Running head: DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 1 Traditional Dance as an Exercise Regimen for Marshallese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Brayden L. Walker University of Hawai’i at Hilo This practice inquiry project has been approved for meeting full requirements for the Doctor of Nursing Practice Degree at the University of Hawai’i at Hilo School of Nursing. Committee Co-Chairs Dr. Alice Davis Dr. Kimberly Shmina
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Running head: DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 1
Traditional Dance as an Exercise Regimen for Marshallese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
Brayden L. Walker
University of Hawai’i at Hilo
This practice inquiry project has been approved for meeting full requirements for the Doctor of Nursing Practice Degree at the University of Hawai’i at Hilo School of Nursing.
Committee Co-Chairs
Dr. Alice Davis
Dr. Kimberly Shmina
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 2
Table of Contents
Abstract…………………………………………………………………...……………………….3
Chapter 1: Statement of Problem, Project Aims and Objectives………….………………………4
Chapter 2: Review of Literature and Conceptual Framework……………………………..……...9
Chapter 3: Project Design and Evaluation Plan………………………………...………………..35
Appendix H: Cultural Basis for Dance Questionnaire…….…………………...….…………....135
Appendix I: Results from Cultural Evaluation……………………………………………..…..136
Appendix J: Results from Exercise Evaluation………………………………………..……….137
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 3
Abstract
Diabetes is a global health care problem. It is associated with several health
complications such as overweight/obesity, cardiovascular complications, vision complications,
and renal complications among others. Some groups are more disproportionally affected by
diabetes and one of these such groups are the Marshallese people (Naseem, 2010).
Exercise can be a useful way for patients to manage their diabetes. The problem is about
65% of Marshallese do not exercise at all or only exercise for less than 20 minutes a day which
does not meet the recommended weekly value of 150 minutes per week (Reddy, Shehata, Smith,
& Maskarinec, 2005; WHO, 2011). Culturally appropriate exercise may be a better fit for these
people as compared to other forms of exercise such as running or weight-lifting.
The purpose of this project was to develop a dance regimen which was culturally
appropriate. Once the regimen was recorded, it was evaluated by a group of stakeholders for
feasibility, cultural appropriateness and whether it met the current recommendations for physical
activity. It was designed to target the East Hawai’i Marshallese adult population who have been
diagnosed with type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM2). Results include the creation of a culturally
appropriate dance exercise regimen which met recommendations for physical activity overall and
that this regimen is a tool to aid providers and patients meet and exceed their diabetes
management goals.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 4
Traditional Dance as an Exercise Regimen for Marshallese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes
Mellitus
Chapter 1: Statement of Problem, Project Aims and Objectives
Nearly every population of people throughout the world is subject to diabetes and its
potentially life-threatening complications and in fact, since 1980, the prevalence of diabetes has
increased (or at least stayed the same) in 200 countries of the world (Zhou et al., 2016). Some
populations have higher incidence of diabetes than others; African Americans, Hispanic
Americans, American Indians, and Asian and Pacific Island populations have higher diabetes
rates as compared to Whites (Agency for Healthcare Research, 2001). Among Pacific
Islanders, a particularly vulnerable group are the Marshallese, a small population from the
Marshall Islands. Diabetes affects an estimated 28% of Marshallese over the age of 15 and 50%
of those over age 35 (Naseem, 2010). In comparison, 12.2% of people 18 years of age or older
have diabetes in the United States (US) (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2017b).
Background
Diabetes is classified and defined by elevated blood glucose levels. These are measured
as either fasting blood glucose/sugar (FBS) or hemoglobin A1c. A person with three FBS levels
at or above 126 mg/dL or a hemoglobin A1c level of 6.5% or above is said to have diabetes
(American Diabetes Association, 2015). Diabetes has afflicted many people of Micronesia over
the past several decades. Micronesia consists of Guam, the Commonwealth of the Northern
Mariana Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, the Republic of the Marshall Islands, and
Palau (PATA Micronesia Chapter, n.d.). Nuclear testing on the Marshall Islands has subjected
the Marshallese people to environmental circumstances which lead to an increased incidence of
diabetes (Alvares, 2010).
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 5
Following many years of disease and cultural and lifestyle destruction which resulted as a
byproduct of the United States testing nuclear weapons on the Marshall Islands, the Compact of
Free Association was created in 1983 and amended in 2003 (Department of State, n.d.; Guyer,
2001). Because of this agreement, Marshallese peoples are free to move to Hawai’i where they
are provided health care, housing, and employment among other things. One well known aspect
of the Marshallese people is they get very little exercise as compared to life before the
destruction of their homelands which, along with a drastic change in traditional diet, has led to
the high incidence of diabetes among this population (Reddy, Shehata, Smith & Maskarinec,
2005). Approximately 65% of Marshallese do not exercise at all or only exercise for less than 20
minutes per day which does not meet the recommendation of 150 minutes per week (Reddy et
al., 2005; WHO, 2011.).
Dance means “to move one’s feet or body, or both, rhythmically in a pattern of steps,
especially to the accompaniment of music” (Dance, 2016). Patients and providers alike have
approached diabetes prevention and management in many different ways including diet,
exercise, and medications. Adherence to specific exercise recommendations from providers may
be a challenge for diabetic patients. Many Marshallese do not exercise much, but, they do love
to dance (Adams, 2016; Reddy et al., 2005). Dancing stands as an important aspect of their
culture (Adams, 2016). So, in order to incorporate exercise as dance and something which is
enjoyable and familiar, a traditional dance regimen was developed and evaluated to meet cultural
expectations and exercise recommendations. Dance can be an excellent type of aerobic exercise
with benefits ranging from weight control and heart health to improved balance and mood
(Berkeley Wellness, 2014). Also, dance has been used effectively as a form of exercise in
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 6
diabetic patients (Krishnan et al., 2015; Murrock, Higgins, & Killion, 2009; Natesan et al.,
2015).
Problem Statement
Although exercise is known to be an effective component of a treatment regimen for type
2 diabetes (O’Hagan, De Vito, & Boreham, 2012), Marshallese individuals do not engage in
sufficient physical activity to meet the minimum guidelines for overall health.
Support for the Problem
Diabetes is a disease of national concern. The Office of Disease Prevention and Health
Promotion (ODPHP) (2016) released the Healthy People 2020 (HP2020) topics and objectives.
Healthy People is a “science-based, national health promotion and disease prevention” initiative
with goals to improve health of all US citizens (CDC, 2017a). Regarding diabetes, the overall
goal for the US and HP2020 is to “reduce the disease and economic burden state of diabetes
mellitus (DM) and improve the quality of life for all persons who have, or are at risk for, DM”
(ODPHP, 2016). The ODPHP (2016) also states “people from minority populations are more
like to be affected by type 2 diabetes.” “Minority groups constitute 25 percent of all adult
patients with diabetes in the United States” and Pacific Islanders are part of the group of persons
who “are at particularly high risk” for developing DM2 (ODPHP, 2016).
Each state has its own goals, objectives and outcomes based upon the priorities identified
by the HP2020 report. Hawai’i has focused their effort on eight different indicators related to
diabetes (Hawai’i Health Matters, 2016). The only two objectives currently being met are
diabetes death rate and the number of diabetics who receive annual eye exams (Hawai’i Health
Matters, 2016). This means 75% of Hawai’i’s objectives are not being met for diabetes. The
updated data as of 2017, shows Hawai’i is now meeting two other objectives including diabetic
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 7
foot checks and biannual hemoglobin A1c checks (Hawai’i Health Matters, 2017). Other
objectives not currently being met include “new cases of diabetes,” decreasing those with
hemoglobin A1c above 9.0%, daily blood sugar tests, and formal education on diabetes (Hawai’i
Health Matters, 2017). If implemented beyond this pilot project, the culturally appropriate and
physically active dance regimen may help in reaching one of Hawai’i’s HP2020 diabetes
objectives, decreasing hemoglobin A1c, since dance as exercise has been shown to reduce
hemoglobin A1c (Natesan et al., 2015).
Project Goal
The goal for this project is to promote dance as a valuable exercise option for
Marshallese persons with diabetes mellitus through the promotion of regular physical exercise.
The project is based on Pender’s Health Promotion Model and will use a culturally appropriate
dance regimen.
Project Aims and Objectives
There were three aims for this project which helped in accomplishing the main project
goal. These aims were (a) setting the project foundation, (b) developing a culturally congruent
dance-based exercise program and (c) evaluating the dance-based exercise program.
Aim 1: Setting the project foundation. The first aim was to determine the
underpinnings necessary for undertaking this project. The objectives for this aim were to:
Objective 1: Determine the key stakeholders from the Marshallese community who
assisted in planning the project.
Objective 2: Identify the cultural basis for dance in the population, including who dances
(young/old), types of dance, dance music, significance of dance within the culture and
impact of dance on the community.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 8
Objective 3: Identify the target population for a dance/exercise program.
Aim 2: Develop a culturally congruent dance-based exercise program. The second
project aim was to develop a structured dance regimen that met the minimum physical activity
standards for health and was culturally congruent with Marshallese traditions/expectations.
There were four objectives for this aim. They included:
Objective 1: Analyzing the use of dance as a health intervention according to Pender’s
Health Promotion Model.
Objective 2: Identifying cultural preferences of Marshallese migrants related to dance and
exercise.
Objective 3: Combining the elements of effective dance-as-exercise programs with
identified cultural preferences creating a culturally congruent dance regimen for
Marshallese adults.
Objective 4: Using a dance instructor, a video exercise program was created and recorded
using a culturally congruent dance regimen to achieve the minimum recommended
physical activity standards for adults.
Aim 3: Evaluate the dance-based exercise program. The third aim was to evaluate the
dance regimen for implementation feasibility and whether it met cultural and exercise
expectations. The objectives for this third aim were:
Objective 1: Assemble a team of stakeholders that evaluated the recorded dance program.
Objective 2: Analyze evaluation results, determining possible changes to the program and
identifying barriers and facilitators to program implementation.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 9
Chapter 2: Review of Literature and Conceptual Framework
Guiding the completion of this project’s aims, objectives and goals was Pender’s Health
Promotion Model. Chapter two addresses the HPM and the review of literature that set the
foundation for this project. The literature review covers areas such as (a) Marshallese history
and the health barriers they face, (b) the pathophysiology of diabetes, (c) benefits of exercise in
diabetes and (d) dance in the Marshallese culture.
Conceptual Framework
The framework which guided this project was the Health Promotion Model (HPM)
developed by Nola Pender and described in Health Promotion in Nursing Practice (4th ed.),
(2002). There are seven assumptions and 14 theoretical propositions on which the HPM is based
and on which this project was based. The 14 propositions include:
1. Prior behavior and inherited and acquired characteristics influence beliefs, affect, and
enactment of health-promoting behavior.
2. Persons commit to engaging in behaviors from which they anticipate deriving
personally valued benefits.
3. Perceived barriers can constrain commitment to action, a mediator of behavior as well
as actual behavior.
4. Perceived competence or self-efficacy to execute a given behavior increases the
likelihood of commitment to action and actual performance of the behavior.
5. Greater perceived self-efficacy results in fewer perceived barriers to a specific health
behavior.
6. Positive affect toward a behavior results in greater perceived self-efficacy, which can,
in turn, result in increased positive affect.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 10
7. When positive emotions or affect are associated with a behavior, the probability of
commitment and action is increased.
8. Persons are more likely to commit to and engage in health-promoting behaviors when
significant others model the behavior, expect the behavior to occur, and provide
assistance and support to enable the behavior.
9. Families, peers, and health care providers are important sources of interpersonal
influence that can increase or decrease commitment to and engagement in health-
promoting behavior.
10. Situational influences in the external environment can increase or decrease
commitment to or participation in health-promoting behavior.
11. The greater the commitment to a specific plan of action, the more likely health-
promoting behaviors are to be maintained over time.
12. Commitment to a plan of action is less likely to result in the desired behavior when
competing demands over which persons have little control require immediate
attention.
13. Commitment to a plan of action is less likely to result in the desired behavior when
other actions are more attractive and thus preferred over the target behavior.
14. Persons can modify cognitions, affect, and the interpersonal and physical
environments to create incentives for health actions. (Pender, Murdaugh, & Parsons,
2002, pp. 63-64)
The Health Promotion Model was the guiding force for this project. This model was used due to
its applicability to dance in this setting of an exercise regimen. The ways in which this project
fits with the health promotion model are discussed later in this paper.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 11
The Health Promotion Model is Pender’s way of describing the multidimensionality of
people while interacting with the environment during the pursuit of health (Petiprin, 2016). This
models health as a positive, active way of living and not just sans disease (Petiprin, 2016). The
HPM focuses on three main areas including “individual characteristics and experiences,
behavior-specific cognitions and affect, and behavioral outcomes” (Petiprin, 2016). It seems as
if this model is intended place individuals at the forefront of their own health, placing
responsibility on them for their own wellbeing. Everyone’s experiences and characteristics are
unique and therefore affect their actions differently while their knowledge and affect play an
important motivational role in their health promotion (Petiprin, 2016). The goal of the model is
echoed in its title, health promotion and health promoting behavior (Petiprin, 2016). The result
is healthier individuals overall. Therefore, this behavioral engagement by persons should
ultimately lead to improved health status, enhanced functioning and lastly, a better quality of life
(Petiprin, 2016). Thus, with the HPM as a guide, the goal of this project was to promote dance
as a valuable exercise option for Marshallese persons with diabetes mellitus through the
promotion of regular physical exercise and in the future, result in the same improved health
status, enhanced functioning and better quality of life exampled by the HPM as described by
Petiprin (2016).
Dance and this project fit the propositions of the HPM in several ways. The dance
regimen designed in the project fits the first proposition, “prior behavior and inherited and
acquired characteristics influence beliefs, affect, and enactment of health-promoting behavior”
(Pender et al., 2002, p. 63), because it was supposed to be and actually was familiar to the
population’s understanding of the dance, and dance as a physical activity can thereby initiate a
health-promoting behavior in the participants. It was our hope that this project meet proposition
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 12
two, “persons commit to engaging in behaviors from which they anticipate deriving personally
valued benefits” (Pender et al., 2002, p. 63), by helping this population see there are benefits for
them in managing diabetes with exercise through dance. Propositions three, four, six and seven
which collectively deal with perceived barriers, commitment, self-efficacy and positive affect
(Pender et al., 2002) were also met by this project. They, the Marshallese, were familiar with the
dances and have a cultural and personal view of dance. Though not assessed, Marshallese can be
familiar with the dances and confident in their abilities to perform the dances, thereby removing
some of their perceived barriers to exercise. Having other community members lead and/or
participate in the classes would assist in meeting the eighth and ninth propositions of the HPM.
These propositions relate to the importance of significant others, friends, family members and
health care providers’ influence on behavior (Pender et al., 2002). These are a few ways in
which dance fits the HPM.
The concept map (Figure 1) developed for this project is centered on the main concept of
culture. One definition of culture is “the customary beliefs, social forms, and material traits of a
racial, religious, or social group” (Culture, 2017). Culture greatly impacts both health and health
care (Clarke, 2016), therefore, culture was a central concept for this project. Staying within the
bounds of the Marshallese migrant culture, those with diabetes were the focus for this project.
Secondary prevention springs from the concept of diabetes as an important aspect of the
management of patients with diabetes. Secondary prevention is focused not upon preventing the
development of diabetes, but, instead upon managing and reducing the morbidity and mortality
associated with diabetes. Dance served as the exercise intervention that was evaluated in this
project. It was important for this dance to be both enjoyable (to help people maintain interest
and participation) and traditional in nature because culture impacts health and health care
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 13
(Clarke, 2016). Culture and diabetes were the main concepts in this project. The concepts of
Marshallese and migrants contribute to the overall concept of culture as well as diabetes.
Secondary prevention and dance are concepts related to diabetes in that secondary prevention
targets those with diabetes already and dance is a potential method for secondary prevention for
diabetes. Finally, exercise, enjoyment, and traditions are part of the concept of dance.
Figure 1. Diabetes among East Hawai’i adult Marshallese migrants: responses to dance. A
concept map developed for this project.
Literature Review
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) DM2 is a form of chronic metabolic
disease and causes and devastating effects for people (WHO, 2016a). Complications of diabetes
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 14
include renal failure, amputations, blindness, cardiac disease and stroke (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2011). Given these complications, diabetes can be catastrophic for those
individuals, their family and friends, their communities and the health care system who cares for
them. Worldwide, there are 422 million adults with diabetes (WHO, 2016a). In the US, 9.1% of
people have diabetes and 35% of the population is considered physically inactive (WHO, 2016c).
In contrast, in the Marshall Islands, nearly 21% of the population have diabetes (WHO, 2016b).
The Marshallese have more than twice the incidence of diabetes when compared to the United
States.
Cost of diabetes. Diabetes costs make up a significant amount of health care spending in
the US. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), a total of 20% of
spending on health care is for those who are diagnosed with diabetes (includes both type one and
type two diabetes though about 90-95% of diagnosed diabetes is DM2) (CDC, 2016). This
means that 20% of healthcare spending goes for about nine percent of the US population. The
American Diabetes Association (ADA) states that diabetes cost the US $245 billion in 2012, up
from $174 billion in 2007 (ADA, 2013a). Diabetes is a costly chronic disease for the US and for
states individually. Diabetes costs Hawai’i $1.11 billion (ADA, 2013b). Patients with diabetes
have medical expenditures that are about 2.3 times higher than patients without diabetes,
totaling, on average, $13,700 each year (ADA, 2013a). This is a costly condition for a disease
that can, for the most part, be prevented. Government insurance covers about 62.4% of diabetes
costs, private insurance covers about 34.4% of diabetes costs and those who are uninsured makes
up 3.2% of diabetes costs (ADA, 2013b). Uninsured diabetic patients have 79% fewer office
visits, 68% fewer prescriptions, and visit the emergency department 55% more than those with
insurance (ADA, 2013b). The costs associated with diabetes, lower incomes, lack of insurance
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 15
and difficulty navigating the health care system makes diabetes management potentially
challenging for the Marshallese population by forming barriers to health as discussed in latter
sections.
Diabetes pathophysiology. Diabetes is complex, progressive and debilitating and its
pathophysiology involves the pancreas, liver, adipose tissue, skeletal muscle, gastrointestinal
tract, kidneys and the brain (Cornell, 2015). Diabetes inflicts lasting and devastating effects on
the vital body systems and organs. β-cells in the pancreas are responsible for insulin production
and declining β-cell function can be attributed to several factors including genetics, age, diet and
exercise, glucotoxicity and lipotoxicity (Cornell, 2015). Proper function of β-cells is necessary
for control of insulin and therefore, blood sugar and when disrupted in their function by intrinsic
or extrinsic factors, can result is diabetes. Decreased insulin secretion by β-cells is “likely the
most critical functional β-cells defect in the development of type 2 diabetes” (Fonseca, 2009, p.
S151). When these β-cells function declines, then the signs and symptoms of diabetes would
begin to appear as discussed in the next section. The liver contributes to diabetes because it
becomes resistant to insulin suppression and overproduces glucose (DeFronzo, 2009). One
expert asserts insulin resistance of muscle could be responsible for 90% of the impairment of
type 2 diabetics’ glucose disposal (DeFronzo, 2009). When these and other body tissues become
resistant to insulins effect, they become unable to utilize glucose which increases blood glucose
levels until blood glucose increases enough to classify a person as diabetic. In DM2, adipocytes
also become resistant to insulin’s effect thereby creating increased amounts of free fatty acids
which lead to lipotoxicity (Cornell, 2015; DeFronzo, 2009). Understanding the pathophysiology
of diabetes is important when considering treatment and management options. Both health care
providers and patients should understand the pathophysiology as it can affect medication choice
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 16
and influence lifestyle modification. Lipotoxicity consists of gluconeogenesis stimulation, liver
and muscle insulin resistance, and insulin secretion impairment (DeFronzo, 2009). The
gastrointestinal tract in diabetes is also affected, resulting in increased motility, glucagon
secretion and glucose release by the liver and a decrease in glucose-dependent secretion of
insulin which all negatively impact glycemic control (Cornell, 2015). These result, again, in
more glucose not being used by the body and less insulin being produced. It is an additive effect
with more glucose being produced and less insulin being produced and then with less insulin
being produced, more glucose is released, with each worsening the other. Kidneys also increase
glucose production in DM2 through gluconeogenesis (Cornell, 2015). All these factors and body
systems contribute to the development of DM2.
Diabetes complications. There are more than 29 million Americans who have diabetes
and in 2013, diabetes was a leading cause of mortality in the US (CDC, 2016). Furthermore,
diabetes itself is not the only health concern for diabetic patients. There are many chronic
complications of diabetes people may suffer as comorbidities which can affect most of the organ
systems of the body including the neurologic, cardiovascular, integumentary, peripheral vascular,
renal, endocrine, and ophthalmic systems.
Chronic neurological complications of diabetes mellitus include neuropathy, strokes,
neuralgia and arthropathy (ADA, 2013b). These are complications that may never resolve or are
managed with additional medication. Peripheral vascular complications may include
atherosclerosis and varicose veins resulting in amputations (CDC, 2016). Amputations may be
necessary after damage caused by diabetes leads to infection following nerve and blood vessel
damage (CDC, 2016), and ulcers (ADA, 2013b). Diabetes causes both micro- and macro-
vascular changes in the body. These vascular changes are responsible for many of the
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 17
complication of diabetes. Cardiovascular disease is a chronic complication of diabetes and may
include aneurisms, heart failure, myocardial infarction and hypertension (ADA, 2013b). It is
astonishing that one problem, elevated blood glucose, can be responsible for such drastic
complications and comorbidities. Furthermore, diabetics are twice as likely to suffer a stroke or
heart disease as nondiabetics – and earlier in life also (CDC, 2016). Diabetes is not a disease that
respects one’s age, it inflicts its effects regardless. Renal complications may also occur in
diabetes and include kidney infections, renal failure, urinary tract infections, and end-stage renal
disease (ADA, 2013b). There can also be complications of the endocrine/metabolic system
(ADA, 2013b). Both renal and endocrine complications can further exacerbate diabetes and lead
to a decline in health and can lead to expensive, specialist care and treatment. These
complications include hyperlipidemias, hyperkalemia, hypercholesterolemia and renal glycosuria
(ADA, 2013b). Once patients begin on the path of uncontrolled diabetes, it can be difficult to
prevent further complications. The longer diabetes goes undiagnosed or uncontrolled, the more
likely serious comorbidities are to occur. The eyes may also be affected by diabetes (ADA,
2013b; CDC 2016). Vision problems common to diabetes include diabetic retinopathy,
glaucoma and cataracts which may all lead to vision loss (CDC, 2016). Ultimately, diabetes is a
major contributor to significant morbidities. For example, the CDC (2016) reports that diabetes
is the leading cause of lower-limb amputations, renal failure, and blindness with onset in
adulthood. It becomes a game of catch-up once the degeneration of body systems due to
diabetes has begun. Other chronic complications of diabetes may include bacteremia,
degenerative skin disorders, candidiasis, osteomyelitis and impotence (ADA, 2013b).
Marshallese population. The Marshall Islands are two chains of islands, with a
combined total of more than 1200 islands, located in the central Pacific Ocean (Kiste, n.d.). The
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 18
Marshall Islands are a remote and isolated island county. This sovereign nation consists of
nearly 70 square miles of land and more than 750,000 square miles of water (U.S. Department of
State, 2018). That is 70 square miles spread out over an area roughly the size of Idaho, Utah,
Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Nebraska. The islands were
settled around 30 BC, based on the earliest carbon dating, by skilled navigators who were likely
influenced by Polynesian culture (Kiste, n.d.). The islands were explored by various persons
including Christian missionaries from the US and Hawai’i who began preaching there around
1850 (Kiste, n.d.).
In 1886 Great Britain had a protectorate of the islands (Kiste, n.d.). A few years later in
1914, Japan took over the islands and in 1919 administered them as part of a League of Nations
mandate (Kiste, n.d.). During World War II, the US took over occupation of the islands after
gaining control in 1944 from Japan (Kiste, n.d.; U.S. Department of State, 2018). The area
became part of the United Nations Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands under US jurisdiction
from 1947 until 1986 (Kiste, n.d.). For 12 years, starting in 1946, the US tested nuclear bombs
on some of the islands/atolls of the Marshalls leading to contamination which would render the
Bikini Atoll inhabitable (Kiste, n.d.; U.S. Department of State, 2018). The radiation and fallout
from the nuclear testing devastated the islands. The radioactivity from these bombs destroyed
the health of many Marshallese (Guyer, 2001).
After separating from the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands in 1978, the Marshall
Islands drafted and approved a constitution in 1979 (Kiste, n.d.). Despite this constitution, the
Marshall Islands Still remained a trust territory under US jurisdiction and after nuclear testing
had ended, the Compact of Free Association (COFA) was approved in 1983 which states the US
is responsible for the protection and financial assistance of the Marshall Islands (Kiste, n.d.).
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 19
The Compact of Free Association was signed in 1983 and the Marshall Islands became
independent in 1986 upon COFA implementation (U.S. Department of State, 2018). They
became a sovereign nation though the US still have a strong hold, influence and responsibility in
the islands. The COFA also allows US access to a missile testing range and provides for the
Marshall Islands to be fully independent at any time (Kiste, n.d.). The COFA is what allows
Marshallese people to freely migrate to the US and provides compensation for those affected by
the testing, covers injury claims by the islanders, and provides money for improving Ebeye
island’s (an island in the Marshall Islands) living conditions (Kiste, n.d.). It appears that the
COFA in part is an attempt at restitution for the destruction the US sponsored nuclear testing
cause the islanders. To Marshallese migrants, the COFA is more than a legal document and is
rather, as one migrant stated, “a law that binds the friendship between the Marshall Islands and
the United States” (McElfish et al., 2016b).
As of 2003, nearly 89% of the then 3000 Marshallese migrants living in Hawai’i
migrated after the COFA implementation (Graham, n.d.). There were relatively few Marshallese
living in Hawai’i prior to the COFA agreement took effect. According to the U.S. Census
Bureau, Summary File 2, released March 1, 2012, as of 2010, more than 6300 Marshallese
resided in Hawai’i (State of Hawai’i Department of Business, Economic Development &
Tourism, n.d.). So, it is likely this percentage of post-COFA Marshallese migrants in Hawai’i
has stayed roughly the same or has maybe even seen an increase in the number of migrants
moving to Hawai’i. According to a study of Marshallese migration conducted by Pobutsky,
Krupitsky, and Yamada (2009), respondents report the following reasons for migrating to
Hawai’i: (a) better medical and/or health care (34.7%), (b) better education (33.1%) and (c)
better job opportunities (22.3%). It is interesting to note that devastation from nuclear testing
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 20
was not listed as a reason to migrate to the US. It may be part of peoples’ reason for seeking
better health care if they are ill because of the testing whether directly or indirectly. The
devastation may also be included in the job opportunities if their or their families’ livelihood of
agriculture or fishing was impacted by the nuclear testing.
Morbidity and mortality. In the Marshall Islands, nearly 21% of the total population
have diabetes (more than double the US average) and 47.6% are considered physically inactive
(WHO, 2016b). This indicates that diabetes is, or should be, a problem of significance for the
Marshallese people. One way to improve these numbers would be to increase the number of
people who are physically active. In a study of an Arkansas population of Marshallese migrants
it was found that Marshallese discuss diabetes as a certainty for many community members
instead of a preventable condition (McElfish et al., 2016a). It is as though they have already
accepted that part of being Marshallese is being diabetic and lack optimism that there are ways to
prevent this widespread disease. Micronesians may have higher diabetes rates than other
Melanesians because of their Austronesian genetics (Hughes & Marks, 2009). Austronesians are
a group of people who share the Proto-Austronesian language who migrated and settled, among
other areas, the Southwest Pacific Ocean (Thomas, 2011) and whose genetics may be
predisposed to diabetes as described by the thrifty genotype theory (Hughes & Marks, 2009;
Neel, 1962). This Austronesian genetic may be a predisposing factor for the Marshallese
population. Environmental factors such as inactivity, obesity and stress combined with
hereditary components lead to the development of DM2 (Ali, 2013). As noted previously and
hereafter, the Marshallese deal with all these contributing risk factors of diabetes: inactivity,
obesity, stress, and genetics. Along with inactivity, people of the Marshall Islands have high
rates of overweight and obesity, 74.9% and 42.3% respectively (WHO, 2016b).
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 21
In a study of Marshallese and Chuukese migrants living on Hawai’i Island, Tan, Haumea,
Juarez, and Grimm (2014) found that 42.9% of Marshallese with diabetes were obese, about 66%
had hypertension and 80% had dyslipidemia. It is somewhat surprising that there were not
higher levels of obesity in those with diabetes. This would indicate that over half of Marshallese
diabetics are not obese and therefore may not be recognized by the health care system as being at
risk for diabetes. Therefore, they would go undiagnosed and develop comorbidities likely
contributing to the increased healthcare costs of Micronesians discussed in relation to social
determinants of health below. They also found that 1.5%, 0.9%, and 0.9% of these Marshallese
patients were on medication for diabetes, hypertension and dyslipidemia respectively (Tan et al.,
2014). This shows one or more of the following: (a) these diabetic Marshallese people in the
study have not been diagnosed and therefore are not being treated, (b) they have been diagnosed
but are either not being treated or are not compliant with their treatment plan, or (c) they have
been diagnosed but do not understand the diagnosis and treatment due to communication
barriers.
A study conducted on the island of Oahu, Hawai’i found that 24% of Marshallese
participants never exercise and 43% of the participants exercise for less than 20 minutes per day
(Reddy et al., 2005). This means that over two-thirds of Marshallese on Oahu do not get an
adequate amount of exercise each week. In another study of Marshallese migrants in Arkansas it
was found that obesity, not graduating from high school, and no time or place for exercise are
associated significantly with no physical activity (Felix et al., 2017). It is unclear from this
summary whether the lack of exercise contributes to obesity or being obese contributes to the
lack of exercise. It is likely that both statements are at least, in part, valid. This study also found
that over 90% of people surveyed liked walking for their exercise (Felix et al., 2017). The
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 22
problem is though, just because a person likes walking for exercise, does not mean they exercise.
Obese patients were almost two times more likely to say they are never physically active
compared to non-obese participants (Felix et al., 2017). If obesity is a risk factor for diabetes
and obese patients are twice as likely to not exercise than non-obese persons, then targeting
exercise would decrease risk factors of diabetes. Therefore, and exercise regimen would seem
like an appropriate intervention in the prevention and management of DM2 in the Marshallese
population. They found that even those participants who had been diagnosed with DM2 were
not any more likely to be physically active than nondiabetic participants (Felix et al., 2017).
Either the nondiabetic patients are very active and thus so are the diabetics or they are not getting
enough exercise. Given the subject matter, it would lend that the latter is more accurate.
Researchers assert the increasing diabetes epidemic in this population can be blamed, in part, on
turning away from subsistence living and becoming more sedentary (Yamada & Pobutsky,
2009).
Diabetes is but one of the many health disparities faced by Marshallese. For example, a
health assessment of an Arkansas population of Marshallese found that only 10.4% of those
surveyed had a normal body mass index (BMI), 28% were overweight and 61.7% were obese
(McElfish et al., 2016c). If being obese/overweight are independent risk factors of diabetes
development, nearly 90% of those surveyed are at risk of developing diabetes regardless of any
other risk factors they may have. This same assessment found that about 40% of Marshallese
studied were pre-hypertensive, about 40% had hypertension, and about 20% had both
hypertension and diabetes (McElfish et al., 2016c). Diabetes is not the only manageable or
treatable health concerns facing Marshallese individuals. Elevated blood pressure is also very
prevalent in this population. There are also many other health concerns for the Marshallese.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 23
In the freely associated states, which includes the Marshall Islands, infectious disease
such as Hansen’s disease, hepatitis B, sexually transmitted diseases, tuberculosis along with
measles and dengue fever outbreaks are a continual occurrence (Yamada & Pobutsky, 2009).
Many of these diseases are not encountered as frequently in the US. Anemia, iron deficiency,
and vitamin A deficiency may be the result of malnutrition (Yamada & Pobutsky, 2009). There
has been an “explosion of chronic diseases” such as diabetes, obesity, high cholesterol,
hypertension and heart disease, arthritis, asthma, and cancer of both lifestyle-associated and
radiation-induced etiology (Yamada & Pobutsky, 2009). The anemias, malnutrition and chronic
disease resulted, at least somewhat from the years of nuclear testing in the islands. Also, in the
US, Marshallese mothers have preterm labor and give birth to low birth weight babies at a
significantly higher rate than non-Hispanic White women (Schempf, Mendola, Hamilton, Hayes,
& Makuc, 2010). Low birth weight puts infants at risk for further health complications and
likely more medical expenses at birth.
Barriers to health. The Marshallese people face many barriers to health. According to
the State of Hawai’i laws, Marshallese migrants who are children, pregnant women, aged, blind
or disabled are eligible for state-funded Medicaid services or similar services (State of Hawai’i
Department of Human Services, 2014). This is beneficial aid for those persons who qualify.
They are not, however, eligible for federally funded Medicaid (State of Hawai’i, 2009 as cited in
Yamada & Pobutsky, 2009). The state is able to help with Medicaid, but the federal government
is not helping the COFA migrants, so it is either up to the states to fund their health care or to the
Marshallese to find other means of health insurance or go without. Marshallese migrants who do
not meet the above criteria cannot qualify for Medicaid and are left to purchase insurance on
their own (Department of Human Services, 2014). They are, however, required to have health
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 24
insurance, face the penalty if they do not have insurance, and are eligible for tax credit subsidies
(Kellams, 2013; McElfish et al., 2016b). Though they are not eligible for Medicaid, they still
pay Medicaid tax along with other state and federal taxes (McElfish et al., 2016b). It does not
seem fair that they are required to pay for something that they are not even eligible for obtaining.
They are not eligible for food stamps unless they become citizens, are permanent residents, or
are veterans, active duty service members or service member dependents (Yamada & Pobutsky,
2009). Without Medicaid access, the Affordable Care Act is not affordable to the majority of
Marshallese who are low-wage workers (McElfish et al., 2016b). Without health insurance,
Marshallese do not fill prescriptions or seek health care because of costs (McElfish et al., 2016b).
Prescription and health care costs can be very expensive for those who are uninsured or born by
facilities such as emergency rooms or other facilities that provide services for uninsured persons.
For those who are uninsured, the Marshallese feel as though they are discriminated against and
are provided less effective or different care than insured patients (McElfish et al., 2016b).
Limited access to the system is made worse by lacking an understanding of the US’s complex
health system. The US health care system, with its open enrollment, insurance premiums,
primary care providers, and co-pays, is confusing and very different than in the Marshall Islands
(McElfish et al., 2016b).
In a study of Marshallese migrants to Arkansas, it was found that many participants were
very confused and lacked understanding of the ACA (McElfish et al., 2016b). With the entire
document well over 1000 pages long, it is likely that very few, if any, read the document.
Marshallese have expressed being confused and frustrated about co-pays, insurance premiums,
varying levels of coverage, the tax penalty and inconsistency with who is and is not covered
under the ACA and open enrollment (McElfish et al., 2016b). Frustration and difficulty also
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 25
arose because of a lack of follow-up when participants applied for ACA and after no one helps,
one participant shared how giving up was the option (McElfish et al., 2016b). When a person
does not understand the health care system, the ACA and no one is readily offering help, it is no
wonder why giving up would be the preferred choice. Navigating this system can be difficult for
Marshallese migrants who are trying to understand financing, insurance plans, primary care
provider assignment, and seeing more than one provider for various needs and specialties
(Yamada & Pobutsky, 2009). These struggles are only compounded for those in which a
language barrier affects effective communication. Nearly 29% of Micronesians (Chuukese and
Marshallese) surveyed reported difficulties accessing health insurance or health care (Pobutsky
et al., 2009). This means that they encountered challenges when trying to receive health care or
when applying for and/or utilizing health insurance. Marshallese often depend on others such as
family or friends to take them to appointments which can complicate scheduling and keeping
appointments (Yamada & Pobutsky, 2009). There are many barriers that prevent adequate
access to health care for the Marshallese residing in the United States.
With the COFA and commitment to friendship, migrants to the US believed their access
to health care here would be the same as in the Marshall Islands because the US funds most of
their health care in the Marshall Islands (McElfish et al., 2016b). To emphasize this point, one
participant shared how (s)he thought seeing a doctor would be simple and affordable like it was
in the Marshall Islands but, seeking health care in the US was much different and more difficult
than previously thought (McElfish et al., 2016a). (S)he continued sharing how (s)he was
particularly confused because the easy access health care in the Marshall Islands is funded
entirely by the US and is not the same as in the Marshall Islands even though there is an
agreement by the US to help the Marshall Islands (McElfish et al., 2016a). This research
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 26
participant shared something that is likely not an uncommon feeling among Marshallese because
why would health care be different when the same people, the US, are paying for the costs of
health care. It is widely felt by Marshallese that the US has not fulfilled their duty in the COFA
partnership (McElfish et al., 2016b). Some even feel the US is responsible for providing access
to health care because of the nuclear testing which was performed on their islands and that the
US is betraying them through denying access to Medicaid Expansion (McElfish et al., 2016b).
Expecting services that were believed to be encompassed in the COFA agreement and then not
having those services available like contributes further to the poor access to health care for the
Marshallese.
Social determinants of health. If a Marshallese migrant is able to access the health care
system, there are still other barriers to health they may face. Barriers such as limited ability for
speaking English and limited job skills are problems for Marshallese migrants (Yamada &
Pobutsky, 2009). These barriers are examples of social determinants of health. Social
determinants of health have been defined as “conditions in the environments in which people are
born, live, learn, work, play, worship, and age that affect a wide range of health, functioning, and
quality-of-life outcomes and risks” (HealthyPeople.gov, 2014). Many of these social
determinants of health affect the Marshallese population in Hawai’i, especially those who are
migrants, who knew a different life in the Marshall Islands and have had to adapt to the changes
they face in Hawai’i. A study of Marshallese migrants living on Oahu and Hawai’i island found
that about 30% of adults surveyed had less than a high school education, 28.1% graduated from
high school, and only 1.7% graduated from college (Pobutsky et al., 2009). This is a relatively
small amount of people who graduated from college. Though not always the case, college
education means better socioeconomic status and those with higher socioeconomic status are
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 27
healthier. A small proportion, 14.6% and 28% respectively, received public assistance in the
form of food stamps and/or Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)/Temporary
Assistance for Other Needy Families (TANOF) (Pobutsky et al., 2009). Twenty-eight percent of
households reported members were unemployed and those who are employed work mostly in the
service industry (Pobutsky et al., 2009) which is likely why many are low-income wage earners.
Roughly the same amount of people who were unemployed were also provided assistance with
TANF funding. Sixteen percent of the families (including both Chuukese and Marshallese)
reported homelessness or living in a homeless shelter (Pobutsky et al., 2009). These social
determinants such as lower educational attainment, homelessness and lower wages are more
barriers to health that this Marshallese population faces. Living in otherwise less than desirable
conditions is not congruent with improved overall health status. Health disparities are seen
among those of low socioeconomic status (Chen & Miller, 2013).
In a study of health care costs in Hawai’i Hagiwara, Juarez, Yamada, Miyamura and
Sentell (2016) found that Micronesian’s hospitalization health care costs were higher than other
racial or ethnic groups overall, though specific costs for diabetes were not significantly higher
than other groups. These high costs must be borne by someone and if the Marshallese patients
who are hospitalized do not have insurance then the health facilities must deal with the costs
associated with care provided adding further strain to the health care system. Another study also
found that Micronesians in Hawai’i are also hospitalized at a younger age and often more sick
than other population groups (Hagiwara, Miyamura, Yamada, & Sentell, 2016). This likely
signals the lack of seeking health care at early signs of illness or disease and because they wait so
long, there are more complications and comorbidities thereby resulting in higher costs for those
involved.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 28
Lifestyle determinants of health. There is consensus agreement that adults should get
at least 150 minutes of moderate intensity or half that amount of high-intensity aerobic exercise
each week to receive substantial health benefits (U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services, 2008; WHO, 2011). When broken down, that is 30 minutes a day five days a week on
average. Finding that amount of time for exercise every day can be a challenge but the proven
benefits of exercise should be reason enough to sacrifice time elsewhere for health promotion.
For those who find the goal of 150 minutes per week too daunting, any activity is better than no
activity (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008). This is important because often
when people who are sedentary, starting a full 150 minute/week exercise regimen may not be the
best thing for them at that time. This is a general recommendation for overall health but going
from zero to a lot of exercise just might not be feasible. They could get discouraged and give up
or they could even cause injury to muscle, bone, joint, etc. which would be further detrimental, at
least in the short term, to their exercise plan. Those who do participate in any physical activity,
regardless of the amount, will gain at least some benefits for their health (U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services, 2008). It can be encouraging for persons to realize that any amount
of exercise is better than none and then following through by exercising.
The benefits of exercise on patients with DM2 is documented in the literature (Balducci
et al., 2014). In a metaepidemiologic study it was found that there is no significant difference
between exercise and medication therapies as they relate to mortality outcomes associated with
diabetes but, rather, are quite similar in their secondary prevention benefits (Naci & Ioannidis,
2013). This means that exercise is just as effective as medication in relation to secondary
prevention of complications and mortality associated with diabetes. Considering the costs of
diabetes medications, exercise seems the cheaper option. In a group of people where many are
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 29
low-income earners, exercise would appear to be the ideal option financially. O’Hagan et al.
(2012) state exercise effectively treats type 2 diabetes. This does not mean that it will cure
diabetes because if a person were to stop exercising after effectively treating DM2 with exercise,
they would revert to their diabetic state as indicated by increased hemoglobin A1c and elevated
blood glucose levels. Exercise leads to plasma glucose stabilization in the short term and
improved hemoglobin A1c, insulin resistance, and body composition with continuation of
exercise long term (O’Hagan et al., 2012). In a population of women with a history of
gestational diabetes, each increase of 100 minutes of moderate-intensity exercise, decreased their
risk of developing DM2 by nine percent (Bao et al., 2014). So not only does exercise treat
diabetes, exercise can also prevent the development of type two diabetes mellitus. This study
also found that the more hours watching television (inactivity) the greater the association was
with developing DM2 (Bao et al., 2014). It makes sense that if exercise prevents and treats
diabetes that the opposite would also be true, a sedentary life is more likely to lead to the
development of DM2. The Diabetes Aerobic and Resistance Exercise (DARE) clinical trial
found that aerobic and resistance exercise both decreased hemoglobin A1c 0.51 and 0.38
percentage points respectively over a six-month period (Sigal et al., 2007). Hemoglobin A1c
decreased even further when resistance and aerobic exercise were combined (Sigal et al., 2007).
The exercise recommendation of 150 minutes a week does not specify what type of exercise
other than moderate-intensity, so it would be beneficial, given the above study, to recommend a
combination or resistance and aerobic exercise that meets the moderate-intensity criteria for
those wanting to decrease hemoglobin A1c. Body composition improved and caloric intake
decreased slightly over the same time whereas blood pressure and lipid counts did not differ
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 30
significantly among groups (Sigal et al., 2007). It seems counter-intuitive that caloric intake
would decrease with exercise but may further explain the decrease in hemoglobin A1c.
Exercise and weight loss are important in glycemic management (Ismail-Beigi, 2012).
These two principles of health promotion are independent and interdependent aspects of diabetes
management. According to the ADA, regular exercise improves blood glucose control, aids in
weight loss, improves well-being and reduces cardiovascular risk factors (2012). The ADA
recommends diabetics get 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (heart rate of 50-
70% of maximum) each week (2012). Their recommendation for exercise is no different than
the 150-minute recommendation for the general population. This exercise is to occur over at
least three days during the week without skipping exercise on more than two days in a row
(ADA, 2012). These 150 minutes can be broken down however a person wishes but would be
something like 50 minutes a day on 3 days a week, 35-40 minutes 4 days a week, 30 minutes 5
days a week, 25 minutes 6 days a week or just over 20 minutes each day. Interestingly, a study
of type 2 diabetic persons found as people undergo the exercise stages of change, they increase
their self-determined motivation and this motivation is maintained through regular exercise
(Fortier et al., 2011). So basically, the more you exercise, the more you will be motivated to
continue exercising. It is further recommended that, among those who are obese/overweight,
physical activity is a specific intervention which can be used as a secondary preventative
measure for the consequences of diabetes (Yamada & Pobutsky, 2009).
Though the ADA recommends specific intensity levels as well as time considerations for
exercise, Balducci et al. (2012) suggests a slightly different approach. In type 2 diabetics who
are sedentary, the intensity of exercise is not as important as the amount and type of exercise
when used as a therapy method for these patients (Balducci et al., 2012). Drawing from this, the
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 31
150-minute recommendation time limit is still true but maybe not the moderate-intensity
requisite when it comes to diabetic patients. They state a low-to-moderate exercise intensity is
approximately as beneficial as moderate-to-high intensity exercise (Balducci et al., 2012). These
two exercise intensities, low-to-moderate and moderate-to-high, improve risk factors and the
burden of cardiovascular disease (Balducci et al., 2012). This same study also found that
moderate-to-high intensity exercise did slightly, but significantly, improve hemoglobin A1c,
triglycerides and total cholesterol as compared to low-to-moderate intensity exercise (Balducci et
al., 2012). Thus, for reducing hemoglobin A1c, higher intensity exercise is more beneficial but
for cardiovascular benefits, intensity is not as important. Low-to-moderate intensity exercise did
decrease hemoglobin A1c from 6.99% to 6.66% (Balducci et al., 2012). This is a decrease in
A1c but not a significant decrease from baseline for these patients. Therefore, aerobic exercise is
effective in improving blood glucose control (Craven, Bane, & Kolasa, 2013).
Dance as exercise. Worldwide, 25% of people are physically inactive and this physical
inactivity contributes to nearly 3.2 million deaths annually and is the number four risk factor
overall for death throughout the world (Shahid & Shahid, 2016). Inactivity is not just a problem
for the Marshallese living in Hawai’i but rather a worldwide struggle. Dance has been promoted
as exercise through aerobic activities such as Zumba®. Zumba® is a workout combining music
and low and high intensity exercise (Zumba Fitness, LLC, 2018). A traditional dance regimen
for Marshallese would be like Zumba® in that it is structured, follows certain steps and involves
varying intensities of exercise. In a study of Zumba’s® effect upon diabetic and/or
overweight/obese women, it was reported that Zumba® significantly decreased body weight,
BMI and hip circumference though it did not demonstrate significant changes in blood pressure,
fasting blood glucose or hemoglobin A1c (Krishnan et al., 2015). Though this study did not
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 32
show a significant decrease in hemoglobin A1c, it did decrease BMI and weight thereby
reducing one of the major contributing factors to diabetes – obesity. In previously inactive
women who participated in a six-week aerobic dance regimen, health benefits of improving
blood oxidative stress were elucidated (Leelarungrayub et al., 2011). Dance has also been shown
to benefit elderly women’s physical performance and balance (Eyigor, Karapolat, Durmaz,
Ibisoglu, & Cakir, 2009). These two studies do not necessarily show health benefits for diabetes
but do indicate that there are health benefits through dance as exercise. A study by Murrock et
al. (2009) demonstrated an improvement in blood pressure and reduction of body fat in diabetic
African American women who participated in their 12-week, low impact, instructor led dance
regimen. This study on the other hand, does show that dance in diabetic patients, when used as
exercise, improves their health.
Dance is not only beneficial in adults with, or at risk of, diabetes. In a study of
overweight/obese New York City children, it was found that a culturally familiar freestyle dance
and lifestyle education program resulted in statistically significant improvements in BMI, fat-free
mass, cholesterol, endurance, and resting heart rate showing a decreased risk of diabetes and
cardiovascular disease (Hogg et al., 2012). It does not appear that dance as exercise is only
effective for certain age groups since studies show benefits in both children and adults. This
project is focused on the adult population but if there are Marshallese children who are obese that
were to participate in a regimen like this, they may also benefit from the dance exercise. A study
of diabetic and obese adult participants found that a ballroom and Latin dance program for two
hours twice weekly significantly decreased weight and waist circumference and led to a
decreased hemoglobin A1c over a three- and six-month period (Mangeri, Montesi, Forlani, Dalle
Grave, & Marchesini, 2014). Likewise, the Culturally Relevant Exercise for Type 2 Diabetes
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 33
(CURE-D) study followed an eight-week Bollywood dance intervention for South Asian women
with DM2 (Natesan et al., 2015). Similar to the wide age range of these studies, the type of
dance performed for exercise does not seem to matter when aimed at improved health outcomes
of diabetic patients. Given the results of these studies, a culturally appropriate dance exercise
intervention for the diabetic Marshallese population would likewise decrease weight and
improve BMI and hemoglobin A1c in this population. This regimen consisted of one-hour dance
classes twice weekly and showed a significant reduction in hemoglobin A1c among the
intervention group as compared to the control group (Natesan et al., 2015). Weight loss
improved insulin resistance and glycemic control and interestingly, even those participants in the
control group who did not lose weight as part of the dance classes still showed reduced
hemoglobin A1c levels (Natesan et al., 2015). This illustrates the fact that just because someone
is overweight/obese does not mean that they are also diabetic. Even without losing weight, A1c
was improved with exercise. Zumba® did not decrease A1c but these other studies did show
decreases in hemoglobin A1c. Those who attended at least 10 of the 16 dance classes also had a
statistically significant reduction of weight as compared to those who did not attend as many
sessions (Natesan et al., 2015). Natesan et al. (2015) continue to state that a culturally
appropriate dance intervention successfully promotes control of hemoglobin A1c when
compared to typical care. If this is true, then a culturally appropriate dance regimen would likely
promote that same A1c control in the diabetic Marshallese population if they were to follow
through with the regimen.
Dance is important to many cultures, Marshallese included. “The Marshallese also love
dancing” (Adams, 2016). The surveys received in this project likewise suggest the love for
dancing. The “beet” is a popular dance performed by the Marshallese (Adams, 2016). Another
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 34
dance is the Jobwa stick dance performed only on special occasions and for chiefs or those with
the high chief’s permission (Adams, 2016; Our Cultures Our Pride, n.d.). Local hula dancing has
become popular again as well (Carucci, n.d.). Even children are performing traditional dances
(iExplore, n.d.). Dance is also an important part of holidays, celebrations and ceremonies
(Carucci, n.d.; Our Cultures Our Pride, n.d.). Dance is a very important part of the Marshallese
culture as expressed by these various dances and statements regarding dance in the culture.
Thus, the reason for creating a dance as exercise regimen for diabetic Marshallese persons in this
project.
Summary of literature. There is ample evidence supporting diabetes as a pandemic and
that diabetes is of particular concern for Marshallese persons. Exercise is a known and widely
used part of managing diabetes for patients and providers alike. Dance has been used in many
applications of exercise and has been used specifically for diabetic patients (Murrock et al.,
2009). There is no available evidence showing a traditional dance regimen being implemented
for use among the Marshallese population in East Hawai’i or elsewhere. This necessitates the
project as yet one more way to help patients in East Hawai’i more effectively manage their
diabetes. Dance is a viable exercise option for the Marshallese of the Big Island because it is
already part of their culture, something they enjoy and dance has been shown to be effective in
the management of diabetes and a practical exercise option.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 35
Chapter 3: Project Design and Evaluation Plan
Chapter three addresses the functional workings of this project including methods,
evaluation plan, expected outcomes and practice implications of this project and protection of
human subjects. Further delineated within the methods section are the project design,
population, sampling and data collection and analysis. The project aims and objectives are again
discussed here along with how they were to be accomplished.
Methods
Design. This was a pilot project to investigate the viability of a dance regimen in the
Marshallese population of East Hawai’i. It utilizes a qualitative and quantitative evaluation
design. It also involved the development and evaluation of a culturally appropriate dance
regimen for increasing physical activity in a vulnerable population.
Population. The target population for the dance regimen was the East Hawai’i, on the
island of Hawai’i, population of diabetic adult Marshallese migrants. The project focused upon
creating and evaluating a dance regimen for maintaining overall health which met exercise
recommendations and was also culturally appropriate. The dance regimen was designed to assist
a population who 1) are 18 years of age or older, 2) must have been diagnosed with DM2
sometime during their life, 3) must be of Marshallese descent but not necessarily born in the
Marshall Islands.
Sampling. A patient population was not utilized in this project but rather recruited dance
volunteers and evaluators. The dance instructor(s) and evaluators were sought out specifically
based on certain criteria and were not considered research participants. The dance leader was
competent in Marshallese dance and able to lead dance class sessions for recording. The
evaluators were either Marshallese persons or those who are very familiar with the culture to
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 36
evaluate the cultural aspect and appropriateness of the regimen or health care providers, exercise
scientists, diabetes educators, exercise/dance instructors, or other persons who were capable and
competent to evaluate the exercise standard of the regimen. Inclusion criteria for the dance
instructor and dancers were they must be Marshallese, adults aged 19-45, be able to perform the
dance and healthy individuals. The inclusion for evaluators were aged 19 years or older and any
of the following: Marshallese, familiar with the Marshallese culture, a health care provider,
exercise scientist, personal trainer, diabetes educator, or others qualified to evaluate the exercise
and/or cultural aspects of the dance program. The exclusion criteria for the dancers and dance
instructor were if they were diabetic, younger than age 19 or 46 years of age or older, taking
more than three medications, hypertension, or any other medical condition which would keep
them from participation such as heart failure or back pain limiting their ability to perform the
dance. The exclusion criteria for evaluators was if they were under the age of 19.
Data collection. Data was collected using survey instruments (see Appendices F, G and
H). The survey instruments were given to evaluators and stakeholders to complete and then
gathered for evaluation.
Data analysis. Surveys used for this project included Likert scale questions. Likert
scales allow for subjective data to be assigned a quantitative (numerical) value making the data
quantitatively analyzable (Hodgson, 2010). This data was entered into Microsoft Excel for
analysis. Qualitative data was entered into a table format to see if there were commonalities
among responses.
Evaluation Plan
The evaluation plan for this project involved the REAIM method for evaluation which
includes the areas of reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 37
Reach: This was evaluated by determining the potential to reach the target population.
Effectiveness: Evaluation of effectiveness of the dance regimen looked at the potential to
meet current exercise standards and recommendations.
Adoption: Evaluation of the adoption of the dance regimen looked to see that, if effective,
people were willing to implement the dance regimen on their own. Also, evaluation of
adoption looked to see, if effective, if health care providers were willing to adopt this
regimen as a beneficial tool in helping diabetics manage their diabetes.
Implementation: Given this does not involve the dance regimen being implemented, but
rather evaluation of the regimen cultural and exercise standards, implementation was not
evaluated during this project.
Maintenance: Likewise, maintenance or sustainability was not evaluated as part of this
project.
Delineated next, are the specific methods for each objective included in this project.
Project goal: promote dance as a valuable exercise option for Marshallese persons with
diabetes mellitus through the promotion of regular physical exercise.
Aim 1: Setting the project foundation. The first aim was to determine the
underpinnings necessary for undertaking this project. The objectives for this aim were to:
Objective 1: Determine the key stakeholders from the Marshallese community who
assisted in planning the project.
o Utilize Micronesians United of the Big Island for help in accomplishing this
project. They agreed to be of assistance in any way for the implementation of this
project.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 38
Objective 2: Identify the cultural basis for dance in the population, including who dances
(young/old), types of dance, dance music, significance of dance within the culture and
impact of dance on the community.
o This was accomplished through literature review.
o Stakeholders were also asked questions about the cultural basis for dance,
supplementing the review of literature.
Objective 3: Identify the target population for a dance/exercise program.
o Target population was sought from literature review, state and county statistics
and through stakeholder input as well as input from other contacts within the
community.
Aim 2: Develop a culturally congruent dance-based exercise program. The second
project aim was to develop a structured dance regimen which met the minimum physical activity
standards for health and was culturally congruent with Marshallese traditions/expectations.
There were four objectives for this aim. They included:
Objective 1: Analyzing the use of dance as a health intervention according to Pender’s
Health Promotion Model.
o The articles as well as other data and information obtained during the preceding
objectives were compared with the tenets of Pender’s Health Promotion Model.
Dance as an intervention was looked at to see if and how it fits the Health
Promotion Model.
Objective 2: Identifying cultural preferences of Marshallese migrants related to dance and
exercise.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 39
o We surveyed a panel of stakeholders and one dance instructor for feedback
regarding dance and exercise.
o A question in the evaluation survey asked how culturally appropriate this regimen
was to the evaluator to help determine appropriateness.
Objective 3: Combining the elements of effective dance-as-exercise programs with
identified cultural preferences creating a culturally congruent dance regimen for
Marshallese adults.
o Elements of dance and culture were combined into a dance regimen.
Objective 4: Using a dance leader, a video exercise program was created and recorded
using a culturally congruent dance regimen to achieve the minimum recommended
physical activity standards for adults.
o We combined a culturally congruent dance regimen with exercise
recommendations to meet the minimum standards for physical activity.
o The video was to be created by recording a dance instructor(s) as he/she
performed dance moves set to culturally appropriate music of their choosing.
Other dancers were used to create the video.
o Implementation was to be via recorded videos available to be viewed on DVD or
YouTube.
o The videos were intended for use following a schedule of three times per week to
be completed at a convenient time by users.
Aim 3: Evaluate the dance-based exercise program. The third aim was to evaluate the
dance regimen for implementation feasibility. The objectives for this third aim were:
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 40
Objective 1: Assemble a team of stakeholders who evaluated the recorded dance
program.
o The stakeholder team was to consist of members of the local Marshallese
community, dance instructor(s), sports scientists, trainers, primary care providers
and others familiar with the Marshallese culture.
o Stakeholders were to be recruited through networking with the Micronesians
United of the Big Island (MU-BI) group. Also, exercise scientists, personal
trainers, primary care providers, diabetes educators, etc. were reached out to for
recruitment through contacting them via email or in person.
o Once stakeholders were identified, they were given either one or two surveys,
depending on qualifications. One survey addressed cultural preferences regarding
dance/exercise and the other evaluated the dance program.
Objective 2: Analyze evaluation results determining possible changes to the program and
identifying barriers and facilitators to program implementation.
o Quantitative survey data was analyzed by entering it into Microsoft Excel. Likert
scales allow for qualitative data to be assigned a quantitative (numerical) value
making the data able to undergo quantitative statistical analysis (Hodgson, 2010).
Qualitative data from the survey was analyzed for barriers and facilitators to
implementation and response commonalities.
Expected Results and Practice Implications
Expected results for this project were threefold. First, that there was a culturally
appropriate dance regimen created, as a form of exercise, for the local Marshallese population.
The literature review revealed that other culturally familiar dance and/or music has been
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 41
effectively used in dance exercise regimens for diabetics. Second, it was expected that the dance
regimen would meet the standards for exercise. Lastly, it was expected that there would now be
a program developed to help providers and this patient population meet and exceed diabetes
management goals. Given all the challenges facing the Marshallese migrants, utilizing a
treatment/management plan that incorporates something that is familiar to them would lend itself
to patients and providers realizing their diabetes goals. It is expected that this regimen would
ultimately lead to improved biomarkers such as decreased weight, BMI and hemoglobin A1c as
the literature review showed others’ work has likewise done.
Based on these expected results from this project, there were several anticipated
implications for nursing practice. The first is that this was a way to breach cultural barriers.
Culturally competent care is a corner stone of health care today, especially in culturally diverse
populations such as are found in East Hawai’i. The second expected outcome was similar to the
first and included the culturally competent exercise regimen, dance, being created. By utilizing a
dance regimen which is culturally appropriate practitioners would find a beneficial way to reach
those who may not like other types of exercise such as running, swimming, biking, lifting
weights, etc. This would add another tool to our ever-expanding care plans and methods for
managing diabetes in individual and population health care.
Protection of Human Subjects
Participants in this project are to include key stakeholders which will be evaluating the
dance regimen via surveys and those answering the cultural questionnaire. Dance instructor(s)
and dancers were not considered research participants for this project according to the University
of Hawai’i institutional review board which also approved this project (see Appendix E).
Identifying information was not to be included in the surveys. The data gathered from the
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 42
surveys were stored in a locked place. There was no expected risk for evaluators other than
potential stress or not being able to or wanting to answer a question. There is minimal risk for
the dance instructor(s) and dancers as they perform dances for recording. Possible risks for
dancers and dance instructors include muscle soreness and/or aches from dancing. Injury could
occur such as spraining an ankle while performing the dance moves. While possible, the
exercise was considered minimal risk and therefore, these risks were not likely to occur. If
severe shortness of breath occurred, referral of the participant to the emergency department was
to be made. These risks are inherent with dancing and if injury should occur, follow up with a
primary care provider was also to be advised.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 43
Chapter 4: Results
Chapter four discusses the results of this pilot project. This chapter introduces each aim
and respective objectives and presents the results of each objective. The results from the cultural
basis for dance questionnaire and video evaluations are reported and analyzed accordingly.
Aim 1: Setting the project foundation
The first aim was to determine the underpinnings necessary for undertaking this project. The
objectives for this aim were:
Objective 1. Determining the key stakeholders from the Marshallese community who
would assist in planning the project.
The Micronesians United of the Big Island (MU-BI) were contacted since members of
the MU-BI board had stated they would help in any way possible with this project. Therefore,
MU-BI was the main focus in helping determine key stakeholders. Finding stakeholders was a
grass roots effort with this project. Initially the efforts were directed toward the MU-BI, an
organization that supports Micronesians who transition to American culture and manage their
cultural lifestyle in Hawai’i. Support from the MU-BI organization, although potentially the
most influential and connected to the people, was not forthcoming as planned. Therefore,
seeking stakeholders through other avenues was initiated. This approach resulted in connecting
with an influential member of the Marshallese community. Another unexpected entry to the
community was found through employees at the University of Hawaii at Hilo (UHH) who were
connected to other Marshallese individuals at UHH. Ironically, this second UHH employee had
a student working for him/her. The Marshallese student employee was a former president of the
Marshallese Iakwe Club (MIC) on campus. The MIC is a UHH and Hawai’i Community
College student association whose mission is to promote “cultural awareness and understanding
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 44
among its members, its college campuses and the community of the county of Hawai’i, develop
programs of mutual assistance, and to do active recruiting of Marshallese students to” these
campuses (UH Hilo & Hawcc Marshallese Iakwe Club, n.d.). Once contact was made with the
MIC, interest in the project and willing to help evolved. Through this series of grass roots
connections, MIC members and their faculty advisor along with one other leader of the local
Marshallese community became the primary stakeholders supporting the project.
Objective 2. Identify the cultural basis for dance in the population, including who
dances (young/old), types of dance, dance music, significance of dance within the culture and
impact of dance on the community.
The literature review revealed important information about dance in the Marshallese
culture including the idea that the Marshallese love to dance (Adams, 2016).
A 5-question questionnaire regarding dance in the Marshallese culture was developed and
given to members of the MIC. The project director was invited to a MIC meeting on campus by
one of the club’s officers. It was through the MIC president that access was gained to the MIC
membership. At a MIC meeting the project was explained. Sixteen MIC members completed
the questionnaire about dance in the Marshallese culture. The results from their answers are as
follows:
1. Who in the population dances? Old, young, all ages, no one, etc.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 45
Table 1 Cultural Questionnaire Results for Who DancesAnyone who is still able to move without physical pain.
All ages usually dance.
Mostly young ages.
Usually all Marshallese, depending on if they want to or not.
All ages.
All ages.
Everyone except babies.
All ages.
All ages.
I would say the young ones dance.
All ages can dance.
All ages (those who are not disabled).
All ages.
All ages.
All ages.
I would say all ages of both gender.
Note. This table shows participants’ responses to the question, “Who in the population dances?
Old, young, all ages, no one, etc.”
For the first question, “Who in the population dances? Old, young, all ages, no one, etc.”
87.5% of participants responded that all ages dance (seven stated “all ages” and seven others
stated something similar indicate Marshallese people of all ages dance who are able and wanting
too). The other two responses were about how young people dance. One respondent who stated
all ages dance, clarified that both genders dance (see Table 1).
2. What type(s) of dance are there in this culture/population?
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 46
Table 2Cultural Questionnaire Results for Type of DanceFoot work, beat.
In the traditional form there are stick dances whereas for the more recent dances there is mostly beat dances with footwork and hand motions along with other fold dances.
Biit (mostly foot works).
Biit (Modern Marshallese culture dancing).
Biit; Jidbak.
Biit, jirbak, jobwa (stick dance).
Chanting, war dance.
Biit, Jirbak, stick dance (Jobwa).
Jobwa (stick dance), a cultural dance that only specific people dace to it. An elder chants.
There is the “piit”, the “jobwa” which is mainly for the chiefs.
Note. This table shows participants’ responses to the question, “What type(s) of dance are there
in this culture/population?”
The second question establishing the cultural basis for dance in the Marshallese culture
was “What type(s) of dance are there in this culture/population?” Every respondent except one
listed at least one of the four dances, “Biit,” footwork, Jidrbak or Jobwa. Spelling was different
among respondents, but “Biit,” beat, and “piit” seem to be the same thing. Fourteen of sixteen
(87.5%) respondents listed “Biit” (or a spelling variation) as either their sole answer or part of
their answer. Footwork was mentioned by three people (18.75% of participants). Jidrbak (or a
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 47
spelling variation) and Jobwa (stick dance) were both mentioned by seven (almost 43.75%)
respondents. Other dances mentioned by one or two respondents include hand motions, other
folk dances, chanting, war dance, and fan dance (see Table 2).
3. What type(s) of music is listened to when dancing?
Table 3Cultural Questionnaire Results for Type of MusicAny music that one [?].
A lot of folk music and disco and cha-cha genres.
Any kind of music.
Depending on the person in charge of the choregraphy. Music differ, from modern to old music with ancient words and story lines.
Traditional Marshallese music/chant.
Marshallese music.
Old songs.
Traditional Marshallese music that tells a story.
Chants, some sing.
Chants.
Traditional music.
Marshallese traditional Biit music.
Traditional Marshallese music (folk music), chants (mostly historical).
Marshallese music.
Marshallese traditional music.
We have traditional songs whereas its almost like chanting & singing. Every song represents a story.
Note. This table shows participants’ responses to the question, “What type(s) of music is
listened to when dancing?”
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 48
The third question for the cultural basis of dance in the Marshallese culture included in
the questionnaire was “What type(s) of music is listened to when dancing?” Responses varied
for this question. Most respondents listed traditional Marshallese music, folk music or chants
(which appear to be the same thing). Twelve out of the sixteen respondents (75%) listed one of
these as the type of music listened to while dancing and two others (12.5%) listed old songs or
music in their answers. Two other people (12.5%) stated any music could be used to dance.
Other music types listed included disco, cha cha, modern and one person indicated it depended
on the choreographer (see Table 3).
4. What is the significance of dance within this culture?
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 49
Table 4Cultural Questionnaire Results for Significance of DanceThe dances mostly show a story or how to work.
In many cases, the dances depict a story or things we do in everyday life such as gardening, sailing the canoe, or even about playing sports.
Showing the importance of the culture. Most likely telling a story.
It shows modern or cultural activities & stories.
Tells a story about the Marshallese culture and traditions.
It tells a story about our culture & traditions.
It preserves our culture and who we are as a Marshallese.
Our dances tell stories of our everyday lives.
Story telling.
It tells or shows how we Marshallese showcase our culture to others by doing there dances.
The Biit is about our island’s stories.
Telling a story.
*It tells the store of our people from the past to present (conveys cultural practices and lifestyle).
A story.
It tells a story.
It is the coming together of a community. Some dances tells a story about a land or building a canoe.
Note. This table shows participants’ responses to the question, “What is the significance of
dance within this culture?”
The fourth question asks, “What is the significance of dance within this culture?” All but
two people (or 87.5% of participants) said dance tells a story or used the word story/stories in
their answer. The other two responses were about culture, with one person writing dance
showcases their culture and the other writing dance “preserves our culture.” These stories are
about “everyday life.” (see Table 4).
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 50
5. What impact do dance have on the community?
Table 5Cultural Questionnaire Results for Impact of DanceTo get them active.
It brings many people together and it brings joy to people especially keeping our culture alive.
Bring (?) all the yong teenagers in the community to get together and part of cultural awareness.
Gathering the community together (for enjoyement).
It is just a cultural thing to do.
Can also be a remembrance of the past (story, history, etc.).
Brings the community together.
Dance impacts our community in so many ways. One way is that it keeps our traditions or culture alive. The dances and chants have meaning to it that signifys our unity.
Brings all young, old, all ages together.
Brings the community together.
Keeping culture and traditions alive.
It reminds the younger generation to keep their or our tradition & culture alive.
Make us feel good and strong about our culture.
It’s really significant as part of the culture and it brings the community together.
*Keeps our traditions and cultural practices alive.
To celebrate Christmas & Birthdays.
It brings community together.
The closeness of each other.
Note. This table shows participants’ responses to the question, “What impact to dance have on
the community?”
The final question was “What impact do dance have on the community?” This question
received several different responses from participants. The two most common answers were
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 51
about bringing people together/unity/closeness (10 of 16 (62.5%) respondents) and about
“cultural awareness” and “keeping our culture alive” or culture mentioned by 9 of 16
respondents, or 56.25%. Other answers included getting people active, bringing joy,
“remembrance of the past,” and to “celebrate Christmas & Birthdays.” (see Table 5). The
cultural basis for dance in the population was established through this questionnaire to include
who dances, types of dance, dance music, significance of dance within the Marshallese culture
and impact of dance on the Marshallese community.
Objective 3. Determine the target population for a dance/exercise program.
Stakeholders were identified through literature, statistics, stakeholders and others in the
community. As mentioned earlier, over 6,300 Marshallese live in Hawai’i (U.S. Census Bureau,
2012). Of all Marshallese migrants to the US, one-in-three reside in Hawai’i (Hixson, Hepler, &
Kim, 2012). There is a large Marshallese population in Hawai’i County with the 2011-2015
American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates stating there is an estimated 2,868 Marshallese
living in Hawai’i County (United States Census Bureau, n.d.). The target population for the
dance program was the diabetic population living in this area. According to a MU-BI member,
about 100 Marshallese families live up the Hamakua Coast and large populations of Marshallese
are living in Kau and Ocean View on Hawai’i Island. Diabetic patients in these geographic
clusters would be potential participants for a culturally appropriate dance intervention.
Aim 2: Develop a culturally congruent dance-based exercise program
The second project aim was to develop a structured dance regimen which met the
minimum physical activity standards for health and was culturally congruent with Marshallese
traditions/expectations. There are four objectives for this aim.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 52
Objective 1. Analyze the use of dance as a health intervention according to Pender’s
Health Promotion Model.
The Health Promotion Model was developed by Nola Pender (Petiprin, 2016). The HPM
describes how health promoting behaviors can lead to a better quality of life and an improved
health status (Petiprin, 2016). There are 14 propositions in the HPM and the analysis consisted
of comparing how dance fits within these 14 propositions. Some of the propositions were
grouped together in this analysis since they address similar ideas.
HPM proposition 1. “Prior behavior and inherited and acquired characteristics influence
beliefs, affect, and enactment of health-promoting behavior” (Pender et al., 2002, p. 63).
Only one participant stated that dance helps to get people active. People may not view
dance as a health-promoting behavior. Literature suggests dance can be a health-promoting
behavior as dance has previously been used in exercise lifestyle interventions (Eyigor et al.,
2009; Hogg et al., 2012; Krishnan et al., 2015; Leelarungrayub et al., 2011; Mangeri et al., 2014;
Murrock et al., 2009; Natesan et al., 2015). According to survey responses, this population
engages in dance as a way to bring people together, celebrate, and cultural preservation and not
for exercise.
HPM proposition 2. “Persons commit to engaging in behaviors from which they
anticipate deriving personally valued benefits” (Pender et al., 2002, p. 63).
Many respondents shared how the benefit of dance may be more about culture,
preserving culture and telling stories. No commitment to action was garnered from this project.
That was not the purpose of this project. The evaluators’ reviews, to be discussed later, show an
overall positive view about the dance video and project. The hope is to help people realize this
dance may be able to have health benefits in addition to uses and purposes of dance already
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 53
established within the Marshallese. As of October 26, 2017, there were 115 views of the video
on YouTube. If people are watching the video, more than for the evaluation, maybe it is being
used for its intended purpose.
HPM propositions 3-6. Proposition three is “Perceived barriers can constrain
commitment to action, a mediator of behavior as well as actual behavior” (Pender et al., 2002, p.
63). Proposition four is “Perceived competence or self-efficacy to execute a given behavior
increases the likelihood of commitment to action and actual performance of the behavior”
(Pender et al., 2002, p. 63). The fifth proposition is “Greater perceived self-efficacy results in
fewer perceived barriers to a specific health behavior” (Pender et al., 2002, p. 63). Proposition
six is “Positive affect toward a behavior results in greater perceived self-efficacy, which can, in
turn, result in increased positive affect” (Pender et al., 2002, p. 63).
These four propositions, numbers three, four, five, and six, are all similar in the aspects of
health promotion that they address. Specific barriers were not discussed in the cultural
questionnaire survey by respondents. However, participants did mention that as long as people
are healthy or able to, then they dance. Applying dance to the HPM (Pender et al., 2002), one
can deduce if someone perceives they may have a barrier such as a physical limitation, then they
may not commit to dancing for exercise. Barriers were ascertained in the evaluation of the dance
video and will be discussed later under Aim 3 since there are specific questions about barriers
and facilitators to implementation in the evaluation forms.
Almost every respondent to the cultural basis for dance questionnaire listed “Biit,”
“beat,” or “piit” as one of the forms of dance for the Marshallese suggesting this “Biit” style/type
of dance is well known by most people (surveyed) in the Marshallese culture. If Marshallese are
familiar with the dance, perhaps as these propositions state (Pender et al., 2002), they will be
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 54
more committed to dancing for exercise. Familiarity with the particular dance in the dance video
is also discussed under Aim 3.
HPM proposition 7. “When positive emotions or affect are associated with a behavior,
the probability of commitment and action is increased” (Pender et al., 2002, p. 63).
The overall responses to the impact and significance of dance within the culture and
community seemed to be positive in nature. For example, one person stated this “seems like an
exciting project” (J. Genz, personal communication, September 29, 2017). Therefore, it would
appear there is a positive view of dance within the Marshallese people surveyed. This positive
view, would in turn, hopefully increase commitment and action like listed in proposition seven of
the HPM (Pender et al., 2002). One respondent even mentioned, for the impact of dance on the
community question, that dance “brings joy to people.” If dance brings people joy, then
commitment may be increased.
HPM propositions 8-10. Proposition eight is, “Persons are more likely to commit to and
engage in health-promoting behaviors when significant others model the behavior, expect the
behavior to occur, and provide assistance and support to enable the behavior” (Pender et al.,
2002, p. 64). Proposition nine is, “Families, peers, and health care providers are important
sources of interpersonal influence that can increase or decrease commitment to and engagement
in health-promoting behavior” (Pender et al., 2002, p. 64). Proposition 10 is, “Situational
influences in the external environment can increase or decrease commitment to or participation
in health-promoting behavior” (Pender et al., 2002, p. 64).
There were no responses by participants regarding these propositions.
HPM proposition 11. “The greater the commitment to a specific plan of action, the more
likely health-promoting behaviors are to be maintained over time” (Pender et al., 2002, p. 64).
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 55
Having a specific plan (such as how many days per week to use the video regimen) for
the dance would help in meeting the tenets of proposition 11 (Pender et al., 2002). There was
not a specific plan suggested to the evaluators before they evaluated the video. Evaluators were
not committing to an action plan but only watching and evaluating the video.
HPM propositions 12 and 13. Proposition 12 is, “Commitment to a plan of action is less
likely to result in the desired behavior when competing demands over which persons have little
control require immediate attention” (Pender et al., 2002, p. 64). Proposition 13 is “Commitment
to a plan of action is less likely to result in the desired behavior when other actions are more
attractive and thus preferred over the target behavior” (Pender et al., 2002, p. 64).
The cultural questionnaire and evaluations did not address these tenets specifically.
HPM proposition 14. “Persons can modify cognitions, affect, and the interpersonal and
physical environments to create incentives for health actions.” (Pender et al., 2002, p. 64)
The cultural questionnaire and dance evaluations did not address this tenet specifically.
One evaluator’s response was, “it would be a new concept to dance for the intention of exercise.”
If Marshallese identified the need for cognitive modification of dance as exercise, dance as
exercise may become an option for them in managing diabetes and overall health.
Overall, propositions one through seven and fourteen were found to be achieved in this
project either completely or in part. Propositions eight through thirteen were not achieved in this
project. Further discussion of the HPM will be continued in chapter five.
Objective 2. Identify cultural preferences of Marshallese migrants related to dance and
exercise.
Both the cultural basis for dance questionnaire and the final cultural evaluation form for
the video address cultural preferences of dance and/or exercise. Stakeholders were surveyed
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 56
about who dances, types of dance, music for dancing, and significance and impact of dance in/on
the community in the cultural questionnaire. Stakeholders were also asked about the importance
of dance personally and in their (the Marshallese) culture and the importance of exercise
personally. Results for the questionnaire and the evaluations are delineated under Aim 3.
Overall, the importance of exercise personally was given an average score of 4.18/5 whereas
importance of dance personally was given an average score of 4.91/5 and importance of dance in
Marshallese culture a 5/5 score. One evaluator mentioned a specific preference of dancing to
guitar music instead of keyboard music. In the evaluation form, a question in the survey asked
how culturally appropriate this regimen was to the evaluator to help determine cultural
appropriateness.
Objective 3. Combine the elements of effective dance-as-exercise programs with
identified cultural preferences to create a culturally congruent dance regimen for Marshallese
adults.
Elements of dance and culture were combined into a dance regimen to be recorded for
use as an exercise video. Dance-as-exercise programs were reviewed in the literature.
Information was gathered from the literature and used in the creation of a Marshallese dance-as-
exercise video. Cultural aspects of dance and the Marshallese were also included in the video-
making process. The inclusion of cultural considerations in the dance video was accomplished
by having a Marshallese person coordinate the dance. A recording timeframe was selected based
on the dancers’ and other stakeholders’ schedules. In order to comply with the project protocol,
a private room on campus was secured to record the video. One person volunteered to be the
dance instructor and their specific role and expectations were reviewed. Although the intent was
to plan the dance regimen together, the instructor had the dance already planned at the time of
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 57
the recording session. According to the instructor, the dance had been previously choreographed
for a performance by some Marshallese members of the community. It fit cultural preferences as
the Marshallese were the dance’s choreographers.
Objective 4. Using a dance instructor, create and record a video exercise program which
uses a culturally congruent dance regimen to achieve the minimum recommended physical
activity standards for adults.
At the scheduled time, the dance video was recorded. Space was ample to provide room
for the dancers and a location for the music personnel so they could remain out of camera view.
Recording was from the back of the dancers, again, to maintain privacy as much as possible.
There was not a typical dance instructor for the video since Marshallese dance is not performed
in an ideal manner to facilitate the use of a dance instructor. Four individuals participated in the
dance and a vocalist and keyboardist/vocalist performed the music. The main dancer
coordinating the dance, wrote the order of the dances on the chalkboard for everyone to follow.
There were five total parts to the dance regimen.
The dancers and musicians practiced each part prior to recording. Each part was then
recorded until all parts had been recorded. Once the recording was completed, the dancers and
musicians were free to leave.
Editing of the dance video was performed by the project director. The goal of editing
was to meet minimum exercise recommendations. There was approximately five-and-a-half
minutes of recorded dance video. Having five to six minutes of exercise even every day, does
not meet the minimum recommendation of 150 minutes per week (U.S. Department of Health
and Human Services, 2008; WHO, 2011). Therefore, the length of the video was extended. To
do this, a slower warm-up section was created as the first round of the dance video. This was
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 58
meant to help people learn the dance steps and as an exercise warm-up. The warm-up phase was
set at 0.8 times the actual recording speed. Then the entire dance routine was repeated three
more times. The first repeated round was at the actual recorded speed. The next repeated round
was set at 1.1 times the actual recording speed and then again at 1.15 times the normal speed.
Two of the individual pieces of the routine were also repeated during this fastest tempo round.
There was time for a one-minute water break between the actual speed round and the first sped
up round of 1.1 times actual speed. Finally, the dance was slowed back down as a cool-down for
the last round at 0.95 times normal speed. Doing this, the video was manipulated from five-and-
a-half minutes to a 30 minute 33 second video recording. If people were to perform this five
days a week, they would be a couple minutes short of the recommended 150 minutes/week (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, 2008; WHO, 2011) because of the short water break
included in the video. Marshallese words and phrases were added to the video as it played to
help those viewing the video prepare for and explain what was happening in the video. An
English-Marshallese dictionary to translate to Marshallese and then a Marshallese-English
dictionary to back translate were used in order to better ensure a correct translation. Some words
and/or phrases did not really have a direct translation from English to Marshallese.
The finished video was made available to the public on YouTube under the title
Traditional Marshallese Dance – Exercise Video, so people could watch as they please. In order
to meet exercise recommendations, it is suggested that this particular video be used five times
weekly.
Aim 3: Evaluate the dance-based exercise program
The third aim was to evaluate the dance regimen for implementation feasibility. The
objectives for this third aim were:
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 59
Objective 1. Assemble a team of stakeholders to evaluate the recorded dance program.
The stakeholder team consisted of members of the local Marshallese community, the
dancers and person coordinating the dance, personal trainers/exercise dance instructors, primary
care providers and certified diabetes educators in the East Hawai’i/Hilo community.
Stakeholders were recruited through networking with the MIC as well as the initial Marshallese
member identified in Aim 1. Personal trainers/exercise dance instructors, primary care providers
and diabetes educators were sought out from previously established relationships as well locating
others through Internet searches for potential evaluators in the community. Most of the exercise
evaluators were found by the project director going from gym to gym. At least 12 cultural
evaluators and 13 exercise evaluators were recruited for evaluations. Eleven cultural evaluators
(91.67%) and seven exercise evaluators (53.85%) returned evaluations.
Once stakeholders were identified, they were given either one or two surveys, depending
on qualifications. One survey evaluated Marshallese cultural preferences regarding
dance/exercise and how well the video met cultural expectations. This survey was given to those
who were Marshallese or very familiar with the Marshallese culture. Only Marshallese
individuals ended up evaluating the video. The other survey evaluated the exercise qualities of
the dance video and the evaluators’ thoughts on the utility and implementation of the dance
regimen. This evaluation was given to those qualified to evaluating the exercise aspect of the
dance video such as primary care providers, diabetes educators and personal trainers/exercise
dance instructors.
Six potential exercise evaluators did not respond to inquiries to evaluate the dance
program. There were two evaluators who did not return evaluations on time and therefore did
not get responses from them.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 60
All of the data collection tools, which include the Cultural Basis for Dance Questionnaire
and the cultural and exercise evaluation forms were developed by the project coordinator with
assistance from others as needed. These tools, to include both evaluations and the cultural
questionnaire were determined to have validity because they measure the intended data points
(Walonick, 2012) for this project. The data intended to be measured for this project were
cultural basis for dance, how Marshallese people felt about dance and exercise, how well the
video met those cultural expectations of dance, and how well the video met current exercise
recommendations based on evaluators’ responses. Reliability was not established for any of
these tools.
Objective 2. Analyze evaluation results to determine possible changes to the program
and identify barriers and facilitators to program implementation.
Two evaluation surveys were used in this project. The cultural evaluation was intended
for Marshallese individuals evaluating the dance according to cultural expectations (see
Appendix F). Eleven of twelve evaluators (91.67%) completed this evaluation. The exercise
evaluation was intended for evaluating the video regarding current exercise recommendations
(see Appendix G). Seven of thirteen evaluators (53.85%) returned evaluations.
Quantitative survey data was analyzed using Microsoft Excel. Likert scales allowed for
qualitative data to be assigned a quantitative (numerical) value enabling the data to undergo
quantitative statistical analysis (Hodgson, 2010). The numbers reported for these questions are
rounded to the nearest one-hundredth. Qualitative data from the survey was analyzed for barriers
and facilitators to implementation and response commonalities. The results are as follows:
Survey 1 (cultural survey) results. The survey was developed to determine cultural
perspectives of dance and exercise and how well the recorded video met expectations of the
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 61
Marshallese community (see Appendix F). For an answer left blank or not answered by the
participant the (-) was used. This survey consisted of nine Likert-type questions with a five-
point Likert scale for each question. An additional four qualitative questions regarding cultural
appropriateness and barriers and facilitators to implementation were included in the survey.
Though only three people out of eleven (27.27%) answered the qualifier question for this
survey, everyone who evaluated it was Marshallese (see Table 6). Dance was scored as ‘very
important’ by 10 of 11 (90.91%) evaluators. The other evaluator scored dance as ‘important’
giving an average rating of 4.91/5 for the importance of dance (see Appendix I and Figure 2).
There was one evaluator who added qualitative comments on some of the Likert scaled
questions. When asked about the importance of dance personally, this evaluator scored it 5/5
and added “it make me like to jump up and dance.” One-hundred percent of evaluators said
dance was ‘very important’ to Marshallese culture (see Appendix I and Figure 2). This question
also garnered a qualitative answer from the afore mentioned evaluator, who stated “cause I’m a
dancer and I love the moves” after scoring the question 5/5. While most respondents said
exercise was ‘very important’ to them, there were two participants who said exercise was of
‘very little’ importance to them and two others said exercise was ‘important’ giving an average
score of 4.18/5 for the importance of exercise (see Appendix I and Figure 2). Again, there was a
qualitative answer given along with a 5/5 score by the one evaluator who stated here “good for
my health.” Eight of eleven (72.73%) evaluators said this dance regimen was ‘very appropriate’
culturally. There were two respondents (18.18%) who said it was ‘somewhat’ and one person
indicated ‘many aspects are’ culturally appropriate. The average score for cultural
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 62
appropriateness was 4.55/5 (see Appendix I and Figure 2).
02468
1012
Likert Score of 1Likert Score of 2Likert Score of 3Likert Score of 4Likert Score of 5
Survey 1 Questions
Num
ber o
f Eva
luat
ors
Figure 2. Survey 1 results. This figure shows Likert score responses to questions and how many
participants scored each question with which Likert score for Survey 1.
The next two questions go into more detail regarding cultural appropriateness (see Table
6 and Table 7). Many of the participants did not respond to either of these questions. Four of
eleven (36.36%) did not respond to the question “What aspects are culturally appropriate?” and
10 of 11 (90.91%) did not respond to the question “What aspects are not culturally appropriate?”
Only the respondent who gave the appropriateness a ‘many aspects are’ or 4/5 score gave insight
into what could be improved to better the cultural appropriateness of the regimen. This person
stated “using of the keyboard, prefer guitars” was not culturally appropriate. Several people
commented on what parts were culturally appropriate saying the “foot movement,” storytelling,
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 63
“art of fishing” (which the dance and song in the video are about), “formation, uniformity,
appropriately dressed” and “music” were culturally appropriate.
Table 6Survey 1: Results for “What Aspects are Culturally Appropriate?”Appropriate.
Feet movement for telling the story of the dance.
-
-
Formation, uniformity, appropriately dressed.
-
The theme of the song and dance is about the art of fishing which is a vital part of life in the Marshallese culture.
Yes.
-
The actions & music express the art of fishing which is important to our way of life.
Yes, the fishing part.
Note. A dash (-) indicates the answer was left blank by the respondent.
Table 7Survey 1: Results for “What Aspects are not Culturally Appropriate?”
- -
Using of the keyboard, prefer guitars. -
- -
- -
- -
-
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 64
Note. A dash (-) indicates the answer was left blank by the respondent.
Eighty-two percent (9 of 11) of respondents assured they would be ‘very comfortable’
participating in this dance regimen based on cultural appropriateness alone. The other two
(18.18%) respondents specified they would have ‘very little’ comfort participating based on
cultural appropriateness. The average score here was 4.45/5 (see Appendix I and Figure 2).
When asked about participants’ familiarity with these dances, an average score of 4.18/5 was
given with six of eleven (54.55%) indicating they were ‘very familiar’ with the dances, three
(27.27%) indicating they were ‘pretty familiar’ with the dances and two (18.18%) respondents
indicating they were ‘a little bit’ familiar with the dances (see Appendix I and Figure 2).
Another qualitative answer was added by the same evaluator who stated this time, “the beat,
music song, and action.” Nearly three quarters of the evaluators, 8 of 11, or 72.73%, indicated
they ‘definitely will’ recommend this regimen to friends and/or family. There were two
(18.18%) evaluators who marked they ‘might recommend it’ and one (9.09%) marked (s)he
‘probably will’ recommend it to friends/family. The average score for recommending this
regimen was 4.55/5 (see Appendix I and Figure 2).
Participants were also asked if this method of implementation was a fitting way to help
people be active. Nine of eleven (81.82%) indicated it was ‘very fitting,’ with one person each
scoring it ‘neutral’ and ‘somewhat fitting’ respectively. The average score for a how well this
method would help people be active was 4.73/5 (see Appendix I and Figure 2). There was a
final qualitative answer from this evaluator again, who wrote “on the music” for this question.
The last two questions evaluators were asked were about any barriers or facilitators to
implementation (see Table 8 and Table 9). In regard to barriers to implantation, four respondents
(36.36%) left the question blank and three (27.27%) others wrote “none.” One respondent added
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 65
to “None. Even when you’re on bedrest or wheelchair you still can do your moves, cause of the
music.” “Disability,” “arthritis,” and “numbness in their extremities” were also written down as
barriers to implementation. One person wrote “definitely is a barriers to implementation” though
a specific barrier was not mentioned by this participant. Another respondent wrote “interest in
Marshallese culture integrated with dance.”
Table 8 Survey 1: Results for “Can you Think of any Barriers to Implementation? If so, What?”Definitely is a barriers to implementation.
-
Disability.
Interest in Marshallese culture integrated with dance.
-
-
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 66
Some of the moves may be difficult for the elderly with arthritis or numbness in their extremities.
None.
None.
-
None. Even when you’re on bedrest or wheelchair you still can do your moves, cause of the music.
Note. A dash (-) indicates the answer was left blank by the respondent.
Table 9Survey 1: Results for “Can you Think of and Facilitators to Implementation? If so, What?” It is very important for the video because it helps people exercise.
-
-
-
-
-
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 67
Taking their meds & prevent injury by limiting movements that are difficult.
Yes.
Yes. Give watching & moving.
If a 75 year old person was to exercise to this dance, those who can’t stand may sit and do the motions with theirs hands. And those who can stand, I believe if the want to be healthier and reduce their diabetes, they can.
Yes, keep watching the video and do your best.
Note. A dash (-) indicates the answer was left blank by the respondent.
In regard to facilitators to implementation five (45.45%) respondents left the question
blank. Three (27.27%) evaluators wrote “yes” with two of these evaluators providing additional
information of “give watching & moving” and the other added “keep watching the video and do
your best.” Other responses to the facilitators question were “it is important for the video
because it helps people exercise,” “taking their meds & prevent injury by limiting movements
that are difficult,” and “if a 75 year old person was to exercise to this dance, those who can’t
stand may sit and do the motions with theirs hands. And those who can stand, I believe if the[y]
want to be healthier and reduce their diabetes, they can.”
Survey 2 (exercise survey) results. This survey was developed to determine whether or
not the recorded video would meet exercise recommendations, whether evaluators would be
willing to use the regimen for patients and if evaluators thought the regimen could be useful in
practice (see Appendix G). Figure 3 below provides the Likert-score responses for each
question. The survey consisted of six Likert-type questions with a five-point Likert scale for
each question in the evaluation and two qualitative questions regarding barriers and facilitators to
Figure 3. Survey 2 results. This figure shows Likert score responses to questions and how many
participants scored each question with which Likert score for survey 2.
A total of seven evaluators responded to the survey. There were three health care
providers who completed evaluations, one of which was also a certified diabetes educator. There
was another certified diabetes educator who completed the evaluation. Three evaluators did not
mark their qualifications for evaluation. They were exercise/dance instructors.
The first Likert-scaled question on the evaluation asked how likely this regimen would be
able to meet the minimum recommended standards for physical activity. The current
recommendation for physical activity is 150 minutes per week of moderate intensity exercise
(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008; WHO, 2011). Three of seven evaluators
(42.86%) answered ‘very likely’ with two of seven evaluators (28.57%) each answering
‘somewhat likely’ and ‘neutral.’ The average score for meeting physical activity
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 69
recommendations was 4.14/5 (see Appendix J and Figure 3). The evaluators were then asked
how likely they would be to recommend this to patients/persons with five of seven evaluators
(71.43%) answering ‘somewhat likely’ and one of seven evaluators (14.29%) each answering
‘somewhat likely’ and ‘very likely’ to recommend this regimen. The average score for this
question was 4/5 (see Appendix J and Figure 3).
Respondents were queried on “Do you anticipate patients being willing to participate in
this type of exercise?” Responses included five of seven (71.43%) ‘somewhat likely’ answers
and one of seven evaluators (14.29%) each answering of ‘neutral’ and ‘very likely.’ The average
for this question was also 4/5 (see Appendix J and Figure 3). Respondents were queried on
whether or not the evaluators had ever tried anything similar to this dance regimen before with
their patients. Three of seven (42.86%) evaluators indicate they had ‘never’ tried it, two of seven
evaluators (28.57%) indicated they had ‘tried on a few patients,’ one evaluator (14.29%)
indicated they had ‘tried for many patients’ and one (14.29%) left the question blank. The
average rating here was 2.17/5 (see Appendix J and Figure 3). Evaluators were again queried on
how likely they would be to recommend this to patients to which the results were the same with
five of seven (71.43%) answering ‘somewhat likely’ and one of seven (14.29%) each answering
‘neutral’ and ‘very likely’ giving the same average as before 4/5 (see Appendix J and Figure 3).
Interesting to note, two people switched their answers from one of the previous questions which
asked the same thing as this question. This was noted in comparing the original evaluation
responses before results were compiled into a conglomerate of numbers. The last of the Likert
scale questions was “How likely do you think this program would promote increased exercise for
this patient population?” Again, five of seven evaluators (71.43%) responded, indicating they
thought it would ‘somewhat likely’ promote increased exercise and one of seven evaluators
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 70
(14.29%) each answering ‘neutral’ and ‘somewhat likely’ giving the average of 4/5 again (see
Appendix J and Figure 3).
Evaluators of the exercise portion were asked the same two questions the cultural
evaluators were asked about barriers and facilitators to implementation (see Table 10 and Table
11). Every answer was different, and responses included: “lack of motivation to change lifestyle,
limited mobility,” “depend on age group and fitness level. Music,” “lack of access to computer
or internet,” “should have actual classes or get a gathering for participants if watching the
video,” “most cultural dances are celebration specific, it would be a new concept to dance for the
intention of exercise,” and “I would say the only barrier I can think of is after maybe viewing
this video and participating in the exercises a few times, the participant may begin to lose interest
because they are performing the same routine over and over again.” One evaluator left this
question blank.
Table 10Survey 2: Results for “Can you Think of any Barriers to Implementation? If so, What?”Lack of motivation to change lifestyle, limited mobility.
-
I would say the only barrier that I can think of is after maybe viewing this video and participating in the exercises a few times, the participant may begin to lose interest because they are performing the same routine over and over again.
Depend on age group and fitness level. Music.
Should have actual classes or get a gathering for participants if watching the video.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 71
Lack of access to computer or internet.
Most cultural dances are celebration specific, it would be a new concept to dance for the intention of exercise.
Note. A dash (-) indicates the answer was left blank by the respondent.
Table 11Survey 2: Results for “Can you Think of any Facilitators to Implementation? If so, What?”Class offer by age group in a social setting (i.e. at church).
-
Yes, you should include a warm-up (which is normally separate) from the actual routing and a cool-down. Both the warm-up and cool-down should include some type of stretches. This will help to reduce injury for the participant. Note: In addition you would want to make sure the participants in the video wear proper footwear – shoes!
Good for beginners.
The cultural aspect would facilitate implementation. Cultural aspect is a large draw to participants.
Place flyers in waiting area of clinic. Play video in waiting area to encourage . share info about video with other clinic staff – nutrition and beh. Health. – could also be used to help those with mood disorders (depression).
My experience with the Marshallese patients has been that they are are culturally inclusive in adapting to the American/Western culture, however the primary influence with greatest involvement and impact remains to be within their social and ethnic circle. They are very family based. This program could be effective if leadership in this activity was owned by someone within the social circle.
Note. A dash (-) indicates the answer was left blank by the respondent.
One evaluator also left the facilitator question blank. The other responses were again
quite varied and different from each other as in the previous question. Evaluators answered:
“class offer by age group in a social setting (i.e. at church),” “yes, you should include a warm-up
(which is normally separate) from the actual routine and a cool-down. Both the warm-up and
cool-down should include some type of stretches. This will help to reduce injury for the
participant. Note: In addition, you would want to make sure the participants in the video wear
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 72
proper footwear – shoes,” “good for beginners,” “the cultural aspect would facilitate
implementation. Cultural aspect is a large draw to participants,” “place flyers in waiting area of
clinic. Play video in waiting area to encourage . Share info about video with other clinic staff
– nutrition and beh. [behavioral] health. – could also be used to help those with mood disorders
(depression),” and “my experience with the Marshallese patients has been that they are are
culturally inclusive in adapting to the American/Western culture, however the primary influence
with greatest involvement and impact remains to be within their social and ethnic circle. They
are very family based. This program could be effective if leadership in this activity was owned
by someone within the social circle.”
Summary of Results
There were two objectives for which data were gathered in this project. Cultural data
from the cultural questionnaire was gathered to determine the foundation of dance within the
Marshallese community. Cultural data were also gathered from the evaluations of the dance
regimen. The results from the cultural questionnaire regarding dance allowed for the
establishment for dance as a part of Marshallese culture. Dance plays important roles within this
group of people which include bringing community members together and through the telling of
stories keeps cultural practices as well as traditions alive.
There were two main goals for this project. The first goal was to develop a culturally
appropriate dance regimen for use in our target population. The second goal, which built upon
the first goal, was to make this dance regimen meet current exercise recommendations. These
goals were essentially met according to the above results and as discussed in chapter five.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 73
Chapter 5: Recommendations and Conclusions
Chapter five includes a discussion of the results and explores the results in regard to
current literature. An understanding of the results as well as what was learned while working on
this project are also included in this chapter. Project specific barriers and facilitators are
addressed. Project strengths and weaknesses/limitations are addressed as well. Also included in
chapter five are discussions of allostatic load and recommendations for future research.
Discussion
Population and culture. This project was originally undertaken as a way to help
decrease morbidity and mortality associated with diabetes in the Marshallese migrant population,
particularly on the island of Hawai’i, Hawai’i. There are many aspects of holistic diabetes
management involving both the health care provider and patient such as education,
pharmacologic therapy, exercise, self-management, and diet. It was determined to focus only on
one piece of care management for this project, exercise. Inactivity and insufficient amounts of
exercise is a problem for people worldwide and of particular concern for Marshallese in Hawai’i
since only 35% fit the recommended amount of exercise into their weekly routine (Reddy et al.,
2005; Shahid & Shahid, 2016). The traditional Marshallese lifestyle has been greatly impacted
by nuclear testing which the US had historically conducted in the Marshall Islands and it is
suggested that this testing is, in part, responsible for the diabetes epidemic among the
Yamada, S., & Pobutsky, A. (2009). Micronesian migrant health issues in Hawai’i: Part 1:
Background, home island data, and clinical evidence. California Journal of Health
Promotion 7(2), 16-31. Retrieved from http://www.cjhp.org/Volume7_2009/Issue2
/yamada.pdf
Zhou, B., Lu, Y., Hajifathalian, K., Bentham, J., Di Cesare, M., Danaei, G.,…Ezzati, M. (2016).
Worldwide trends in diabetes since 1980: A pooled analysis of 751 population-based
studies with 4.4 million participants. The Lancet, 387(10027), 1513-1530. doi:
10.1016/S0140-6736(16)00618-8
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 119
Zumba Fitness, LLC. (2018). Zumba®. In Classes. Retrieved from https://www.zumba.com/en-
US/party/classes/class-zumba-fitness.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 120
Appendix A
University of Hawai’i at Hilo
Consent to Participate in Research Project as Dance Instructor or Dancer:
Traditional Dance as an Exercise Regimen for Marshallese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
My name is Brayden Walker. I am a Doctor of Nursing Practice student at the University of Hawai’i at Hilo in the Department of Nursing. As part of the requirements for earning my degree, I am doing a practice inquiry project. The purpose of my project is to develop and evaluate a dance regimen as an effective form of exercise for Marshallese people who have diabetes. If you are Marshallese between ages 19-45, able to perform dance moves, and are healthy, I am asking you to participate. Likewise, if you are diabetic, 46 years and older, taking more than 3 medication, have high blood pressure, have any medical condition that would keep you from participation such as heart failure or back pain limiting ability to perform dance you are asked to not participate in this study.
Activities and Time Commitment:
If you are asked to help in the project as the dance instructor, you will be asked to perform and possibly help design a dance regimen to be recorded. The video(s) will then be used for evaluation. It is expected to take about 5 to 10 hours for the recording and design of the dance program. You will be asked to model dance steps and we will record you performing them. You will also be leading a small group, 3 to 5 people, in a dance program. We will record this as well.
If you are asked to help in the project as a dancer, you can expect approximately between 2 and 5 hours of time commitment. You will be recorded in a small group with about 5 other people as you follow the dance instructor and perform the dance moves or steps the instructor is modeling.
The videos will then be made available to evaluators in the form of YouTube or DVDs. They will also be made public as YouTube is public domain.
Benefits and Risks:
The potential benefits to you from your participation in this project are contributing the culturally appropriate exercise methods for the target population of Marshallese migrant diabetic patients. Other peoples and populations would be able also to use this as an exercise program.
The belief of the conductors of this study is that there is little risk to you in participating in this research project. You may also be at risk from performing dances where you may be injured. The class is designed to be moderate exercise which has been determined to be minimal risk. These
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 121
risks should not be any different than if you were to dance outside of the research project. Possible risks include muscle soreness and/or aches from dancing. Injury may also occur such as spraining an ankle while performing the dance moves. While possible, the exercise is considered minimal risk and therefore, these risks are not likely to occur. If shortness of breath does occur, referral of the participant to the emergency department will be made.
As a participant, it is understood that if injured or harmed in the course of this research procedure, cost of treating potential injuries are the participants’ responsibility.
You may withdraw from the project altogether without penalty.
Privacy and Confidentiality:
I will keep all information in a safe, locked or password protected place. Only I, my University of Hawai’i advisor(s) and potentially a translator will have access to the information. All personal information will be kept confidential to the extent allowed by law. Several public agencies with responsibility for research oversight, including the UH Human Studies Program, have the authority to review research records. At the completion of the project, all personal identifying information will be destroyed, with exception of the dance video. When I report the results of my research project, I will not use your name. I will not use any other personal identifying information that can identify you, with exception of the video. I will report my findings in a way that protects your privacy and confidentiality to the extent allowed by law.
You are going to be video recorded as a participant in this study. It will be made public. We will do our best to protect your identity but people may recognize you in the video. If you do not want to be recorded and someone may recognize you, it is not necessary that you participate. We will record the dance video from the back of the class as to reduce faces being recorded but if you a performing a move where you spin around, your faces may be recorded.
If you are the dance instructor, your face will be recognizable in the videos because you will be facing the camera during the recording and also as you model the dance moves.
Voluntary Participation:
Your participation in this project is completely voluntary. Refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may stop participating at any time. If you stop participating in the study, there will be no penalty or loss of any benefits to which you are otherwise entitled.
Compensation:
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 122
You will receive a $10 Walmart gift card for participation in this project as a dancer. If you are the dance instructor, you will be compensated for your time at a rate of $10 per hour, given as a Walmart gift card. Compensation will be provided at the end of the video recording.
Questions:
If you have any questions about this study, please call or email me at (208) 369-7266 or [email protected]. You may also contact my adviser, Alice Davis, at (808) 932-7073 or [email protected]. For questions about your rights as a research participant, you may contact the University of Hawai’i Human Studies Program by phone at (808) 956-5007 or by email at [email protected].
If you agree to participate in this project, please sign and date this signature page and return it to: Brayden Walker
Please keep the section above for your records.
If you consent to be in this project, please sign the signature section below and return it to ***.
I give permission to join the research project entitled, Traditional Dance as an Exercise Regimen for Marshallese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus as a dancer or dance instructor and to be
recorded in a publicly available video.
Name of Participant (Print): ___________________________________________________
Signature of the Person Obtaining Consent: ___________________________________
Date: ____________________________
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 123
Appendix B
University of Hawai’i at Hilo
Consent to Participate in Research Project as an Evaluator or Contributor to the Cultural Basis of Dance:
Traditional Dance as an Exercise Regimen for Marshallese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus
My name is Brayden Walker. I am a Doctor of Nursing Practice student at the University of Hawai’i at Hilo in the Department of Nursing. As part of the requirements for earning my degree, I am doing a practice inquiry project. The purpose of my project is to develop and evaluate a dance regimen as an effective way of exercise for Marshallese people who have diabetes. If you at least 19 years old and meet one or more of the following criteria, I am asking you to participate because you meet needed qualifications for this project. The criteria are Marshallese, familiarity with Marshallese culture, health care provider, exercise scientist, personal trainer, diabetes educator, or others qualified to evaluate exercise and cultural aspects of the dance program.
Activities and Time Commitment:
If you participate in this project as an evaluator, you will be asked to view a recorded exercise program and then answer some questions about it in a survey. The survey will consist of nine (9) to thirteen (13) questions about dance, exercise and the videos. It is expected to take approximately 60 to 90 minutes to view the recordings and evaluate the dance program.
If you are asked to complete the Cultural Basis for Dance Questionnaire, you will answer 5 questions regarding the cultural basis of dance within the Marshallese culture and population. It should take approximately 10 minutes to complete this questionnaire.
Benefits and Risks:
The potential benefits to you from your participation in this project are contributing the culturally appropriate exercise methods for the target population of Marshallese migrant diabetic patients. Other peoples and populations would be able also to use this as an exercise program.
The belief of the conductors of this study is that there is little risk to you in participating in this research project. You may become stressed or uncomfortable answering any of the survey or questionnaire questions. If you do become stressed or uncomfortable, you can skip the question or take a break and do not have to answer it. You may also withdraw from the project altogether.
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 124
As a participant, it is understood that if injured or harmed in the course of this research procedure, cost of treating potential injuries are the participants’ responsibility.
Privacy and Confidentiality:
I will keep all information in a safe, locked or password protected place. Only I, my University of Hawai’i advisor(s) and potentially a translator will have access to the information. All personal information will be kept confidential to the extent allowed by law. Several public agencies with responsibility for research oversight, including the UH Human Studies Program, have the authority to review research records. At the completion of the project, all personal identifying information will be destroyed. When I report the results of my research project, I will not use your name. I will not use any other personal identifying information that can identify you. Your answer to the first question on the survey will be shared. I will use pseudonyms (fake names) if necessary and report my findings in a way that protects your privacy and confidentiality to the extent allowed by law.
Voluntary Participation:
Your participation in this project is completely voluntary. Refusal to participate will involve no penalty or loss of benefits to which you are otherwise entitled. You may stop participating at any time. If you stop participating in the study, there will be no penalty or loss of any benefits to which you are otherwise entitled.
Compensation:
You will receive a $5 Walmart gift card for participation in this project as an evaluator. If you fill out the Cultural Basis for Dance Questionnaire you will not be given any compensation.
Questions:
If you have any questions about this study, please call or email me at (208) 369-7266 or [email protected]. You may also contact my adviser, Alice Davis, at (808) 932-7073 or [email protected]. For questions about your rights as a research participant, you may contact the University of Hawai’i Human Studies Program by phone at (808) 956-5007 or by email at [email protected].
If you agree to participate in this project, please sign and date this signature page and return it to: Brayden Walker
DANCE REGIMEN FOR DIABETES 125
Please keep the section above for your records.
If you consent to be in this project, please sign the signature section below and return it to ***.
I give permission to join the research project entitled, Traditional Dance as an Exercise Regimen for Marshallese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.
Name of Participant (Print): ___________________________________________________
REQUIRED AND ELECTIVE MODULES ONLY DATECOMPLETED SCORE Recognizing and Reporting Unanticipated Problems Involving Risks to Subjects or Others in Bio
medical Research (ID: 14777) 02/04/16 0/5 (0%) Populations in Research Requiring Additional Considerations and/or Protections (ID: 16680) 02/04/16 5/5 (100%) Belmont Report and CITI Course Introduction (ID: 1127) 02/04/16 3/3
(100%) Cultural Competence in Research (ID: 15166) 02/04/16 0/5 (0%) Basic Institutional Review Board (IRB) Regulations and Review Process (ID: 2) 02/05/16 5/5
(100%) Informed Consent (ID: 3) 02/05/16 5/5 (100%) History and Ethics of Human Subjects Research (ID: 498) 02/05/16 7/7 (100%)
Social and Behavioral Research (SBR) for Biomedical Researchers (ID: 4) 02/05/16 4/4 (100%) Records-Based Research (ID: 5) 02/05/16 3/3 (100%)
Genetic Research in Human Populations (ID: 6) 02/05/16 5/5 (100%) FDA-Regulated Research (ID: 12) 02/10/16 5/5 (100%)
Research and HIPAA Privacy Protections (ID: 14) 02/04/16 5/5 (100%) Conflicts of Interest in Research Involving Human Subjects (ID: 488) 02/05/16 5/5 (100%)
Avoiding Group Harms - U.S. Research Perspectives (ID: 14080) 02/04/16 3/3 (100%)
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CITI Program Email: [email protected] Phone: 305-243-7970 Web: https://www.citiprogram.org
COLLABORATIVE INSTITUTIONAL TRAINING INITIATIVE (CITI PROGRAM) COURSEWORK TRANSCRIPT REPORT**
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** NOTE: Scores on this Transcript Report reflect the most current quiz completions, including quizzes on optional (supplemental) elements of the
course. See list below for details. See separate Requirements Report for the reported scores at the time all requirements for the course were met.
REQUIRED, ELECTIVE, AND SUPPLEMENTAL MODULES MOST RECENT SCORE History and Ethics of Human Subjects Research (ID: 498) 02/05/16 7/7 (100%)
Students in Research (ID: 1321) 02/04/16 1/5 (20%) Informed Consent (ID: 3) 02/05/16 5/5 (100%) Social and Behavioral Research (SBR) for Biomedical Researchers (ID: 4) 02/05/16
4/4 (100%) Belmont Report and CITI Course Introduction (ID: 1127) 02/04/16 3/3 (100%) Records-Based Research (ID: 5) 02/05/16 3/3 (100%)
Genetic Research in Human Populations (ID: 6) 02/05/16 5/5 (100%) FDA-Regulated Research (ID: 12) 02/10/16 5/5 (100%)
Research and HIPAA Privacy Protections (ID: 14) 02/04/16 5/5 (100%) Vulnerable Subjects - Research Involving Workers/Employees (ID: 483) 02/04/16 4/4 (100%)
Conflicts of Interest in Research Involving Human Subjects (ID: 488) 02/05/16 5/5 (100%) Avoiding Group Harms - U.S. Research Perspectives (ID: 14080) 02/04/16 3/3 (100%)
Cultural Competence in Research (ID: 15166) 02/27/16 5/5 (100%) Basic Institutional Review Board (IRB) Regulations and Review Process (ID: 2) 02/05/16 5/5 (100%) Stem Cell Research Oversight (Part II) (ID: 14584) 02/04/16 Quiz Not Taken
Recognizing and Reporting Unanticipated Problems Involving Risks to Subjects or Others in Biomedical Research (ID: 14777) 02/27/16 5/5 (100%)
Populations in Research Requiring Additional Considerations and/or Protections (ID: 16680) 02/04/16 5/5 (100%)
For this Report to be valid, the learner identified above must have had a valid affiliation with the CITI Program subscribing institution identified above or have been a paid Independent Learner.
CITI Program Email: [email protected] Phone: 305-243-7970 Web: https://www.citiprogram.org
Appendix D
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Estimated Budget:
1. Compensation for dance instructor(s). $100 for an estimated 10 hours of recording time.2. Survey participants. $5 gift card per participant survey. With an estimated 25
participants that’s $125 total.3. Dancers - $10 gift card with 4 dancers that is $40 4. Printing costs of surveys. $55. Translator to translate surveys if needed. $506. DVDs if needed - $157. Total Budget: $335
Other Resources:
1. Camera and audio equipment for recording videos2. Venue (outdoors or indoors) for recording3. Assistance from Micronesians United of the Big Island4. Computer capable of creating DVDs if necessary
Timeline:
1. PIP Proposal defense 7/21/20172. Submit to IRB 7/27/20173. After IRB approval:
• 1 week for Cultural Basis Questionnaire• 2 weeks to develop dance regimen• 1 week to record videos• 1 week for Cultural and Exercise evaluation surveys of dance regimen• 2 weeks for analysis and evaluation of survey results
Appendix E
See next page for IRB approval letter.
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NOTICE OF APPROVAL FOR HUMAN RESEARCH
This letter is your record of the Human Studies Program approval of this study as exempt.
On September 19, 2017, the University of Hawai#i (UH) Human Studies Program approved this study as exempt from federal regulations pertaining to the protection of human research participants. The authority for the exemption applicable to your study is documented in the Code of Federal Regulations at 45 CFR 46.101(b) 2.
Exempt studies do not require regular continuing review by the Human Studies Program. However, if you propose to modify your study, you must receive approval from the Human Studies Program prior to implementing any changes. You can submit your proposed changes via email at [email protected]. (The subject line should read: Exempt Study Modification.) The Human Studies Program may review the exempt status at that time and request an application for approval as non-exempt research.
In order to protect the confidentiality of research participants, we encourage you to destroy private information which can be linked to the identities of individuals as soon as it is reasonable to do so. Signed consent forms, as applicable to your study, should be maintained for at least the duration of your project.
This approval does not expire. However, please notify the Human Studies Program when your study is complete. Upon notification, we will close our files pertaining to your study.
If you have any questions relating to the protection of human research participants, please contact the Human Studies Program by phone at 956-5007 or email [email protected]. We wish you success in carrying out your research project.
DATE
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Appendix F
Aloha,
Thank you for taking the time to evaluate this dance regimen as part of my practice inquiry project. This survey is an evaluation of cultural preferences regarding dance/exercise. Its intended purpose is to address dance/exercise from a cultural perspective and then to address how this program fits, or does not fit, cultural preferences.
The first question regards your qualifications to evaluate the dance regimen. Then, most of the questions are based on a scale where you will circle your answer. These questions are about the cultural aspects of the dance regimen and how likely you are to participate in or recommend this dance regimen to others. There are some questions you will have to write your answer to. The last two questions are about facilitators and barriers to implementation and are to be answered be everyone also.
Most of the question are based on a 5-point Likert scale. Do your best to answer the questions. If you feel that a question does not apply to you then put N/A and skip to the next one. Mahalo.
1. What are your qualifications for evaluation? Circle all that apply. Marshallese, Very familiar with Marshallese culture, Healthcare provider, Exercise physiology/sports medicine, diabetes educator, etc.
Based on a 5-point Likert scale:
How important is dance to you?
1 – not at all 2 – very little 3 – somewhat 4 – important 5 – very important
How important is dance to your culture?
1 – not at all 2 – very little 3 – somewhat 4 – important 5 – very important
How important is exercise to you?
1 – not at all 2 – very little 3 – somewhat 4 – important 5 – very important
How culturally appropriate is this dance regimen?
1 – not at all 2 – very little 3 – somewhat 4 – many aspect are 5 – very appropriate
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What aspects, if any, are culturally appropriate?
What aspects, if any, are not culturally appropriate?
Based on culturally appropriateness alone, how comfortable would you be participating in this regimen?
1 – not at all 2 – very little 3 – neutral 4 – somewhat 5 – very comfortable
How familiar are you with these dances?
1 – not at all 2 – a little bit 3 – somewhat 4 – pretty familiar 5 – very familiar
Would you recommend this dance regimen to your friends and/or family?
1 – never 2 – probably not 3 – might recommend it 4 – probably will 5 – definitely will
Is this method of implementation a fitting way to help people be active?
1 – not at all 2 – probably not fitting 3 – neutral 4 – somewhat fitting 5 – very fitting
Can you think of any barriers to implementation? If so, what?
Can you think of any facilitators to implementation? If so, what?
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Appendix G
Aloha,
Thank you for taking the time to evaluate this dance regimen as part of my practice inquiry project. This survey is about the exercise and physical activity aspects of the dance regimen. Its intended purpose is to gather information regarding how well this program fits exercise needs of potential participants and implementation of the regimen.
The first question regards your qualifications to evaluate the dance regimen. The next six questions are about the physical activity and patient appropriateness of the regimen. The last two questions are about facilitators and barriers to implementation.
Most of the question are based on a 5-point Likert scale. Do your best to answer the questions. If you feel that a question does not apply to you then put N/A and skip to the next one. Mahalo.
2. What are your qualifications for evaluation? Circle all that apply. Marshallese, Very familiar with Marshallese culture, Healthcare provider, Exercise physiology/sports medicine, diabetes educator, etc.
Based on a 5-point Likert scale:
Based on current recommendations, how likely is this regimen meet the minimum standards for physical activity?
1 – not at all 2 – unlikely 3 – neutral 4 – somewhat likely 5 – very likely
How likely are you recommend patients/persons to participate in this regimen?
1 – not at all 2 – unlikely 3 – neutral 4 – somewhat likely 5 – very likely
Do you anticipate patients being willing to participate in this type of exercise?
1 – not at all 2 – unlikely 3 – neutral 4 – somewhat likely 5 – very likely
Have you ever tried anything like this before for your patients?
1 – never 2 – once or twice 3 – tried on a few patients 4 – tried for many patients 5 – tried for most patients
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How likely are you to recommend this to your patients?
1 – not at all 2 – unlikely 3 – neutral 4 – somewhat likely 5 – very likely
How likely do you think this program would promote increased exercise for this patient population?
1 – not at all 2 – unlikely 3 – neutral 4 – somewhat likely 5 – very likely
Can you think of any barriers to implementation? If so, what?
Can you think of any facilitators to implementation? If so, what?
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Appendix H
Cultural Basis for Dance Questionnaire
Consider for the following questions, the Marshallese culture and population:
1. Who in the population dances? Young, old, all ages, no one, etc.