In times of civil or military crisis, the Roman constitution allowed for the appointment of a dictator who wielded absolute power for a term of six.

In times of civil or military crisis, the Roman constitution allowed for the appointment of a dictator who wielded absolute power for a term of six months

Cincinnatus, shown here handing the rods of power back to the city fathers, served as dictator of Rome twice

Rome expanded from central Italy, to the Italian Peninsula, to the Mediterranean basin

Defeated the Carthaginians in the Punic Wars between 264 and 146 B.C. Territory under Roman control near

the end of the republic, 44 B.C.

Imperial expansion brought wealth to Rome, but the wealth was unequally distributed which aggravated class tensions◦ Conflicts arose over political and social policies◦ During the 1st Century B.C. and the 1st Century

A.D., Roman civil and military leaders will gradually dismantle the republican constitution and replace it with a centralized imperial form of government

Conquered lands usually fell into the hands of wealthy elites who organized enormous plantations known as latifundia

The owners of latifundia enjoyed great economies of scale and used slave labor to drive the owners of smaller holdings out of business

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchi worked to limit the amount of conquered land an individual could hold

They met strong resistance from the wealthy and ruling classes and were both assassinated

The problem of land distribution was a symptom of a bigger problem◦ The constitution of the Roman republic had been

designed for a small city-state◦ It was not suitable for a large and growing empire

Roman politicians and generals began jockeying for power and several raised personal armies for support

The two most important generals were Gaius Marius and Lucius Cornelius Sulla◦ Marius sided with

social reformers who favored redistribution of land

◦ Sulla sided with the conservative and aristocratic classes SullaMarius

In 87 B.C., Marius marched on Rome, placed the city under military occupation, and began hunting down his enemies.

When Marius died the next year, Sulla moved to replace him.

In 83, Sulla seized Rome and began slaughtering his enemies.

Sulla initiated a reign of terror that lasted almost five years until he died in 78.

During that period he killed some ten thousand individuals.

He imposed an extremely conservative legislative program that weakened the influence of the lower classes and strengthened the hand of the wealthy.

Sulla’s program did not address Rome’s most serious social problems

The latifundia continued to crush small farmers and poverty was rampant

There were many social eruptions when times were especially hard

Julius Caesar stepped into the chaos and inaugurated a process that replaced the Roman republican constitution with a centralized imperial form of government

Caesar was a nephew of Marius and he favored Marius’ liberal policies and social reform

In the 50s B.C., Caesar led an army that conquered Gaul and made him very popular Gaul (now mostly France)

In 49 BCE Caesar marched his army to Rome and by early 46 he had named himself dictator

But instead of the constitutional six month term, Caesar claimed to be dictator for life

Caesar centralized military and political functions and brought them under his control

He confiscated property from conservatives and distributed it among veterans of his army and other supporters

He launched large scale building projects to provide employment for the poor

He extended Roman citizenship to people in the imperial provinces

Caesar’s reforms alienated many of Rome’s elite who considered him a tyrant.

In 44 B.C. they assassinated him.

However it was too late to return to the old conservative ways and a new round of civil crisis ensued for thirteen years.◦ Octavian emerged in

power.

Octavian was a nephew, protégé, and adopted son of Julius Caesar

He defeated his principal rival, Mark Anthony, and Anthony’s ally Cleopatra at Actium, Greece in 31 B.C.

Anthony and Cleopatra by Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema

Octavian consolidated his rule and in 27 B.C., the Senate bestowed upon him the title Augustus◦ “Augustus” has religious

connotations suggesting a divine or semi divine nature

Augustus ruled virtually unopposed for 45 years in “a monarchy disguised as a republic”

Augustus centralized political and military power like Julius Caesar did, but he was careful to preserve traditional republican offices and forms of government and included members of the Roman elite in his government

Accumulated vast powers for himself and ultimately took responsibility for all important governmental functions◦ Placed individuals loyal to him in all important

positions Reorganized the military system

◦ Created a new standing army with commanders who owed allegiance to him Eliminated the personal armies of earlier years

Stabilized the land after the years of civil war and allowed the institutions of empire to take root

After Augustus, the Roman Empire continued to grow to the point that it surrounded the Mediterranean◦ Romans called the

Mediterranean mare nostrum (“our sea”)

Expansion brought Roman soldiers, diplomats, governors, and merchants throughout the region

Trade flourishedRoman Empire, 117 A.D.

By stopping the civil wars, Augustus inaugurated an era known as pax romana (“Roman peace”) which greatly facilitated trade and communication◦ Lasted from 27 B.C. to 180 A.D.

Also included applying standards of justice and a basic code of law throughout the empire

Under the republic◦ Representation (consuls and Senate)◦ Resolution of conflicts between the patricians

and plebeians (tribunes)◦ Dictators

Under the empire◦ Julius Caesar centralized authority but alienated

elite◦ Augustus continued centralization but placated

elite and ensured loyalty through patronage◦ Pax romana stabilized region through trade,

communication, and law

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-Early on in Pax Romana, a new religion, Christianity emerged in a distant corner of the Empire-Many different religions in the empire-By 63 B.C., Romans had conquered Judea where most Jewish people lived.

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-Romans allowed Jewish people to worship their one god

-Many Jews reluctantly lived under Roman rule, however, some wanted a revolt against Rome and believed a messiah would come to lead their people to freedom

-Born in 4 B.C. in Bethlehem -worshipped God and followed Jewish law-at 30 began preaching to villagers, used parables-short stories with simple moral lessons to communicate his ideas-Recruited 12 disciples to help him spread his ideas, called apostles, in Jerusalem-Some Jews in Jerusalem welcomed Jesus, many of the priests felt he threatened their leadership-Roman authorities felt Jesus would lead the Jews in a revolt against their rule

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-According to the gospels, Jesus was betrayed by one of his disciples, arrested by the Romans, and killed by crucifixion-a person was bound to a cross and left to die

-Rumors then spread that Jesus had not died but had risen from death and commanded his disciples to spread his teachings-After the disciples reported he ascended into heaven

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-Followers called Christians-Disciples preach the messages of Christianity throughout the Roman world-Peter established Christianity in Rome itself-Paul played the most influential role in spreading Christianity

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He spread Christianity throughout the Mediterranean

-His letters became part of the New Testament in the Bible

-Romans were not tolerant towards Christians because:

-they refused to honor the emperor with sacrifices-they refused to worship Roman gods to

protect the state-Christians were used as scapegoats, blamed for social and economic problems-Many Christians became martyrs- or people who suffer or die for their beliefs-However, Christianity continued to spread due to the fact that all people were welcome

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1. Political Reform: The Empire was divided into four geographic regions.

2. Social Reform: Christianity was outlawed.

3. Economic Reform: The tax system was modified and taxes increased

Following Diocletian’s retirement in 305, Rome faced another Civil War. One man emerged as the victor…

1. He consolidated power and ruled by decree

2. The capital of the Roman

empire was moved to the

East— Constantinople

3. The practice of Christianity was legalized

-Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in A.D. 313.

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-The Edict granted freedom of worship to all citizens of the Roman empire

-By the end of the century, Emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of the Roman empire

Temple of Zeus Destroyed

Temple of Zeus

There were many views as to the nature of Jesus & Christian Doctrine.

Constantine called all religious leaders (Bishops) together

Nicene Creed:◦ Trinity: God, Jesus & Holy Spirit are one◦ Virgin birth of Jesus◦ He was crucified & rose from dead

Name of the Roman Empire in the East; they saw themselves as Romans

Constantinople = Capital (the city’s old name was Byzantium)

Emperor = Justinian (527-565)

◦ Motto – One God, one Empire, one Religion

1. He reunified most of the old Roman empire.

2. Christianity was the official religion; non-Christian worship was outlawed.

3. Established Code of Justinian.

1. Established a single code of laws for all.2. Its influence today:

a) Laws should be written.b) Punishments for a crime should be the same for

all.

Code of Justinian = JUSTICE

1. Political The empire was simply too big to governCivil war and unrestMove Capital to Byzantium

2. SocialLow ConfidenceDisloyalty to the EmpireDecline in population – Disease and food shortage

3. EconomicPoor harvestsGold and silver drainedInflation

4. MiltaryThreat from northern tribesLow funds for defenseDecline in patriotism and loyalty

Good◦ Nerva – Began custom of adopting heir◦ Trajan – Enlarged social welfare, Empire greatest size.◦ Hadrian – Reorganized the bureaucracy◦ Antoninus Pius – Reign largely period of peace and prosperity◦ Marcus Aurelias – Defeated Invaders and height of economic

prosperity Bad

◦ Caligula – Mentally disturbed.◦ Nero – Persecuted Christians, Murdered many, good

administrator.◦ Domitian – Ruled dictatorially, feared treason executed

many.