Indian Subcontinent To North: Impassable Himalayas To East: Passable low hills To Northwest: Passable Hindu Kush, Khyber Pass To West: Arabian.

Indian Subcontinent To North: Impassable Himalayas To East: Passable low hills To Northwest: Passable Hindu Kush, Khyber

Pass To West: Arabian Sea

Northern Plain of Indus, Ganges Rivers Southern Deccan

High plateau, extremely dry Bordered on East and West by mountains Separated from north by river, low mountains

The Monsoon Winds Off the land October to April: Dry Season Off the Indian Ocean May to September: Wet

Season

May to October

November to April

The Indus River Runs through north India, sources in Himalayas Rich deposits, but less predictable than the Nile Wheat and barley were cultivated in Indus valley Cultivated cotton before 5000 B.C.E. Complex society of Dravidians, 3000/2500 B.C.E.

Harappa and Mohenjo-daro Possibly served as twin capitals Each city had a fortified citadel and a large granary Broad streets, market places, temples, public buildings Standardized weights, measures, architecture, bricks

Specialized labor and trade Domestic trade, items inc. pottery, tools, metals Trading with Mesopotamians about 2300 to 1750 B.C.E.

Writing Existed but has not been translated

Social distinctions as seen from living styles Religious beliefs strongly emphasized fertility

Many deities were feminine In later Hinduism, Dravidian gods are blue-faced

Harappan society declined from 2000 B.C.E. onward Ecological degradation led to a subsistence crisis Natural catastrophes - floods or earthquakes Population began to abandon their cities Began around 1700 B.C.E. Almost entirely collapsed by about 1500 B.C.E Evidence of warfare, invasion

Indo-Europeans Linguistic similarities Indo-European family of languages▪ Indo-Aryans▪ Indo-Iranian: Medes/Persians (SW Asia)▪ Greek, Balto-Slavic, Germanic, Italic, Celtic▪ Tocarian of Turkestan

Migrations as the key to explain linguistic similarities Indo-European origins

North of Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Aral Sea; Ukraine, Southern Russia

Common origins established through key vocabulary, traditions, myths

Indo-European migrations To Tarim Basin, fourth millennium B.C.E. Shang of China appear to have been Indo-Europeans To Anatolia (the Hittites), 3000 B.C.E. By 2nd millennium, established communities in Europe Around 1500 BCE, domesticated horse amongst Indo-

Europeans Often called the Chariot Peoples; introduced iron and horse

technologies

The Early Aryans Depended heavily on a pastoral economy No writing system Orally transmitted works called the Vedas Sacred language (Sanskrit) Daily-use language (Prakit)

The Vedic Age: 1500 to 500 B.C.E. A boisterous period, conflict with indigenous peoples Called indigenous people dasas - "enemies" or "subject

people" Indra, the Aryans' war god and military hero Aryan chiefdoms fought ferociously among themselves

Aryan migrations in India First settled in the Punjab, the upper Indus River valley Spread east and south from their base After 1000 B.C.E. settled between Himalayan foothills and

Ganges Used iron tools and developed agriculture By 500 B.C.E. migrated as far south as the northern Deccan Lost tribal organizations but established regional kingdoms

Caste and varna Caste: Hereditary, unchangeable social classes Sanskrit word varna, "color" Designates social classes Social distinctions based on racial skin colors

Social distinctions in the late Vedic Age Four main varnas, recognized after 1000 B.C.E. ▪ brahmins (priests) ▪ kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats: rulers) ▪ vaishyas (cultivators, artisans, and merchants) ▪ shudras (landless peasants and serfs)

Subcaste or jati ▪ Represents more elaborate social classification▪ Developed after 6th c. B.C.E. ▪ Jati, or subcastes, were determined by occupations ▪ The elaborate rules of jati life

Caste and social mobility ▪ Caste system was capable of accommodating social change ▪ Social mobility was very difficult but still possible ▪ Foreign peoples could find a place in society of the castes

Later, the category of the pariah (untouchables) was added

Patriarchal, Patrilineal society Original Aryan Society: women had rights, some were

chiefs Changes occurred with change to sedentary civilization Men served as priests, warriors, and tribal chiefs Family lines based on male descendants (the

patrilinial) Only males could inherit property Men learned the Vedas and received formal education

Source: The Lawbook of Manu Prepared by an anonymous sage, 1st century B.C.E. Dealt with moral behavior and social relationships Advised men to treat women with honor and respect Subjected women to the control and guidance of men Women's duties: bear children, maintain the household

Sati as a social custom Widow burning so widows would not be a burden on

family

The Aryan gods The war god, Indra The gods of the sun, sky, moon, fire, health, etc. The god Varuna - an ethical concern

Ritual sacrifices Importance of ritual sacrifices Horse sacrifice originally Priests were specialists of the ritual sacrifices Ritual sacrifices for rewards from the divine power

Spirituality Many Aryans dissatisfied with ritual sacrifices in late

Vedic age A shift to spiritual contemplation Thoughtful individuals retreated to forests as hermits Dravidian notions were coopted▪ Transmigration of soul▪ Reincarnation (nirvana)

The Upanishads ▪ Works of religious teachings, 800 to 400 B.C.E. ▪ Dialogues between disciples and sages▪ Discussions written down

Brahman: the universal soul ▪ Brahman was the only genuine reality ▪ Highest goal: to escape reincarnation and join with

Brahman Atman: The individual self-soul that is part of

Brahman Teachings of the Upanishads

▪ Samsara: An individual soul was born many times ▪ Dharma: Caste duties ▪ Karma: specific incarnations that a soul

experienced ▪ Moksha: permanent liberation from physical

incarnation Religion and Vedic Society

▪ Samsara and karma reinforced social hierarchy ▪ Upanishads were also spiritual and intellectual

contemplations ▪ Taught to observe high ethical standards ▪ Respect for all living things, a vegetarian diet