapour mixing, velocities of the gas, spray behaviour and therefore all emissions results.
Since the Zeldo’vich mechanism tends to over-predict nitrogen oxide emission (Pitsch et al., 1996)
so with the basic RNG model the emission is in good agreement with the estimated values obtained
from Wartsila Company’s literature. This indicates that the NO-emission level in the case of the
basic RNG model is too low. With the STD model the NO-emission rate is little too intense in the
early phase of combustion due to too intense combustion rate on that phase while in the later phase
of combustion the NO-emission rate remains too low due to a too weak combustion rate. The
maximum level of NO with the STD model is probably a little too high compared to the estimated
values. Also with the modified RNG models the NO emission becomes slightly too high due to the
tendency of the Zeldo’vich NO model to over-predict the emission mentioned above.
79
The colour images 4.13a-c show clearly the effect of the turbulence model on the NO emission
distributions and locations, where the NO emission formation mainly takes place. The thermal NO
formation take places near the spray edge in the lean side of it. Largeness of the nitrogen oxide
regions in different cases can be seen clearly in the images mentioned above. With the STD model
the wideness and greatness of the NO formation is the biggest while with the basic RNG model
lowest due to spray behaviour on the combustion rate. With the modified RNG the NO behaviour is
some how in between of models behaviours of the turbulence models mentioned above.
Fig. 4.12 Effect of turbulence model on average NOx emission as a function of crank angle
80
Fig. 4.13a Nitrogen oxide distribution with the STD k-e model
Fig. 4.13b Nitrogen oxide distribution with the basic RNG k-e model
81
Fig. 4.13c Nitrogen oxide distribution with the modified RNG k-e model (Case3)
In Fig. 4.14 is shown the effect of the soot radiation model on the average nitrogen oxide emissions.
As mentioned in the context of Section 4.3.3, temperature of gas, the high temperature region of the
gas is located in a different place than the biggest soot and NO formation regions and therefore the
effect of soot radiation on the NO-emission is minor. The soot radiation reduces the temperature of
the gas only in the soot region, where the NO formation is negligible. Only a small effect between
the cases without the soot radiation and the simplified model can be noted. In the later phase of
combustion when the amount of soot is high enough the temperature reducing effect of the radiation
to the gas temperature can be a remarkable and through the gases mixing effect further the NO-
emissions. If the radiation is not included in the energy balance equation this kind of effect is
omitted. With the simplified radiation model all the radiation from the soot region goes into the wall
and therefore the cooling effect in the soot region is much greater than corresponding value in the
case of DOM radiation model, where the energy changes smoothed the temperature of the gas in the
soot region and only the radiation from the outer edge of the soot region goes into the wall.
82
Fig. 4.14 Effect of soot radiation model on average NOx emission as a function crank angle
4.5 Soot emissions
In Sections 2.2.6.2 and 2.2.6.3 were discussed the soot emissions modelling by using the EDC-
formulation in the Tesner&Magnussen (TM) and Hiroyasu soot formation and NSC soot oxidation
models. With these models in the basic and slightly modified form the following results have been
obtained shown in Figures 4.15 and 4.16a-c. The constants of soot formation models, the extra
coefficient of the NSC soot oxidation model and the formulations (average or EDC formulated cell
values) are presented in Table 4.2.
83
Table 4.2. Soot models and their constants
Case 1 Averaged Hiroyasu 30=fA s/1 , 9622=RE f / K , 01.=NSCC Case 2 Averaged TM 50.1 += ea s , /1 26=sd nm , 01.=NSCC Case 3 Averaged TM 50.1 += ea s , /1 26=sd nm , 04.=NSCC Case 4 Averaged TM 53.1 += ea s , /1 26=sd nm , 04.=NSCC Case 5 Averaged TM 50.3 += ea s , /1 26=sd nm , 04.=NSCC Case 6 EDC-formulated TM Constants as in Case 3
Case 7 EDC-formulated TM Constants as in Case3, but oxidation excluded in the FS
Case 8 EDC-formulated TM 293220 += ea . scmpart 3/ , 803 += ea . , other constants same as in the basic model, oxidation included in the FS
s/1
Case 9 EDC-formulated TM 293220 += ea . scmpart 3/ , 803 += ea . , other constants same as in the basic model, oxidation excluded in the FS
s/1
According to (Haynes and Wagner et al., 1981; Smooke et al., 1999) a typical size of the soot
particle is about 20-30 nm. In this study one size of the particle was used. According to Park et al.,
1973 and Puri et al., 1994 the NSC soot oxidation model tends to under-predict the oxidation rate
and therefore in order to improve predictivity of the model, the extra constant, , has been added
to Equations (112, 119). The values of this extra constant and particle sizes are presented in Table
4.2.
NSCC
In the case of the Hiroyasu soot formation model (Case1), Patterson et al., 1994 has used for the
pre-exponential constant value, 100 and Belardini et al., 1992, 150 , but according to my
test computations they obtain too large soot emissions. Author has used the pre-exponential
constant, 30 , which has been obtained by varying different values of it in order to get a realistic
soot emission level compared to the estimated value range obtained from literature. Author has used
the original value for the activation temperature, 9622
s/1 s/1
s/1
K , which based on the experiments
(Hiroyasu et al., 1983; Kennedy, 1997) while Belardini et al., 1992 and Patterson et al., 1994 have
used a value 6295 K . The difference of these activation temperatures causes through the kinetic
Equation (109) the difference to the kinetic rate, which is about four times larger in the case of
using activation temperature 6295 K at the gas temperature 2500 K than if the activation
temperature is 9622 K at the same gas temperature. If also the difference of the pre-exponential
84
values between the author’s case and the case of Patterson et al., 1994 is taken into account by
multiplying with the difference of the kinetic rates caused by the difference of activation
temperatures so the total difference in the soot formation rate at the gas temperature 2500 K maybe
about 15-20 times larger in the cases of Patterson et al., 1994 or Belardini et al., 1992 than in the
author case. This kind of a large difference of the formation rate raises suspicions about the model
reliability. Experimental values of the soot emissions to this engine are not available and therefore
the results assessing based merely on what other researchers have published, e.g., Patterson et al,
1994; Han et al., 1996; Montgomery et al., 1996). Estimated values in Fig. 4.15 based on these soot
modeling results. It is possible that using for the extra constant in the NSC soot oxidation model
larger value than 1.0 e.g. 4.0, a larger than 30 values for the pre-exponential constant would be
able to use. Due to lack of experiments it is impossible to know exactly how much the NSC soot
oxidation model under-predicts and then adjusts the pre-exponential constant to the correct value.
s/1
The effect of variation of the TM formation model constant, , in Equation (107) is also shown in
Fig. 4.15 (Case3, 4 and 5). Sometimes the constant mentioned has been strongly varied, e.g. in the
Fluent code for the value of has been used, but in the same time the pre-
exponential constant has reduced into the value . In cases 8 and 9 the
constants used are nearly similar than the constants used in the Fluent code. As expected higher
values of the constant yield higher soot emissions, but the effect is not a linear. The original value
based on the experiments and therefore the reasonable values that can be used should be quite close
that value without loosing the model universality. If the average formulation for the TM model was
used and the extra constant of the NSC model was four, the lowest soot emissions were naturally
obtained because the formation rate is smallest and the oxidation rate largest as is in Case3.
a
81053 ⋅= .a s/129
0 10322 ⋅= .a scmpart 3/
The effect of the value of the extra constant in the NSC soot oxidation model is also shown in Fig.
4.15 (Case2 and 3). As mentioned earlier the NSC model tends to under-predict the oxidation rate
and therefore larger values than 1.0 should be used. In this study value of 4.0 was tested and the
maximum soot emission level reduces about 25 % from the basic level ( ) as seen between
the cases, Case2 and Case3. As mentioned earlier, it is difficult to estimate how much the NSC-
model under-predicts (in some cases over-predicts) without knowing measured data and then
adjusts the extra constant precisely.
01.=NSCC
85
The effect of formulations, either the averaged or the EDC-formulated soot quantities in the
transport equations of soot and its nucleus can be also seen clearly between Case3 and Case6. In the
fine structure where the fuel vapour oxidises (combusts) and therefore temperature of the gas is
high, a lot of the soot nucleus are formed due to the high amount of pyrolysis products of fuel
vapour compared to the situation outside of the fine structure. Using the average values of the cell
in the soot formation and oxidation models, e.g. the formation rate due to chemical kinetic reaction
remains too low because the average values of the cell are quite close to the fine structure
surroundings values, e.g. the average temperature of the gas in the cell is easily 20-60 K lower than
the temperature of the gas in fine structure.
Fig. 4.15 Average soot emission as a function of crank angle
The effect of the soot oxidation term in the EDC fine structure equations can be seen between the
cases, Case6 and Case7 and also between the cases, Case8 and Case9 in Fig. 4.15. The difference of
the modelled soot emissions between the cases, where the oxidation term in the fine structure
equations is either included or excluded is surprising small. In the cases where the oxidation term is
excluded the soot emissions are only slightly higher compared to the cases where the term is
included in the fine structure balance equations. Since soot oxidation is the chemical kinetic
controlled process and therefore the oxidation rate in the fine structure is high due to high
86
temperature, if there is enough oxygen after the fuel vapour combustion. Therefore the soot
oxidation term should be included into the Equations (117,120) and the effect of it should be seen in
the soot results. Now that effect seems to be minor, although the amount of the fine structures is
known to be small. Because the TM-formation model is the global model where from the certain
initial thermodynamic state (temperature, species density) produces soot by the global chemical
kinetic reaction. Assessing of the soot result correctness is difficult, because the same soot emission
can be obtained on many constants sets of the models (formation and oxidation). If using the EDC-
formulation and the standard constant set in the TM-model and the extra constant of the NSC model
is about 4 as in Case6, the soot emissions are quite a reasonable level and in well agreement with
the estimated range. But also using the constant set used in the Fluent code some extended higher
soot emissions were obtained compared to the mentioned Case6 but still they are reasonable level.
In Fig. 4.16a-c are shown the evolution of soot distribution in the combustion chamber in soot
Case3 in the Table 4.2 with the case of the modified RNG k-e turbulence model. The highest soot
concentration appears near the tip of flame where un-burnt fuel vapour is not yet mixed into air and
is still at quite high temperature. Another place where the soot formation rate is large is the piston
top where some of spray drops reach and vaporising there slowly at the temperature of piston.
Fig. 4.16a Soot distribution at crank angle=5.0 deg. (Soot Case3, Modif. RNG k-e turb. model)
87
Fig. 4.16b Soot distribution at crank angle=10.0 deg (Case3)
Fig. 4.16c Soot distribution at crank angle=15.0 deg. (Case3)
88
4.6 Heat transfer
In Section 2.2.7 were discussed the convective and radiation heat transfer modes. In Fig. 4.17 is
shown the average heat flux to piston surface (top) with the standard and modified temperature wall
functions in convection mode and with the simplified and DOM models in the radiation mode as a
function of crank angle. The convective heat transfer models and their constants are presented in
Table 4.6.
Table 4.6. Heat transfer models and their constants
Case1 Modified temperature wall functions 0.3ln1.2 +⋅= ++ yT Case2 Modified temperature wall functions 5.2ln1.2 +⋅= ++ yT Case3 Modified temperature wall functions 24.1ln1.2 +⋅= ++ yT Case4 Standard temperature wall functions
Fig. 4.17 Average heat flux to piston top
89
The standard temperature wall functions (Case4) clearly under-predicts the convective heat flux
while in the modified cases (Case1, 2 and 3) the results are in quite well agreement with the
estimated range based on the literature (Heywood, 1988 and Han et al., 1997) as shown in Fig. 4.17.
The conditions in a diesel cylinder are totally different than in the case where the standard
temperature wall functions are purposed and predict the heat flux correctly. In the modified
temperature wall functions based on the use of the one-dimensional energy equation, where the gas
compressibility, increasing of the turbulent Prandtl number near the wall describe the temperature
gradient at the wall and therefore the heat flux more realistic than the standard model. In the
modified cases the results slightly depend on what kind of correlations for the dimensionless
temperature and turbulent Prandtl number are used. Kays et al. (2004) has used a model, which
based on the Prandtl mixing length theory and modified Reynolds analogy together with constant
turbulent Prandtl number (0.85) from which the eddy thermal diffusivity is calculated. Han et al.
(1997) has used a model, which based on using the ratio of dimensionless viscosity to turbulent
Prandtl number. The final form of this model has been constructing by a curve fitting technique and
similar way as in Kays et al. (2004) has used integration over the boundary layer thickness, which
includes the transition of the flow from the laminar to turbulent mode. In this process the model
constants have been obtained, but according to the author’s re-calculation the model constant 2.5
should be about 1.24 as shown in Equation (127). The maximum heat flux is about 10 % lower
using the original constant (Case2) than using the correct value of the constant (Case3). The Author
has taken the base of Kays et al. (2004) model, but used a same model for the turbulent Prandtl
number as Han et al. (1997) has used and then slightly modified the model constant from 3.9 to 3.0
(Case1).
Heywood (1988) has mentioned that the peak heat fluxes to combustion chamber walls are of order
10 . Han et al. (1997) has calculated and presented the heat flux to piston top value range
6-11 depending on the place of piston top. Estimation of those values correctness is
difficult without experiments, because the heat flux depends greatly on the flow and temperature
fields near the walls. Especially in medium speed diesel engines the flow field is mainly caused by
spray, while the effect of swirl is minor. Nowadays high injection pressures are used and therefore
velocities of the spray are also high, so the convection heat transfer can be a very high in the curved
region (before the bowl) of the piston surface.
2/ mMW2/ mMW
The radiant heat transfer becomes remarkable at the later phase of combustion, when the amount of
the main radiating component, soot is large enough. Heavy fuel oils have components, which easily
90
form the soot, if the conditions are suitable. Radiation from the radiating gases (water steam, carbon
dioxide) is negligible especially in a small volume of the radiating region compared to the soot
radiation (Cheung et al., 1994). In very large (slow speed) diesel engines the volume of cylinder can
be a very large (many hundreds litres) and in these cases the gas radiation should be taken into
consideration additionally to the soot radiation. Due to weak flow field in medium speed diesel
cylinder at the later phase of combustion, the fuel vapour mixing to air can be remained inadequate
in the combustion chamber and therefore a large amount of soot is formed. Also in the same time
soot particles oxidation rate can be remained too weak due to lack of oxygen. The effect still
increases the possibilities to form more radiating soot regions and further the soot emissions.
The radiant heat flux with the simplified model (pure emission) is naturally much larger than the
corresponding value with the DOM model because in this case all the radiation from the radiating
regions goes to the walls without absorption to the radiating medium while in the DOM case only
the radiation from outer surface of the radiating regions goes to the walls as can be seen in Fig.
4.17. The simplified model is therefore applicable for the cases, where the radiating medium is
optically thin. This kind of situation is typical in small high swirl light fuel oil diesel engines. If the
radiating medium is optically thick as in medium speed diesel flames, when a heavy fuel oil is used,
the absorption of the radiating medium cannot be ignored and the DOM has to be used for the
solution of the RTE. Radiation smoothes the temperatures in the radiating regions because the low
temperature regions absorb and the high temperature regions emit the radiation. Kim et al. (2002)
has also used the optically thin model and the solution of the RTE with a finite volume method for
the soot radiation. According to their results the ratio of heat loss with the solution of the RTE to
the corresponding value with the optically thin model is about 0.55. In the author’s case the ratio of
heat flux with the DOM and the simplified model is about 0.5 as seen in Fig. 4.17 and is in well
agreement with the ratio of Kim et al. (2002) mentioned above.
The peak (maximum) radiant heat flux according to Heywood (1988) is about 0.75-1.2 ,
while Cheung et al. (1994) has mentioned a similar value range of 0.75-1.44 . In Fig. 4.17
the peak radiant heat flux with the DOM is about 1.0 while with the simplified model
about 2.0 . Both predicted values are in quite well agreement with the experimental values
mentioned above. Abraham et al. (1997) has estimated that the ratio of the radiant heat flux to the
total heat flux (radiant + convection) would be about 40 % while Heywood (1988) has mentioned
the corresponding value is about 20 %. Based on the Author’s calculations in Fig. 4.17 the ratio
2/ mMW2/ mMW
2/ mMW2/ mMW
91
mentioned above would be about 11 % with the DOM and 20 % with the simplified model. In this
estimation the convective heat flux value was based on the results of the modified temperature wall
functions. If the estimation based on the results of the standard temperature wall functions the ratio
would be in some extended higher. Also the largeness of the absorption coefficient in the radiating
medium influences to the radiant heat flux values and the ratio mentioned above.
The largeness of the absorption coefficient is difficult to estimate because the values reported vary
considerably due to the engine used, air/fuel equivalence ratio etc. Cheung et al. (1994) has
calculated the peak absorption coefficient 26 at equivalence ratio 0.52 and 39 at
equivalence ratio 0.76. In the paper of Cheung et al. (1994) was also mentioned the value range 90
… 240 in a quiescent combustion chamber diesel engine. In the thesis of Sulaiman (1976) has
calculated based on the experimental data of the radiant heat flux the value of 40 at
equivalence ratio 0.46 and 25 at equivalence ratio 0.29. Heywood (1988) has calculated using
the equation of absorptivity (emissivity) vs. absorption coefficient and the measured emissivity of
the soot the absorption coefficient value 22 . Lawn et al. (1987) has reported the local
absorption coefficient value 4 in a heavy fuel oil spray combustion, which seems to be slightly
small compared to the other values mentioned above.
m/1 m/1
m/1
m/1
m/1
m/1
m/1
In Fig. 4.18 are shown the effect of soot level (oxidation rate) in the predicted average and the peak
(maximum) absorption coefficient values with the model of Kent and Honnery (Equation 136) in
the modelled medium speed diesel engine. In this engine the value of the equivalence ratio was 0.36
calculated at full load.
92
Fig. 4.18 Absorption coefficients as a function of crank angle
Comparison of the predicted peak values of the author’s calculations and the values mentioned
above, e.g. the value of 40 of the paper of Cheung et al. (1994) or the value range 90 … 240
in the same paper for a quiescent combustion chamber diesel engine as the medium speed
diesel engines especially are, it can be concluded that the results obtained are in fairly agreement
with those experimental values. The effect of the amount of soot (oxidation rate) is quite small
because the maximum soot concentration appears there, where its oxidation rate is not significant.
Estimation of the average values is difficult because the measurements are always local values. In
order to get the average value of the quantity, it should measure in many places in the combustion
chamber, which can be impossible.
m/1
m/1
93
5. CONCLUSIONS
In this thesis medium speed diesel engine spray combustion, emission (NOx and soot) formation
and heat transfer processes basic structure of modelling, the most important sub-models of
physical/chemical phenomena occurred in the cylinder and the verified modelling results obtained
have been presented. The work was done with the Marintek A/S version of the open source code
KIVA-II program by implementing new and/or modified old source files of the sub-models.
At first attention was focused on the spray combustion, improving results obtained with the
standard and the basic RNG k-e models. In medium speed diesel engines, where turbulence of the
gas is mainly generated by the spray motion, the spray model and the turbulence model paid a
decisive role in order to correctly describe the fuel vapour turbulent mixing combustion process. In
this work the modified RNG k-e model was developed based on both the basic RNG and standard
k-e models and their shortages discovered. By slightly modifying the additional term of the epsilon
equation and the model constants the diffusivity problem of both models was avoided and more
realistic results (spray spreading, fuel vapour mixing and combustion results, i.e. cylinder pressure
and cumulative heat release) were obtained compared to the results obtained with the standard or
the basic RNG k-e turbulence models.
Secondly the original and the AS drop vaporisation models in a high-pressure environment was
implemented into the code in order to obtain more realistic drops vaporisation rate results compared
to the situation when using the low-pressure model of KIVA-II. Especially in medium speed diesel
engines using heavy fuel-oils, the ignition delay becomes too long and the early phase of
combustion remains too weak using the low-pressure formulation in the calculation of the mass
fraction of the fuel vapour on the drop surface. The high-pressure model based on the equality of
the fugacity in the liquid and vapour phase and therefore it yields larger and probably more realistic
values of the fuel vapour mass fraction on the drop surface. In engine CFD codes the low-pressure
model is widely used and is accurate enough in the modelling of high speed light fuel-oil diesel
engines, but in our case the high-pressure model is necessary thus avoiding the ignition delay
problems mentioned above. The difference of the drop vaporisation rates between the original and
the AS models is small in the drops highly convective region (in the spray) but later in the slow
94
flow region near the piston top the AS model yields a larger amount of the fuel vapour than the
original model.
Thirdly in the work the soot radiation was taken into consideration in the energy balance equation
by either the simplified radiation model (pure emission) or the DOM model implemented. The
effect of soot radiation appears only in the soot region reducing temperatures there, not in the fuel
vapour reaction zone where the soot is not found and the maximum temperature of the gas appears.
Also due to same reason as above, the soot radiation does not have an influence on the nitrogen
oxide (NOx) emissions because the NOx emission forms in a slightly different place to where the
fuel vapour reaction zone is. In medium speed diesel engines where the flame is optically thick due
to the use of heavy fuel oils and therefore because a higher amount of soot is found, the flame
absorption must also be taken into consideration and the DOM method has to be used in the
solution process of the RTE. The maximum radiant heat flux with the DOM is about 50 % of the
corresponding value of the simplified model and is a reasonable level according to the experimental
values of the slightly other type diesel engine than the medium speed diesel engines. In high speed
light fuel-oil engines the simplified soot radiation model is better applicable and reliable due to the
optically thin flame than in the case of medium speed heavy fuel-oil diesel engines. The absorption
coefficients (maximum and average) with the basic form Kent and Honnery model have been
realistic levels compared to the experimental values mentioned in the literature giving more
reliability to the radiation and soot emission results.
Fourthly in the work, the TM and the Hiroyasu soot formation models and the slightly modified
(multiplied by 4.0) soot oxidation model formulated both into the EDC-form implemented into the
code. The TM formation model in the EDC-weighted form and the modified NSC oxidation model
yield a reasonable soot emission level. It seems that the NSC soot oxidation model really under-
predict the soot oxidation rate as other studies also indicate (Park et al., 1973, Puri et al., 1994). In
this study a value of 4.0 times larger than the basic rate of the NSC model was tested and according
to the soot emission results, the order of magnitude of the under-prediction is slightly below the 4.0
but in some extended larger than 1.0. It is difficult to estimate the correct value of under-prediction
without knowing the experimental value of the soot oxidation rate. Information of the real soot
emissions would help only partly in the situation, not completely because if there is a difference
between the experimental and predicted soot emissions, it is impossible to know if either the
formation rate or oxidation rate is a failure.
95
The NOx emission with the Zeldo’vich mechanism seems to be slightly over-predicted as Pitsch et
al., (1996) has also concluded. With the basic RNG k-e turbulence model the level is well in
agreement with the level of Wärtsila Diesel Co. literature but this is due to weak combustion and is
not a correct situation.
Fifthly in the work convection heat transfer model was developed/improved based on the use of the
solution of the one-dimensional energy equation and the correlation of the dimensionless
temperature near the wall as described in Han et al., (1997) and Kays et al., (2004). The standard
temperature law of the wall model under-predicts the heat flux to the wall to some extent due to
shortages of the model. According to the experimental values of the heat fluxes in the slightly other
type diesel engine than in this work considered indicated that the modification is necessary in order
to obtain more realistic the convective heat flux values to the wall.
This work clearly shows how challenging the complete diesel process modelling is and what kind of
physical/chemical phenomena must be taken into account and assumptions made in order to obtain
sensible results what can be applied in the optimisation process of the engine design parameters. In
this developing work of the KIVA-II we tried to take into consideration the special characters of
medium speed diesel engines as well as possible. The physical/chemical phenomena of the cylinder
gas and the liquid fuel are very complexed and partly un-known therefore the mathematical
equations of the phenomena described by the sub-models are always approximations which take
into consideration only the limited number of real effects of the phenomena, not completely.
Therefore in the best case the modelling results describe the situation in the cylinder only in broad
outline.
96
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APPENDIX A 1. Modelled engine specifications: Details of the modelled Wärtsilä W46 medium speed diesel engine are listed in Table A1.
Cylinder bore 460 mm
Stroke 580 mm
Compression ratio 14.0
Running speed 500.0 rpm
Number & size of nozzle holes 10 x 0.78 mm
Start of injection 10.deg. BTDC
Fuel injection duration 26.5 deg.
Total injected fuel mass/cycle 12.3 g
Fuel Heavy fuel (Neste Mastera)
Start of ignition 7.0deg. BTDC
Simulation begins 40.deg. BTDC
Air temperature at 20 deg. BTDC 654.0 K
Air pressure at 40 deg. BTDC 33.5 bar
Swirl ratio 0.2
Table A1. Initial conditions and operating/construction parameters of the modelled diesel engine
2. Computational mesh of modelled engine
The computational mesh consists of 45 non-equally spaced cells in the radial, 21 in the azimuthally
and 46 equally spaced cells in the axial direction. Due to piston travel the minimum number of cells
at TDC is 17. The rate change of length of cell in the radial direction is about 3 %. The angle of the
computational sector is 36 degrees. The grid is shown in Fig. A1.
Figure A1. Computational grid of modelled engine at TDC
APPENDIX B Flow chart of the updated KIVA-II modelling tool:
Figure B1. Flow chart of the KIVA-II modelling code