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Project Report
On
Material
Submitted by
Wisarut Sawangchob
531201026 class 4/1 engine
Present to
Teacher Sutin Coadthong
ENGINEERING WORKSHOP 2 , Summer
September 15, 2014
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a
Contents
Metallurgical Operations 6
Metallurgical Operations 6
Metal11
History 12
Categories 13
Applications 15
Iron 16
Smeling of Iron 17
Steel Making Process 20
History 25
Applications 34
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Toxicity 40
Aluminum 41
History 47
Applications 48
Copper 52
Copper Metalluergy 52
History 60
Production 63
Applications 64
Lead 67
Smelting of lead (Lead Metallurgy) 68
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History 74
Silver 76
History 81
Applications 82
Zinc 85
History 90
Production 91
Applications 92
Cadmium 93
History 99
Production 100
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Noble gases128
Polymer 129
History129
The type of polymer130
Plastic 133
History133
The seven types of plastics recycling
135
Kevlar 137
History138
Production
139
Applications140
Carbon-fiber 143
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Health problems166
Piping 170
Steel pipe175
Copper pipe176
Soft copper 177
Rigid copper179
Aluminium pipe180
Glass pipe
180
Plastic pipe181
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1
Minerals and ores
Mineral chemistry In general, the compounds or elements in nature can be. But in
Mineralogy (mineralogy) and geology (geology) elements and compounds that occur. From The
inorganic processes such as petroleum and coal. This is the one that happens by. Degradation of
organic compounds But not considered a mineral Minerals over 3,000 known minerals. Each
element has characteristics such as chemical composition. structure And physical properties of
crystals Thus, the classification may be classified according to their chemical composition. Type
of crystalline solid and visible (color, gloss and opaque) minerals, mainly. The liquid metal is
solid except for mercury and water. Every stone on the earth's crust caused. Incorporation of
metal ore minerals (mineral) is an economic value. It is a important source of metals.
Figure 1.metals and minerals are well known.
Fe
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Ore is a mineral that can be used as components in the ore. And contains elements More than one
hundred species Makes it possible to distinguish three elements Types of alloy and non-ferrous
metals in Table 1 for examples of the ore.
Barringerite (Fe, Ni)2P
Carlsbergite CrN
Cohenite Fe3C
Haxonite (Fe, Ni)23C6
Niggliite PtSn
Nierite Si3 N4
Osbornite TiN
Perryite (Fe, Ni)8(Si, P)3
Roaldite Fe4 N
Schreibersite (Fe, Ni)3P
Siderazot Fe5 N2
Stistaite SnSb
Suessite (Fe, Ni)3Si
Tongbaite Cr 3C2
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Table 1 shows metal ore and non-ferrous alloys.
Native MetalsMetallic Alloys Native Non-metals and
Semi-metals
Aluminum Al
Cadmium Cd
Chromium Cr
Gold Group:o Copper Cu
o Gold Au
o Lead Pb
o Mercury Hg
o Silver Ag
Indium In
Iron Fe
Nickel Ni
Platinum Pt
Tellurium Te
Tin Sn
Titanium Ti
Zinc Zn
Anyuiite Au(Pb,
Sb)2
Auricupride
Cu3Au Belendorffite
Cu7Hg6
Brass Cu3Zn2
Cabriite
Pd2SnCu
Chengdeite Ir 3Fe
Cupalite (Cu,
Zn)Al
Danbaite CuZn2
Eugenite Ag9Hg2
Hunchunite (Au,
Ag)2Pb
Iron-nickel (Fe,
Ni)
Isoferroplatinum
(Pt, Pd)3(Fe, Cu)
Arsenic As
Arsenolamprite
As
Bismuth Bi
Carbon Group
Chaoite C
Diamond C
Graphite C
Lonsdaleite C
Moissanite SiC
Nierite Si3 N4
Paradocrasite
Sb2(Sb, As)2
Rosickyite S
Selenium Se
Silicon Si
Sinoite Si2 N2O
Stibarsen SbAs
Sulfur S
Tellurium Te
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Kolymite
Cu7Hg6
Leadamalgam
HgPb2
Luanheite
Ag3Hg
Maldonite Au2Bi
Moschellandsber
gite Ag2Hg3
Osmium (Os, Ir)
Paraschachnerite
Ag3Hg2
Plumbopalladini
te Pd3Pb2
Schachnerite
Ag1.1Hg0.9
Stannopalladinit
e (Pd, Cu)3Sn2
Tetraauricupride
AuCu
Tetraferroplatinum PtFe
Weishanite (Au,
Ag3Hg2)
Yuanjiangite
Antimony Sb
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AuSn
Zhanghengite
(Cu, Zn, Fe, Al,
Cr)
for Thailand Most mineral revenues include antimony, tin, lead, gypsum, respectively, Table 10.2
is a table that shows the type of mineral and metal ore.
Table 2 shows the type of ore metals.
Ore Metals from ores Metal compounds
in
Cassiterite Tin Oxide
Galena Lead Sulfide
Hematite Siderite Iron Oxide ,Carbonate
Wolframite Tungsten Oxide
Malachite Copper Sulfide
Carbonate
Stibnite , Stibiconite Antimony Sulfide, Oxide
Monazite Thorium Phosphate
Sphalerite and Zinc-blende Zinc Sulfide
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Metallurgical Operations
Metals from ore extraction process and result in a condition called active Metallurgical
(metallurgy) after a miner (mining) from the ground up. Need a way to separate the metal from
these ores. To choose the method depends on the properties. Physical properties of metals that
And the cost of separation. Metallurgical Operations generally have 2 stages.
1. Concentration The ore contains impurities such as stone, sand, causing minimal sometimes
use rinse with water. But most often crushed or broken into small pieces (crushing) and heated.
And separating the metal powder froth floating on the liquid. The physical properties of gravity
and the weight of different metals and impurities separated by physical properties. Does not
change the chemical properties of metal separation depends on the composition of the ore metals
such as gold or silver out of the ore may be used only to cradle in a container shaped like a pan of
water. Gold or silver mixed with sand. Ground to sink at the bottom of the container The sand and
dirt will float out of the water. Because gold and silver are Denser than the sand itself, as Figure 2.
.
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Methods commonly used in the industry is how to flotation. (froth-flotation process) is a process
for extracting metal ore being mined. Often used with such ores Copper sulfide When the ore is
crushed into small pieces. Then add water and some chemicals mixed into the mortar used for
flotation. Of a homogeneous Metals, each with different properties of surface aeration and
chemicals to make metal mineral flotation separated from other minerals. Unwanted Figure 3.
Figure 3. Separation of minerals by flotation tank flotation tang.
***Other minerals that sank beneath the tank called gangue.
For chemicals that are added to.
1. frothing reagents substances that cause bubbles or foam. (Depending on the type of
metal) including soaps, detergents, turpentine, alcohol, poly propylene glycol, sulfur dioxide,
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*** fills the separation of metal called a flux (flux).
Figure 4. Separation of metals by heating.
Metals such as tin oxide Lead oxide and
2 SnO + C 2Sn + CO2.
2 PbO + C 2Pb + CO2.
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For liquid from the smelting of metal ores called slag (slag) carbon is used in the smelting of
metals trade. Especially for iron and steel making because it's cheap.
For sulfide ores in the air when burned. It has metal dioxides Sulfur Dioxide Then, the metal
oxide to be reduced again. The carbonate ores When fused To form a metal oxide and carbon
dioxide
The electrolyte separates the metal with air travel. (Electrometallurgy) by way of the past.
Electricity into the ore in a solution. To separate the metal from other compounds. Pure metal to
Koh cathode (negative electrode) consists of a metal with high activity, such as calcium, barium,
magnesium, aluminum and sodium, this method is costly, but are separate.
Figure 5. Separation of pure copper from copper ore has been defiled.
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Metal separation with (Hydrometallurgy) This method is sometimes called "leaching"
(leaching) the separation of metals from ores by solvent may be water, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric
acid. Or cyanide solution In the form of an aqueous solution of metal. Then separate the metal
from the solution again by adding chemicals or using electrochemical example, copper ore used
sulfuric acid soluble copper in the form of a solution of copper persulfate, and then extract the
metal copper. with the electrolyte in Tbilisi.
Metal
A metal (from Greek "μέταλλον" ‟ métallon, "mine, quarry, metal") is a solid
material (an element, compound, or alloy) that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and features good
electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable † that is, they can be
hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking † as well as fusible
(able to be fused or melted) and ductile(able to be drawn out into a thin wire). About 91 of the
118 elements in the periodic table are metals (some elements appear in both metallic and non-
metallic forms).
The meaning of "metal" differs for various communities. For example, astronomers use
the blanket term "metal" for convenience to collectively describe all elements other than hydrogen
and helium (the main components of stars, which in turn comprise most of the visible matter in
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the universe). Thus, in astronomy and physical cosmology, the metallicity of an object is the
proportion of its matter made up of chemical elements other than hydrogen and helium. In
addition, many elements and compounds that are not normally classified as metals become
metallic under high pressures; these are known as metallic allotropes of non-metals.
History
The nature of metals has fascinated mankind for many centuries, because these materials
provided people with tools of unsurpassed properties both in war and in their preparation and
processing. Sterling gold and silver were known to man since the Stone Age. Lead and silver were
fused from their ores as early as the fourth millennium BC.
Ancient Latin and Greek writers such as Theophrastus, Pliny the Elder in his Natural
History, or Pedanius Dioscorides, did not try to classify metals. The ancients never attained the
concept "metal" as a distinct elementary substance of fixed, characteristic chemical and physical
properties. Following Empedocles, all substances within the sublunary sphere were assumed to
vary in their constituent classical elements of earth, water, air and fire. Following the
Pythagoreans, Plato assumed that these elements could be further reduced to plane geometrical
shapes (triangles and squares) bounding space and relating to the regular polyhedra in the
sequence earth:cube, water:icosahedron, air:octahedron, fire:tetrahedron. However, this
philosophical extension did not become as popular as the simple four elements, after it was
rejected by Aristotle. Aristotle also rejected the atomic theory of Democritus, since he classified
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the implied existence of a vacuum necessary for motion as a contradiction (a vacuum implies
nonexistence, therefore cannot exist). Aristotle did, however, introduce underlying antagonistic
qualities (or forces) of dry vs. wet and cold vs. heat into the composition of each of the four
elements. The word "metal" originally meant "mines" and only later gained the general meaning
of products from materials obtained in mines. In the first centuries A.D. a relation between the
planets and the existing metals was assumed as Gold:Sun, Silver:Moon, Electrum:Jupiter,
Iron:Mars, Copper:Venus, Tin:Mercury, Lead: Saturn. After electrum was determined to be a
combination of silver and gold, the relations Tin:Jupiter and Mercury:Mercury were substituted
into the previous sequence.
Categories
Base metal
In chemistry, the term base metal is used informally to refer to a metal that oxidizes or
corrodes relatively easily, and reacts variable with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form
hydrogen. Examples include iron, nickel, lead and zinc. Copper is considered a base metal as it
oxidizes relatively easily, although it does not react with HCl. It is commonly used in opposition
to noble metal.
In alchemy, a base metal was a common and inexpensive metal, as opposed to precious
metals, mainly gold and silver. A longtime goal of the alchemists was the transmutation of base
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metals into precious metals. In numismatics, coins in the past derived their value primarily from
the precious metal content. Most modern currencies are fiat currency, allowing the coins to be
made of base metal.
Ferrous metal
The term "ferrous" is derived from the Latin word meaning "containing iron". This can
include pure iron, such as wrought iron, or an alloy such as steel. Ferrous metals are often
magnetic, but not exclusively.
Noble metal
Noble metals are metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation, unlike most base
metals. They tend to be precious metals, often due to perceived rarity. Examples include gold,
platinum, silver and rhodium.
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Precious metal
A precious metal is a rare metallic chemical element of high economic value.
Chemically, the precious metals are less reactive than most elements, have high luster and high
electrical conductivity. Historically, precious metals were important as currency, but are now
regarded mainly as investment and industrial commodities. Gold, silver, platinum and palladium
each have an ISO 4217 currency code. The best-known precious metals are gold and silver.
While both have industrial uses, they are better known for their uses in art, jewelry, and coinage.
Other precious metals include the platinum group metals: ruthenium, rhodium,
palladium,osmium, iridium, and platinum, of which platinum is the most widely traded.
Applications
Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass, making them
useful materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage. Metal alloys can be
engineered to have high resistance to shear, torque and deformation. However the same metal can
also be vulnerable to fatigue damage through repeated use or from sudden stress failure when a
load capacity is exceeded. The strength and resilience of metals has led to their frequent use in
high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many appliances, tools,
pipes, non-illuminated signs and railroad tracks.
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railway
Iron
Iron is a chemical element in the periodic table. To Fe-labeled iron has been used for over
4000 years before Christ. The Egyptians were the first to use steel. The panel found Steel pyramid
as well. Booming metal in the metal. Found on the surface of about 4.7 percent by mass of an
element that is ranked fourth. Iron is a metal with a high melting point, boiling point, gray being
attracted by magnets, and magnetic force can be maintained permanently.
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Iron found on earth are both iron ore and iron compounds. The compounds of iron are found in
soil. In plants and living things, especially in the blood, which are components of the fetal globin.
Iron ore found on Earth Often found in the shallow crust.
Smeling of Iron
Smeling of Iron to metallic iron. For use as a raw material for steel production using
carbon or charcoal to feed oxygen from iron ore. (A mixture of iron ore. Oxygen is called iron
oxide) is converted into metallic iron. The blast furnace iron making process currently has three
methods were refined using a blast furnace (blast furnace) for steel perforated (direct reduction)
and the smelting and iron (direct smelting).
The steel is most commonly used today. The blast furnace iron to steel in the form of
molten metal in the furnace is called pig iron furnace. Steel blast Need for coke (Coke) from the
burning of coal (Coal) good quality with high prices of coking. Also contributes to air pollution is
high. At present, it is thought The new steel that can be used to replace conventional coal and
coke called COREX (Corex), but because the technology for iron making, there are still little
used. For blast furnace steel smelting temperatures up to 1600 ° C so that the molten metal. And
the stigma of As a separate skimmings.
Fe2O3 → Fe3O4 →FeO →Fe (metal)
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For steel reaction between iron oxide with carbon monoxide (caused by a combination of carbon
dioxide and carbon).
2 C (s) + O2 (g)→ 2 CO (g) + heat.
Fe2O3 (s) + 3 CO (g) → 2 Fe (s) + 3 CO2 (g) + heat.
And a lime (CaCO3) is added to the raw material. The fused silica (The stigma) is a calcium
silicate. (CaSiO3) called slag or slag (slag).
the reaction
CaCO3 (s)→ CaO (s) + CO2 (g).
CaO (s) + SiO2 (g)→ CaSiO3 (l).
Figure 1.smelting iron ore in a blast furnace coke, limestone and charcoal on one side and a slag
and molten steel. Flow into the container below
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Figure 1. Smeling of Iron in a blast furnace.
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Steel Making Process
The steel mill will use elemental carbon or charcoal. To extract oxygen from the iron ore.
A metal But carbon is soluble in iron at the high dose. Which is not suitable for Be pressed into
steel We need to improve the properties of steel. By reducing Elemental carbon To get a more
cohesive or stainless steel (Steel) referred to steelmaking processes. 3 is a process that is using the
barbecue aerobic - bass (Basic Oxygen Furnace) as shown in Figure 2, which is produced using
molten metal as raw material. The use of electric arc furnace (Electric Arc Furnace) material is in
solid form, such as sponge iron or pig iron. It has a steel melting furnace before chemical
additives and the use of Open Hearth Furnace (open hearth furnace) in an electric arc furnace
practice. Is used to melt scrap metal recycling (Scrap steel from the non-use) rather than use the
steel is. From direct smelting Dare molten steel will be cast into semi-finished products. (Semi-
Finished Products) Steel types are small (Billet) and billet version (Bloom) for rolled steel long
products. Or casting a slab (Slab) for the board. Next to Steel plate.
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Figure 2. Oxygen Furnace - bass.
The eliminate the stigma of Steel There are two steps to eliminate stigma.
1.Reaction Caused by injecting oxygen into the molten steel to reduce stigma, phosphorus,
silicon, carbon and manganese. Oxide was
2. Reduction Caused by the addition of oxygen reduction (flux) as CaO for the removal of
silicon and phosphorus oxide or manganese oxide SiO2 for defiled to reduce excess oxygen in the
molten steel. Another by-product Most sulfur Be removed from the equation.
CaO + FeS → CaS + FeO.
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For the processes occurring in the furnace oxygen - bass. Molten steel from the furnace The blast
is poured into the top of the container's vertical. The oxygen passes through the Figure 3.
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Figure 3. steel with oxygen furnace - bass.
Steel has come out with treasure depends on the chemical composition. Temperature
Heating process Temperatures Iron can combine with the carbon-iron carbide (Fe3C) we called
cementite post (Cementile), which are brittle.
Stainless steel is to be used for a wide range is due. the steel Has been a treasure to have
such a great impact (Impact Strength) Tensile (Tebsile Strength) compression (Compressive
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Strength) and shear (Shear Strength), so in order to achieve the desired properties of steel.
Therefore, the alloy metals such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, tungsten, cobalt to
manganese and vanadium alloy steel, which is called that. Steel alloy (Alloyed Steel) for alloy
elements in steel alloys. Details are as follows:
silicon in steel with low carbon content. Silicon alloy that will contribute to the capture of
graphite, so the amount of silicon in the alloy with no more than 5 percent due to the graphite
itself and the silicon alloy may be separated into three categories.
Silicon-Manganese Steel contains silicon and manganese steel is used in the car's
suspension. This is because steel can. Great impact
Silicon Steel is valuable Carbon and silicon Steel Magnetism and high electrical resistance
as well. It adopted a core trans Ford Mercury and generator terminals, etc..
Valve Steel is an alloy steel used to make valves in various alloy parts, silicon is the
second most important example Silchcrome and alloys containing chromium and silicon, which
Valmax.
Molybdenum helps in the capture of carbide firmly and elements that help to prevent cracking
easily. Molybdenum alloy steel is used to make the tools that have been around for a very high
speed. Manufacturing and other jobs that require heat resistance. And resistance Corrosion
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Vanadium is an element that gives birth. The capture of carbide tightly. Vanadium alloy steel
Will be used to make tools. And the removal of oxygen is very good. Eliminates rust and other
impurities in the steel.
History
Steel
Steel is through the addition of other metals to adjust the properties of an alloy of iron
with carbon, 0.2-
2.04% carbon composite materials to reduce costs. It has to mixing with
other elements such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, tungsten, carbon and other transition
metals determines the quality and quantity of the solid roll forming and the tension of the steel.
Structural steel spherical graphite is a high flexibility. With increasing carbon steel is
stronger. And hardness than steel, but are brittle maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 2.14%
occurs at a temperature of 1149 ° C in an oven to a temperature of about 950 ° C higher
concentrations. Or low temperature To make an appearance as steel, cement. Alloys with carbon
It is a very solid steel. Because of the low melting point.
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Unlike steel Pure iron atoms, are very small, but with 1-3% by weight of waste products in the
form of particles in one direction. Which is more durable than steel And bend more easily than
older.
1. Carbon (Carbon Steel) is to increase carbon steel. (Chemical symbol: C) to increase the
mechanical properties to the steel.
2. Steel mix (Alloy Steel) is known to result from a combination of elements from two or more
following.
Mixing the 2 types of elements called binary alloy (Binary Alloy).
Mixing the 3 types of elements called Terry Canary alloy (Ternary Alloy).
Mixing the 4 types of elements called Clearwater Canary alloy (Quaternary Alloy).
Type of steel
1. Carbon (Carbon Steel).
2. Steel mix (Alloy Steel).
3. Special Steel mix (Special Alloy Steel).
4. Steel castings (Cast Steel).
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1. Carbon (Carbon Steel) is primarily a mixture of carbon up to 1.7%, and other elements such
as silicon, phosphorus, sulfur and manganese mixed in small amounts is attached to the steel from
the ore. This type of steel is a material that has properties of Hand Strength (Strength) and
weakness (Ductility) wide by changing the amount of carbon contained in the steel. Making it
ideal to choose the right style, sometimes called "Mild Steel".
Types of carbon steel can be divided into three types.
„ Low Carbon Steel (Low Carbon Steel) is a mild but not strong. Can be applied to
machining, drilling is easy due to the mild steel. Can be rolled or beaten into sheets easily. For
applications that do not require high tensile stress. Can not be hardened Or hard anodized But if
you need to fill hardened carbon layer. Because there is less carbon (up 0.2%) for applications
such as boiler plate steel pipes steel in the construction industry. Tin Such as food canning
Galvanized steel sheets such as galvanized roofing. Oil tank car tanks act made riveted bolts,
screws, wire, machine spare parts, hinges, door chains.
„ Medium carbon steel (Medium Carbon Steel) steel is strong. Stress and tension than low
carbon steel. But is less sticky It also provides better quality in processing and can be plated solid
surface. Suitable for applications requiring moderate tensile stress. To prevent wear to the surface.
And strength However, there is some stiff enough. Applications such as Making mechanical parts,
railroad mechanical shaft gear head hammer spring rod parts tractor nut screw screwdriver steel
pipe must be strong.
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„ High Carbon Steel (High Carbon steel) high carbon steel is steel that is strong. Hardness
and high tensile stress due to a 0.5 percent carbon, 1.5% can be hardened to qualify changed.
But on the hardening properties change. But when hardening are brittle, ideal for applications that
require resistance to wear applications such as drill bits extracted scissors, knife roll Blade
Reamers threading (tap) razor blade, nail file, sheet gauge steel milling spring suspension ball.
ball bearings
2. Steel mix (Alloy Steel) is not more than 1.7% carbon steel and other alloy elements such as
nickel, chromium, manganese, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, cobalt, mixing the elements.
Reduces the features to suit your needs, such as heat resistance, used for electric stove burner pans
and stove inductions.
The aim of the other alloying elements.
„ Increase strength
„ Increase the wear resistance And abrasion resistance
„ Add toughness to withstand shocks.
„ Increase the corrosion resistance properties.
„ Improve the magnetic properties
Steel mix can be divided according to the amount of material to mix 2 types.
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„ Steel mix high (High Alloy Steel) mixed with other elements such as iron, steel, over
10% of this group as well. Mix tool steel (Alloy Tool Steel) features on the side. Corrosion
resistance Resistant to corrosion It is used in making steel tools.
„ Steel mix low (Low Alloy Steel) mixed with other elements such as iron, not more than
10%, similar structural carbon steel, plain (Plain Carbon Steel) Steel mix high and homogeneous.
3.Special Steel mix (Special Alloy Steel) Special Steel mix. Steel mix is developed to suit
specific applications such as.
„ High Tensile Strength Steel mix (High tensile strength alloy Steels) properties of stainless
steel is generally mixed with a very high tensile strength. And high toughness Moreover, the
method is different from hardened steel, general mix. The percentage of carbon is about 0.2%,
suitable for shaft or gear, etc..
„ Abrasion resistant steel And impact (Wear Resistant Steel) is Manganese Steel mix. Also
known as "Steel Bernhard Phil House" with alloying elements such as silicon, manganese, 0.4 to
1%, but 11-14% of steel produced in the first pass has not been used. It is very brittle Must be
plated at a temperature of 1000-1100 ° C and the water quickly. This will make steel toughness
properties. Steel is not suitable for a particular job solely because friction is not worth the cost of
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„ Stainless steel (Stainless Steel) with chromium alloy to ensure corrosion resistance
properties. And chromium to be reasonably high. Therefore, stainless steel is. Mix one high steel
features
Prevents rust Chemical corrosion from acids.
„ Heat resistance (depending on the amount of chromium is high).
„ The percentage of carbon up to 0.4%.
„ Mixing elements such as chromium, nickel, manganese, aluminum, etc. 15 -18%.
„ Use the seized parts, such as the seizure of the Stove Pipe made utensils or equipment
such as knives Chemical. Or in the kitchen sink (Sink).
4.Steel castings (Cast Steel) steel is taken up by the casting method. Look beyond to make
complex shapes, forgings and castings, extruded or rolled, which means this will be a similar size
to the desired size. This cast steel Compared to steel, the forming with the hit or the
measurements are different. Mechanical parts through porous castings appear small.
Cast steel is divided into 2 groups.
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„ Carbon steel casting (Carbon Steel Castings) carbon steel is essentially only the percentage of
carbon up to 0.6% of other metals such as manganese mixed with 0.5-
1% silicon 0.2 to
0.75% sulfur <0.5%, P <. 0.5%, which is the element that comes in the form of polluted
substances. Except aluminum, manganese, silicon, because the duty is eliminated Gas
(Deoxidizer), most applications will use. Terry bytes turbines
Carbon steel casting divided into three categories.
-Low carbon steel casting (Containing carbon up to 0.2%).
-Medium carbon steel castings (carbon 0.2 -0.5%).
-Cast carbon steel (high carbon, 0.5-0.6%).
„ Steel mix cast (Alloy Steel Castings) is carbon steel with less than 1.7% percent carbon
and other elements such as manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel alloys, vanadium, molybdenum,
tungsten, copper at the molybdenum or cobalt to the elements. Mixed into the carbon steel, in
order to improve properties such as hardening and corrosion resistance at high temperature and
conductivity and magnetic properties. Production process to produce a pan on the stove, electric
stove and oven inductions. Most are used for components in the chemical industry.
Steel casting mix Can be divided into two groups.
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„ Steel mix low (alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, tungsten, up to
10%).
„ Steel mix of high (There is an important alloying element exceeds 10%).
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Applications
Iron Ore
Rank CountryIron ore production
(thousands of tonnes)year
World 2,950,000 2013
1 People's Republic of China 1,320,000 2013
2 Australia 530,000 2013
3 Brazil 398,000 2013
4 India 150,000 2013
5 Russia 102,000 2013
6 Ukraine 80,000 2013
7 South Africa 67,000 2013
8 United States 52,000 2013
9 Canada 40,000 2013
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Rank CountryIron ore production
(thousands of tonnes)
year
10 Iran 37,000 2013
11 Venezuela 30,000 2013
12 Sweden 26,000 2013
13 Kazakhstan 25,000 2013
14 Mexico 14,482 2011
15 Chile 12,624 2011
16 Mauritania 12,000 2011
17 Peru 10,459 2011
18 Malaysia 7,696 2011
19 North Korea 5,300 2011
20 Turkey 4,500 2011
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Rank CountryIron ore production
(thousands of tonnes)
year
21 Mongolia 3,000 2011
22 New Zealand 2,300 2011
23 Austria 2,050 2011
24 Bosnia and Herzegovina 1,850 2011
25 Algeria 1,500 2011
26 Greece 1,200 2011
27 Thailand 1,000 2011
28 Vietnam 1,000 2011
29 Norway 700 2011
30 South Korea 510 2011
31 Germany 400 2011
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Pig iron production
Rank CountryIron ore production
(thousands of tonnes)year
World 1,170,000 2013
1 People's Republic of China 720,000 2013
2 Japan 84,000 2013
3 Russia 50,000 2013
4 India 50,000 2013
5 South Korea 39,000 2013
6 United States 31,000 2013
7 Ukraine 29,000 2013
8 Germany 27,000 2013
9 Brazil 26,000 2013
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Rank CountryIron ore production
(thousands of tonnes)year
10 Taiwan 14,000 2013
11 Turkey 9,000 2013
other countries91,000
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Toxicity
Large amounts of ingested iron can cause excessive levels of iron in the blood. High blood
levels of free ferrous iron react with peroxides to produce free radicals, which are highly reactive
and can damage DNA, proteins, lipids, and other cellular components. Thus, iron toxicity occurs
when there is free iron in the cell, which generally occurs when iron levels exceed the capacity of
transferrin to bind the iron. Damage to the cells of the gastrointestinal tract can also prevent them
from regulating iron absorption leading to further increases in blood levels. Iron typically
damages cells in the heart, liver and elsewhere, which can cause significant adverse effects,
including coma, metabolic acidosis, shock, liver failure, coagulopathy, adult respiratory distress
syndrome, long-term organ damage, and even death. Humans experience iron toxicity above 20
milligrams of iron for every kilogram of mass, and 60 milligrams per kilogram is considered a
lethal dose. Over consumption of iron, often the result of children eating large quantities of
ferrous sulfate tablets intended for adult consumption, is one of the most common toxicological
causes of death in children under six. The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) lists the Tolerable
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Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults as 45 mg/day. For children under fourteen years old the UL is
40 mg/day.
The medical management of iron toxicity is complicated, and can include use of a specific
chelating agent called deferoxamine to bind and expel excess iron from the body.
Aluminum
Aluminum (Aluminium, Al) This is the most common and the most common elements on
Earth are found as free elements in nature. Ore important is the Bogside (Bauxite, Al2O3.H2O) and
is also found in other minerals including Aarsotecls Beryl (Emerald) Acroaalts and corundum
(ruby) in 1892, there has been a split aluminum. first Of aluminum chloride reacts. With
potassium amalgam * (potassium amalgam) in the price of aluminum is still expensive present
was prepared aluminum from the Bogside with silica, iron oxide and titanium oxide is mixed with
the ore. such boiling with sodium hydroxide. To replace silica as silicate melts well. And
replacement of aluminum oxide and aluminum ions Connecticut. Then add the acid to form a
precipitate. High aluminum hydroxides. When sludge incineration is anhydrous aluminum oxide,
which is reducing the aluminum. With the Hall (Hall process) Figure 1. shows the cell electrolyte.
Peter Hall catalytic model. By Creole Delight (cryolite, Na3AlF6) as solvent aluminum oxide.
Then the solution is to electrically separate.
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Figure 1 Production of aluminum by electrolysis City Hall Process.
Equation that occurs at the anode and the cathode.
Anode (oxidation): 3 [2O2-
→ O2 (g) + 4e-].
Cathode (reduction): 4 [Al3 + + 3e- → Al (l)].
Reactions include: 2Al2O3 → 4Al (l) + 3O2 (g).
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The oxygen reacts with the carbon anode. Carbon dioxide is the metal to molten aluminum sinks
to the bottom. And flows out to the outside.
Aluminum
Atomic number 13
Standard atomic weight 26.9815385(7)
Element category post-transition metal, sometimes considered
ametalloid
Group, period,block group 13, period 3, p-block
Electron configuration [Ne] 3s2 3p
1
per shell: 2, 8, 3
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Physical properties
Phase solid
Melting point 933.47 K, 660.32 °C, 1220.58 °F
Boiling point 2743 K, 2470 °C, 4478 °F
Density(near r.t.) 2.70 g·cm−3
(at 0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
Liquid density at m.p.: 2.375 g·cm−3
Heat of fusion 10.71 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 284 kJ·mol−1
Molar heat capacity 24.20 J·mol−1
·K−1
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1482 1632 1817 2054 2364 2790
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 3, 2, 1 (anamphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity 1.61 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies 1st: 577.5 kJ·mol−1
2nd: 1816.7 kJ·mol−1
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3rd: 2744.8 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius empirical: 143 pm
Covalent radius 121±4 pm
Van der Waals radius 184 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure face-centered cubic (fcc)
Speed of sound thin rod: (rolled) 5000 m·s−1
(at r.t.)
Thermal expansion 23.1 µm·m−1
·K−1
(at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity 237 W·m−1
·K−1
Electrical resistivity at 20 °C: 28.2 nΩ·m
Magnetic ordering paramagnetic
Young's modulus 70 GPa
Shear modulus 26 GPa
Bulk modulus 76 GPa
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Poisson ratio 0.35
Mohs hardness 2.75
Vickers hardness 167 MPa
Brinell hardness 245 MPa
CAS Number 7429-90-5
History
Prediction Antoine Lavoisier (1787)
First isolation Friedrich Wöhler (1827)
Named by Humphry Davy (1807)
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of aluminium
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
26Al trace 7.17×105 y β+ 1.17 26Mg
ε - Mg
γ 1.8086 -
Al 100% Al is stable with 14 neutrons
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History
Ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants and as astringents
for dressing wounds; alum is still used as a styptic. In 1761, Guyton de Morveau suggested calling
the base alum alumine. In 1808, Humphry Davy identified the existence of a metal base of alum,
which he at first termed aluminum and later aluminum .The metal was first produced in 1825 in
an impure form by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian roasted. He reacted anhydrous
aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin.
Friedrich Wöhler was aware of these experiments and cited them, but after redoing the
experiments of rasted he concluded that this metal was pure potassium. He conducted a similar
experiment in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and yielded
aluminium. Wöhler is generally credited with isolating aluminium (Latin alumen, alum). Further,
Pierre Berthier discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it. Frenchman
Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville improved Wöhler's method in 1846, and described his
improvements in a book in 1859, chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the
considerably more expensive potassium. Deville likely also conceived the idea of the electrolysis
of aluminium oxide dissolved in cryolite; Charles Martin Hall and Paul Hér oult might have
developed the more practical process .
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Applications
General use
Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal. Global production of aluminium in
2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million
tonnes). Forecast for 2012 is 42 ‟ 45 million tonnes, driven by rising Chinese output.
Aluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves its mechanical properties,
especially when tempered. For example, the common aluminium foils and beverage cans are
alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium. The main alloying agents are copper, zinc, magnesium,
manganese, and silicon (e.g., duralumin) and the levels of these other metals are in the range of a
few percent by weight.
Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:
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„ Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, etc.)
as sheet, tube, castings, etc.
„ Packaging (cans, foil, frame of etc.)
„ Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, etc.).
„ A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to baseball bats, watches.
„ Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walking poles, etc.
„ Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases for equipment e.g. photographic
equipment, MacBook Pro's casing
„ Electrical transmission lines for power distribution
„ MKM steel and Alnico magnets
„ Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and CDs.
„ Heat sinks for electronic appliances such as transistors and CPUs.
„ Substrate material of metal-core copper clad laminates used in high brightness LED
lighting.
„ Powdered aluminium is used in paint, and in pyrotechnics such as solid rocket fuels and
thermite.
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„ Aluminium can be reacted with hydrochloric acid or with sodium hydroxide to produce
hydrogen gas.
„ A variety of countries, including France, Italy, Poland, Finland, Romania, Israel, and the
former Yugoslavia, have issued coins struck in aluminium or aluminium-copper alloys.
„ Some guitar models sport aluminium diamond plates on the surface of the instruments,
usually either chrome or black. Kramer Guitars andTravis Bean are both known for having
produced guitars with necks made of aluminium, which gives the instrument a very distinct
sound.
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Copper
Copper (Cu) Evolution of copper. Originated more than 10,000 years ago, copper was the
first metal. The man known and used. The evidence showed that the human race is made up of
refined copper utensils. Since prehistoric times, though copper is a very small amount in the crust
(only 0.0001%) when compared to other metals like steel.
Due to the toughness properties The Neanderthal is this metal used to make weapons can
be formed without the risk of fracture. And also Properties Its resistance to corrosion by sea water
and acid as well. However, the weakness of copper The low strength As a result, its use is limited.
The smelting of copper metal (Copper Metalluergy).
Copper is a metal found in liberty. Also found in the form of copper sulfide, oxide,
carbonate, sulfate and silicate. Most of the sulfide ore smelting of copper present in the ore, such
as copper.
Copper pyrite or chalcopyrite (CuFeS2).
Chalocite (Cu2S) or copper glance.
Malachite green [CuCO3.Cu (OH) 2].
Azurite blue [2CuCO3.Cu (OH) 2].
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Bornite (3Cu2S.Fe2S3) or peacock ore.
Melaconite (CuO), etc.
Such ores containing copper, such as copper pyrite ore by smelting copper ore is melted.
With copper about 4% or more would be melting. Figure 1. but less copper ore. Were processed
metals with water. (hydro-metallurgical process)
Figure 1. molten copper from copper smelting.
When the copper molten copper will separate out again to burn waste at low temperatures. Sulfur
will be made dioxide (SO2) in the form of gas, as well as arsenic and antimony. The reaction
below occurs
2CuFeS2 + O
2 → Cu
2S + 2FeS + SO
2
S + O2 → SO
2
4As + 3O2 → As2O
3
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Figure 2. gives a more pure copper. The acid electrolyte.
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Boiling point 2835 K, 2562 °C, 4643 °F
Density(near r.t.) 8.96 g·cm−3
(at 0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
Liquid density at m.p.: 8.02 g·cm−3
Heat of fusion 13.26 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 300.4 kJ·mol−1
Molar heat capacity 24.440 J·mol−1
·K−1
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1509 1661 1850 2089 2404 2834
Atomic properties
Oxidation states +1, +2, +3, +4 (a mildlybasic oxide)
Electronegativity 1.90 (Pauling scale)
Ionization
energies
1st: 745.5 kJ·mol−1
2nd: 1957.9 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 3555 kJ·mol−1
(more)
Atomic radius empirical: 128 pm
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Covalent radius 132±4 pm
Van der Waals
radius
140 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure face-centered cubic (fcc)
Speed of sound thin rod: (annealed)
3810 m·s−1
(at r.t.)
Thermal
expansion
16.5 µm·m−1
·K−1
(at 25 °C)
Thermalconductivity
401 W·m
−1
·K
−1
Electrical
resistivity
at 20 °C: 16.78 nΩ·m
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic
Young's modulus 110 –128 GPa
Shear modulus 48 GPa
Bulk modulus 140 GPa
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Poisson ratio 0.34
Mohs hardness 3.0
Vickers hardness 369 MPa
Brinell hardness 35 HB=874 MPa
CAS Number 7440-50-8
History
Naming after Cyprus, principal mining place in
Roman era (Cyprium)
Discovery Middle East (9000 BC)
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of copper
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
Cu 69.15% Cu is stable with 34 neutrons
Cu syn 12.700 h ε - Ni
β− - Zn
65Cu 30.85% 65Cu is stable with 36 neutrons
Cu syn 61.83 h β− - Zn
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History
Copper Age
Copper occurs naturally as native copper and was known to some of the oldest
civilizations on record. It has a history of use that is at least 10,000 years old, and estimates of its
discovery place it at 9000 BC in the Middle East. a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq
that dates to 8700 BC. There is evidence that gold and meteoric iron (but not iron smelting) were
the only metals used by humans before copper. The history of copper metallurgy is thought to
have followed the following sequence: 1) cold working of native copper, 2)annealing, 3) smelting,
and 4) the lost wax method. In southeastern Anatolia, all four of these metallurgical techniques
appears more or less simultaneously at the beginning of the Neolithic c. 7500 BC. However, just
as agriculture was independently invented in several parts of the world (including Pakistan,
China, and the Americas) copper smelting was invented locally in several different places. It was
probably discovered independently in China before 2800 BC, in Central America perhaps around
600 AD, and in West Africa about the 9th or 10th century AD. Investment casting was invented in
4500 ‟ 4000 BC in Southeast Asia and carbon dating has established mining at Alderley Edge in
Cheshire, UK at 2280 to 1890 BC. Ötzi the Iceman, a male dated from 3300 ‟ 3200 BC, was found
with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure; high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest his
involvement in copper smelting. Experience with copper has assisted the development of other
metals; in particular, copper smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting. Production in the Old
Copper Complex in Michigan andWisconsin is dated between 6000 and 3000 BC. Natural bronze,
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a type of copper made from ores rich in silicon, arsenic, and (rarely) tin, came into general use in
the Balkans around 5500 BC.
Bronze Age
Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was first practiced about 4000 years after the
discovery of copper smelting, and about 2000 years after "natural bronze" had come into general
use. Bronze artifacts from the Vinča culture date to 4500 BC. Sumerian and Egyptian artifacts of
copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC. The Bronze Age began in Southeastern Europe around
3700 ‟ 3300 BC, in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC. It ended with the beginning of the Iron
Age, 2000 ‟ 1000 BC in the Near East, 600 BC in Northern Europe. The transition between the
Neolithic period and the Bronze Age was formerly termed the Chalcolithic period (copper-stone),
with copper tools being used with stone tools. This term has gradually fallen out of favor because
in some parts of the world the Chalcolithic and Neolithic are coterminous at both ends. Brass, an
alloy of copper and zinc, is of much more recent origin. It was known to the Greeks, but became a
significant supplement to bronze during the Roman Empire.
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Antiquity and Middle Ages
In Greece, copper was known by the name chalkos (ταλκός). It was an important
resource for the Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples. In Roman times, it was known as aes
Cyprium, aes being the generic Latin term for copper alloys and Cyprium from Cyprus, where
much copper was mined. The phrase was simplified to cuprum, hence the English copper.
Aphrodite and Venus represented copper in mythology and alchemy, because of its lustrous
beauty, its ancient use in producing mirrors, and its association with Cyprus, which was sacred to
the goddess. The seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with the seven
metals known in antiquity, and Venus was assigned to copper.
Britain's first use of brass occurred around the 3rd ‟ 2nd century BC. In North America,
copper mining began with marginal workings by Native Americans. Native copper is known to
have been extracted from sites on Isle Royale with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600.
Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America, particularly in Peru around 1000 AD; it
proceeded at a much slower rate on other continents. Copper burial ornamentals from the 15th
century have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial production did not start until the early
20th century.
The cultural role of copper has been important, particularly in currency. Romans in the 6th
through 3rd centuries BC used copper lumps as money. At first, the copper itself was valued, but
gradually the shape and look of the copper became more important. Julius Caesar had his own
coins made from brass, while Octavianus Augustus Caesar's coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn
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conductivity, tensile strength, ductility, creep (deformation) resistance, corrosion resistance, low
thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, solderability, and ease of installation.
Electronics and related devices
Integrated circuits and printed circuit boards increasingly feature copper in place of
aluminium because of its superior electrical conductivity (Copper interconnect for main article);
heat sinks and heat exchangers use copper as a result of its superior heat dissipation capacity to
aluminium. Electromagnetic, vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes, and magnetrons in microwave
ovens use copper, as do wave guides for microwave radiation.
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Electric motors
Copper’s greater conductivity versus other metals enhances the electrical energy
efficiency of motors. This is important because motors and motor-driven systems account for
43%-46% of all global electricity consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry.
Increasing the mass and cross section of copper in a coil increases the electrical energy efficiency
of the motor. Copper motor rotors, a new technology designed for motor applications where
energy savings are prime design objectives, are enabling general-purpose induction motors to
meet and exceed National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) premium efficiency
standards.
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Lead
Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin Plumbum) Lead is a soft,
soft metals can be extended. When a new cut Are white and blue But when the Air, the color
changes to gray. Lead is a toxic heavy metal. Humans are known to lead to several thousand years
ago in the early days of history. China takes the lead in Roman coin silver, European appliances,
such as the use of lead pipe, etc. Gold jewelry is usually associated with zinc-lead metal prices. In
natural ores containing galena, lead, lead compounds include a metal base that is most important
for hundreds of years, so in the lead. Zinc oxide has been used for many advantages such as light
industrial use battery and metal clad electrical cable is widely used as ingredients in the
production of industrial pipes and industrial alloy shell, etc..
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Smelting of lead (Lead Metallurgy)
Lead ore is found Zinc is present in the Important ore of lead include
Gelena, PbS
Cerussite, PbCO3
Anglesite, PbSO4
Crocoisite, PbCrO4
Wulfenite, PbMoO4
Pyromorphite, PbCl2.3Pb (PO4) 2
Matlockite, PbCl2
In the smelting lead ore is galena (lead sulfide, PbS) with burning sand. Limestone and iron ore
Of lead sulfide Will lead oxide and lead silicate.
3 PbS + 3 O2 → 2 PbO + 2 SO2
PbS + 2 O2 → PbSO
4
PbSO4 + SiO
2 → PbSiO
3 + 2 SO
3
When high-temperature sintering of zinc is reduced coke charcoal will float out the top of the
furnace.
2 C + O2→ 2 CO
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PbO + CO → Pb + CO2
PbSiO3+ CaO + CO → Pb + CaSiO
3 + CO
2
The molten lead to flow underneath. If you want to lead a more pure way to separate electrolyte
Catalytic again. Lead is often used to fuse new again.
Furnace (Reverbatory Furnace)
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Furnace (Shaft Furnace)
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Lead
Atomic number 82
Standard atomic
weight
207.2(1)
Element category post-transition metal
Group, period,block group 14 (carbon group),period 6, p-
block
Electron configuration [Xe] 4f 14
5d10
6s2 6p
2
per shell:2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4
Physical properties
Phase solid
Melting point 600.61 K, 327.46 °C, 621.43 °F
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Boiling point 2022 K, 1749 °C, 3180 °F
Density(near r.t.) 11.34 g·cm−3
(at 0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
Liquid density at m.p.: 10.66 g·cm−3
Heat of fusion 4.77 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 179.5 kJ·mol−1
Molar heat capacity 26.650 J·mol−1
·K−1
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 978 1088 1229 1412 1660 2027
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 4, 3, 2, 1 (an Amphotericoxide)
Electronegativity 1.87 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies 1st: 715.6 kJ·mol−1
2nd: 1450.5 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 3081.5 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius empirical: 175 pm
Covalent radius 146±5 pm
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Van der Waals radius 202 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure face-centered cubic (fcc)
Speed of sound thin rod: 1190 m·s−1
(at r.t.) (annealed)
Thermal expansion 28.9 µm·m−1
·K−1
(at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity 35.3 W·m−1
·K−1
Electrical resistivity at 20 °C: 208 nΩ·m
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic
Young's modulus 16 GPa
Shear modulus 5.6 GPa
Bulk modulus 46 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.44
Mohs hardness 1.5
Brinell hardness 5.0 MPa HB=38.3
CAS Number 7439-92-1
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History
Discovery Middle Easterns (7000 BC)
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of lead
iso NA half-life DM DE(MeV) DP
Pb 1.4% >1.4×10 y (α) 1.972 Hg
Pb syn 1.53×10 y ε 0.051 Tl
Pb 24.1% - (α) 1.1366 Hg
Pb 22.1% - (α) 0.3915 Hg
Pb 52.4% >2×10 y (α) 0.5188 Hg
Pb trace 22.3 y α 3.792 Hg
β− 0.064 Bi
History
Lead has been commonly used for thousands of years because it is widespread, easy to
extract and easy to work with. It is highly malleable as well as easy to smelt. Metallic lead beads
dating back to 6400 BCE have been found in Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey. In the early
Bronze Age, lead was used with antimony and arsenic.
The largest preindustrial producer of lead was the Roman economy, with an estimated
annual output of 80,000 tonnes, which was typically won as a by-product of extensive silver
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smelting. Roman mining activities occurred in Central Europe, Roman Britain, the Balkans,
Greece, Asia Minor And Hispania which alone accounted for 40% of world production.
Roman lead pipes often bore the insignia of Roman emperors (see Roman lead pipe
inscriptions). Lead plumbing in the Latin West may have been continued beyond the age of
Theodoric the Great into the medieval period. Many Roman "pigs" (ingots) of lead figure in
Derbyshire lead mining history and in the history of the industry in other English centers. The
Romans also used lead in molten form to secure iron pins that held together large limestone
blocks in certain monumental buildings. In alchemy, lead was thought to be the oldest metal and
was associated with the planet Saturn. Alchemists accordingly used Saturn's symbol (the scythe,
♄) to refer to lead.
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Silver
Silver is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag (Greek: άργσρος árguros,
Latin: argentum, both from the Indo-European root*arg- for "grey" or "shining") and atomic
number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it possesses the highest electrical
conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal. The metal occurs
naturally in its pure, free form (native silver), as an alloy with gold and other metals, and in
minerals such as aragonite and chlorargyrite. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper,
gold, lead, and zinc refining.
Silver has long been valued as a precious metal, used in currency coins, to make
ornaments, jewelry, high-value tableware and utensils (hence the term silverware) and as an
investment in the forms of coins and bullion. Silver metal is used industrially in electrical contacts
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and conductors, in mirrors and in catalysis of chemical reactions. Its compounds are used in
photographic film and dilute silver nitrate solutions and other silver compounds are used as
disinfectants and microbicides (oligodynamic effect). While many medical antimicrobial uses of
silver have been supplanted by antibiotics, further research into clinical potential continues.
Silver
Atomic number 47
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Standard atomic weight 107.8682(2)
Element category transition metal
Group, period,block group 11, period 5, d-block
Electron configuration [Kr] 4d10
5s1
per shell: 2, 8, 18, 18, 1
Physical properties
Phase solid
Melting point 1234.93 K, 961.78 °C, 1763.2 °F
Boiling point 2435 K, 2162 °C, 3924 °F
Density(near r.t.) 10.49 g·cm−3
(at 0 °C,
101.325 kPa)
Liquid density at m.p.: 9.320 g·cm−3
Heat of fusion 11.28 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 254 kJ·mol−1
Molar heat capacity 25.350 J·mol
−1
·K
−1
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1283 1413 1575 1782 2055 2433
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Atomic properties
Oxidation states 1, 2, 3 (an amphotericoxide)
Electronegativity 1.93 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies 1st: 731.0 kJ·mol−1
2nd: 2070 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 3361 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius empirical: 144 pm
Covalent radius 145±5 pm
Van der Waals radius 172 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure face-centered cubic (fcc)
Speed of sound thin rod: 2680 m·s−1
(at r.t.)
Thermal expansion 18.9 µm·m−1
·K−1
(at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity 429 W·m−1
·K−1
Thermal diffusivity 174 mm2/s (at 300 K)
Electrical resistivity at 20 °C: 15.87 nΩ·m
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Magnetic ordering diamagnetic
Young's modulus 83 GPa
Shear modulus 30 GPa
Bulk modulus 100 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.37
Mohs hardness 2.5
Vickers hardness 251 MPa
Brinell hardness 206 MPa
CAS Number 7440-22-4
History
Discovery before 5000 BC
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of silver
iso NA half-
life
DM DE (MeV) DP
Ag syn 41.2 d ε - Pd
γ 0.344,0.280,0.644,0.443
-
mAg syn 8.28 d ε - Pd
γ 0.511, -
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Reaching a peak production of 200 t per year, an estimated silver stock of 10,000 t circulated in
the Roman economyin the middle of the second century AD, five to ten times larger than the
combined amount of silver available to medieval Europe and the Caliphatearound 800 AD.
Financial officials of the Roman Empire worried about the loss of silver to pay for highly
demanded silk from Sinica (China).
Applications
Many well-known uses of silver involve its precious metal properties, including currency,
decorative items, and mirrors. The contrast between its bright white color and other media makes
it very useful to the visual arts. By contrast, fine silver particles form the dense black in
photographs and in silverpoint drawings. It has also long been used to confer high monetary value
as objects (such as silver coins and investment bars) or make objects symbolic of high social or
political rank. Silver salts have been used since the Middle Ages to produce a yellow or orange
colors to stained glass, and more complex decorative color reactions can be produced by
incorporating silver metal in blowing, kiln formed or torch worked glass.
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Jewelry and silverware
Jewelry and silverware are traditionally made from sterling silver (standard silver), an
alloy of 92.5% silver with 7.5% copper. In the US, only an alloy consisting of at least 90.0%
fine silver can be marketed as "silver" (thus frequently stamped 900). Sterling silver (stamped
925) is harder than pure silver, and has a lower melting point (893°C) than either pure silver or
pure copper. Britannia silver is an alternative, hallmark-quality standard containing 95.8%
silver, often used to make silver tableware and wrought plate. With the addition of germanium,
the patented modified alloy Argentium Sterling silver is formed, with improved properties,
including resistance to fire scale.
Medicine
The medical uses of silver include its incorporation into wound dressings, and its use as an
antibiotic coating in medical devices. Wound dressings containing silver sulfadiazine or silver
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Zinc
Zinc, in commerce also spelter, is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and
atomic number 30. It is the first element of group 12 of the periodic table. In some respects zinc
is chemically similar to magnesium: its ion is of similar size and it's only common oxidation state
is +2. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in the Earth's crust and has five stable isotopes.
The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest
mineable amounts are found in Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc production includes
froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity.
Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, has been used since at least the 10th century
BC in Judea and by the 7th century BC in Ancient Greece. Zinc metal was not produced on a
large scale until the 12th century in India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th
century. The mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to
6th century BC. To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, as
early as the 9th century AD when a distillation process was employed to make pure zinc.
Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called "philosopher's wool" or "white snow".
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Zinc
Atomic number 30
Standard atomic
weight
65.38(2)
Element categorytransition metal, alternativelyconsidered apost-transition metal
Group, period,block group 12, period 4, d-block
Electron
configuration
[Ar] 3d10
4s2
per shell: 2, 8, 18, 2
Physical properties
Phase solid
Melting point 692.68 K, 419.53 °C, 787.15 °F
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Van der Waals radius 139 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure hexagonal close-packed(hcp)
Speed of sound thin rod: 3850 m·s−1
(at r.t.)
(rolled)
Thermal expansion 30.2 µm·m−1
·K−1
(at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity 116 W·m−1
·K−1
Electrical resistivity at 20 °C: 59.0 nΩ·m
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic
Young's modulus 108 GPa
Shear modulus 43 GPa
Bulk modulus 70 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.25
Mohs hardness 2.5
Brinell hardness 412 MPa
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CAS Number 7440-66-6
History
Discovery Indian metallurgists(before 1000
BC)
First isolation Andreas Sigismund
Marggraf(1746)
Recognized as an unique
metal by
Rasaratna Samuccaya (800)
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of zinc
iso NA half-life DM DE(MeV) DP
Zn 48.6% >2.3×10 y (β+β+) 1.096 Ni
65Zn syn 243.8 d ε 1.3519 65Cu
γ 1.1155 -
66Zn 27.9% 66Zn is stable with 36 neutrons
Zn 4.1% Zn is stable with 37 neutrons
Zn 18.8% Zn is stable with 38 neutrons
Zn syn 56 min β− 0.906 Ga
mZn syn 13.76 h β− 0.906 Ga
Zn 0.6% >1.3×10 y (β−β−) 0.998 Ge
Zn syn 2.4 min β− 2.82 Ga
71mZn syn 3.97 d β− 2.82 71Ga
Zn syn 46.5 h β− 0.458 Ga
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History
Ancient use
Various isolated examples of the use of impure zinc in ancient times have been
discovered. Zinc ores were used to make the zinc ‟ copper alloy brass many centuries prior to the
discovery of zinc as a separate element. Judean brass from the 14th to 10th centuries BC
contains 23% zinc.
Knowledge of how to produce brass spread to Ancient Greece by the 7th century BC, but
few varieties were made. Ornaments made of alloys containing 80 ‟ 90% zinc, with lead, iron,
antimony, and other metals making up the remainder, have been found that are 2,500 years old.
A possibly prehistoric statuette containing 87.5% zinc was found in a Dacian archaeological
site.
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Production
Mining and processing
Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only iron, aluminium, and copper
with an annual production of about 12 million tonnes. The world's largest zinc producer is
Nyrstar, a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the Belgian Umicore. About 70% of the
world's zinc originates from mining, while the remaining 30% comes from recycling secondary
zinc. Commercially pure zinc is known as Special High Grade, often abbreviated SHG, and is
99.995% pure.
Environmental impact
The production for sulfidic zinc ores produces large amounts of sulfur dioxide and
cadmium vapor. Smelter slag and other residues of process also contain significant amounts of
heavy metals. About 1.1 million tonnes of metallic zinc and 130 thousand tonnes of lead were
mined and smelted in the Belgian towns of La Calamine and Plombières between 1806 and
1882.
The dumps of the past mining operations leach significant amounts of zinc and cadmium,
and, as a result, the sediments of the Geul River contain significant amounts of heavy metals.
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About two thousand years ago emissions of zinc from mining and smelting totaled 10 thousand
tonnes a year. After increasing 10-
fold from 1850, zinc emissions peaked at 3.4 million tonnes
per year in the 1980s and declined to 2.7 million tonnes in the 1990s, although a 2005 study
of the Arctic troposphere found that the concentrations there did not reflect the decline.
Anthropogenic and natural emissions occur at a ratio of 20 to 1. Levels of zinc in rivers flowing
through industrial or mining areas can be as high as 20 ppm. Effective sewage treatment greatly
reduces this; treatment along the Rhine, for example, has decreased zinc levels to 50 ppb.
Concentrations of zinc as low as 2 ppm adversely affects the amount of oxygen that fish can carry
in their blood.
Applications
Dietary supplement
Zinc is included in most single tablet over-the-counter daily vitamin and mineral
supplements. Preparations include zinc oxide, zinc acetate, and zinc gluconate. It is believed to
possess antioxidant properties, which may protect against accelerated aging of the skin and
muscles of the body; studies differ as to its effectiveness. Zinc also helps speed up the healing
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process after an injury. It is also suspected of being beneficial to the body's immune system.
Indeed, zinc deficiency may have effects on virtually all parts of the human immune system.
GNC zinc 50 mg tablets (AU)
Cadmium
Cadmium is a chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. This soft,
bluish-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12, zinc and
mercury. Like zinc, it prefers oxidation state +2 in most of its compounds and like mercury it
shows a low melting point compared to transition metals. Cadmium and its congeners are not
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always considered transition metals, in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in
the elemental or common oxidation states. The average concentration of cadmium in the Earth's
crust is between 0.1 and 0.5 parts per million (ppm). It was discovered in 1817 simultaneously
by Stromeyer and Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in zinc carbonate.
Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and therefore is a byproduct of
zinc production. It was used for a long time as a pigment and for corrosion resistant plating on
steel while cadmium compounds were used to stabilize plastic. The use of cadmium is generally
decreasing due to its toxicity (it is specifically listed in the European Restriction of Hazardous
Substances ) and the replacement of nickel-cadmium batteries with nickel-metal hydride and
lithium-ion batteries. One of its few new uses is in cadmium telluride solar panels. Although
cadmium has no known biological function in higher organisms, a cadmium-dependent carbonic
anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms.
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Density(near r.t.) 8.65 g·cm−3
(at 0 °C, 101.325 kPa)
Liquid density at m.p.: 7.996 g·cm−3
Heat of fusion 6.21 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization 99.87 kJ·mol−1
Molar heat capacity 26.020 J·mol−1
·K−1
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 530 583 654 745 867 1040
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 2, 1 (mildly basic oxide)
Electronegativity 1.69 (Pauling scale)
Ionization
energies
1st: 867.8 kJ·mol−1
2nd: 1631.4 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 3616 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius empirical: 151 pm
Covalent radius 144±9 pm
Van der Waals
radius
158 pm
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Miscellanea
Crystal structure hexagonal close-packed (hcp)
Speed of sound thin rod: 2310 m·s−1
(at 20 °C)
Thermal
expansion
30.8 µm·m−1
·K−1
(at 25 °C)
Thermal
conductivity
96.6 W·m−1
·K−1
Electrical
resistivity
(22 °C) 72.7 n Ω·m
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic
Young's modulus 50 GPa
Shear modulus 19 GPa
Bulk modulus 42 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.30
Mohs hardness 2.0
Brinell hardness 203 MPa
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History
Cadmium (Latin cadmium, Greek καδμεία meaning "calamine", a cadmium-bearing
mixture of minerals, which was named after the Greek mythological character Κάδμος,
Cadmus, the founder of Thebes) was discovered simultaneously in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer
and Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in zinc carbonate.
Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate (calamine), and, for 100
years, Germany remained the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after
the Latin word for calamine, since the metal was found in this zinc compound. Stromeyer noted
that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not. He
was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and
reduction of the sulfide. The possibility to use cadmium yellow as pigment was recognized in the
1840s but the lack of cadmium limited this application.
After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s, the
major application of cadmium was the coating of iron and steel to prevent corrosion; in 1944,
62% and in 1956, 59% of the cadmium in the United States was for coating. In 1956, 24%
of the cadmium used within the United States was used for the second application, which was for
red, orange and yellow pigments based on sulfates and sulfides of cadmium. The stabilizing effect
of cadmium-containing chemicals like the carboxylates cadmium laureate and cadmium stearate
on PVC led to an increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s. The use of
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cadmium in applications such as pigments, coatings, stabilizers and alloys declined due to
environmental and health regulations in the 1980s and 1990s; in 2006, only 7% of total
cadmium consumption was used for plating and coating and only 10% was used for pigments.
The decrease in consumption in other applications was made up by a growing demand of
cadmium in nickel-cadmium batteries, which accounted for 81% of the cadmium consumption in
the United States in 2006.
Production
The British Geological Survey reports that in 2001, China was the top producer of
cadmium, producing almost one-sixth of the world share, closely followed by South Korea and
Japan.
Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores, and it is most often isolated during the
production of zinc. Some zinc ores concentrates from sulfidic zinc ores contain up to 1.4% of
cadmium. In 1970s, the output of cadmium was 6.5 pounds per ton of zinc. Zinc sulfide ores are
roasted in the presence of oxygen, converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide. Zinc metal is produced
either by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid. Cadmium is isolated
from the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate is
precipitated out of the electrolysis solution.
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Applications
Cadmium has many common industrial uses as it is a key component in battery
production, is present in cadmium pigments, coatings, and is commonly used in electroplating.
Batteries
In 2009, 86% of cadmium was used in batteries, predominantly in rechargeable nickel-
cadmium batteries. Nickel-cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 V. The cell
consists of a positive nickel hydroxide electrode and a negative cadmium electrode plate
separated by an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide) The European Union set the allowed
use of cadmium in electronics in 2004 to limits of 0.01%, with several exceptions, but reduced
the allowed content of cadmium in batteries to 0.002%
Ni-Cd batteries
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Electroplating
Cadmium electroplating, consuming 6% of the global production, can be found in the
aircraft industry due to the ability to resist corrosion when applied to steel components. This
coating is passivated by the usage of chromate salts. A limitation of cadmium plating hydrogen
embrittlement of high-strength steels caused by the electroplating process. Therefore, steel parts
heat-treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa (200 ksi) should be coated by an alternative
method (such as special low-embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor
deposition). In addition, titanium embrittlement caused by cadmium-plated tool residues resulted
in banishment of these tools (along with routine tool testing programs to detect any cadmium
contamination) from the A-12/SR-71 and U-2 programs, and subsequent aircraft programs using
titanium.
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Tin
Tin is a chemical element with symbol Sn (for Latin: stannum) and atomic number 50. It
is a main group metal in group 14 of the periodic table. Tin shows chemical similarity to both
neighboring group-14 elements, germanium and lead, and has two possible oxidation states, +2
and the slightly more stable +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 stable
isotopes, the largest number of stable isotopes in the periodic table. Tin is obtained chiefly from
the mineral cassiterite, where it occurs as tin dioxide, SnO2.
This silvery, malleable other metal is not easily oxidized in air and is used to coat other
metals to prevent corrosion. The first alloy, used in large scale since 3000 BC, was bronze, an
alloy of tin and copper. After 600 BC pure metallic tin was produced. Pewter, which is an alloy of
85 ‟ 90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony and lead, was used
for flatware from the Bronze Age until the 20th century. In modern times tin is used in many
alloys, most notably tin/lead soft solders, typically containing 60% or more of tin. Another large
application for tin is corrosion-resistant tin plating of steel. Because of its low toxicity, tin-plated
metal is also used for food packaging, giving the name to tin cans, which are made mostly of
steel.
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Tin
Atomic number 50
Standard atomic
weight
118.710(7)
Element category post-transition metal
Group, period,block group 14 (carbon group),period 5, p-
block
Electron
configuration
[Kr] 4d10
5s2 5p
2
per shell: 2, 8, 18, 18, 4
Physical properties
Phase solid
Melting point 505.08 K, 231.93 °C, 449.47 °F
Boiling point 2875 K, 2602 °C, 4716 °F
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Density(near r.t.) white, β: 7.365 g·cm−3
(at 0 °C,
101.325 kPa)
gray, α: 5.769 g·cm−3
Liquid density at m.p.: 6.99 g·cm−3
Heat of fusion white, β: 7.03 kJ·mol−1
Heat of vaporization white, β: 296.1 kJ·mol−1
Molar heat capacity white, β: 27.112 J·mol−1
·K−1
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1497 1657 1855 2107 2438 2893
Atomic properties
Oxidation states 4, 3, 2, 1, −4 (anamphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity 1.96 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies 1st: 708.6 kJ·mol−1
2nd: 1411.8 kJ·mol−1
3rd: 2943.0 kJ·mol−1
Atomic radius empirical: 140 pm
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Covalent radius 139±4 pm
Van der Waals radius 217 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure tetragonal
white (β)
Crystal structure diamond cubic
gray (α)
Speed of sound thin rod: 2730 m·s−1
(at r.t.) (rolled)
Thermal expansion 22.0 µm·m−1
·K−1
(at 25 °C)
Thermal conductivity 66.8 W·m−1
·K−1
Electrical resistivity at 0 °C: 115 nΩ·m
Magnetic ordering gray: diamagnetic
white (β): paramagnetic
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Young's modulus 50 GPa
Shear modulus 18 GPa
Bulk modulus 58 GPa
Poisson ratio 0.36
Mohs hardness 1.5
Brinell hardness ~350 MPa
CAS Number 7440-31-5
History
Discovery around 3500 BC
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of tin
iso NA half-life DM DE(MeV) DP
Sn 0.97% - (β+β
+) 1.9222 Cd
114Sn 0.66% - (SF) <27.965
115
Sn 0.34% - (SF) <26.791
116Sn 14.54% - (SF) <25.905
117Sn 7.68% - (SF) <25.334
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118Sn 24.22% - (SF) <23.815
119Sn 8.59% - (SF) <23.140
120Sn 32.58% - (SF) <21.824
122Sn 4.63% - (β
−β−) 0.3661
122Te
124Sn 5.79% >1×10
17y (β
−β−) 2.2870
124Te
126Sn trace 2.3×10
5y β
− 0.380 +
126Sb
History
Tin extraction and use can be dated to the beginnings of the Bronze Age around 3000 BC,
when it was observed that copper objects formed of polymetallic ores with different metal
contents had different physical properties. The earliest bronze objects had tin or arsenic content of
less than 2% and are therefore believed to be the result of unintentional alloying due to trace
metal content in the copper ore. The addition of a second metal to copper increases its hardness,
lowers the melting temperature, and improves the casting process by producing a more fluid melt
that cools to a denser, less spongy metal. This was an important innovation that allowed for the
much more complex shapes cast in closed moulds of the Bronze Age. Arsenical bronze objects
appear first in the Near East where arsenic is commonly found in association with copper ore, but
the health risks were quickly realized and the quest for sources of the much less hazardous tinores began early in the Bronze Age. This created the demand for rare tin metal and formed
a trade network that linked the distant sources of tin to the markets of Bronze Age cultures.
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Production
Tin is produced by carbothermic reduction of the oxide ore with carbon or coke.
Both reverberatory furnace and electric furnace can be used.
Mining and smelting
Industry
The ten largest companies produced most of the world's tin in 2007. It is not clear which
of these companies include tin smelted from the mine at Bisie, Democratic Republic of the
Congo, which is controlled by a renegade militia and produces 15,000 tonnes. Most of the world's
tin is traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME), from 8 countries, under 17 brands.
Applications
Tin plating
Tin bonds readily to iron and is used for coating lead or zinc and steel to prevent
corrosion. Tin-plated steel containers are widely used for food preservation, and this forms a large
part of the market for metallic tin. A tinplate canister for preserving food was first manufactured
in London in 1812. Speakers of British English call them "tins", while speakers of American
English call them "cans" or "tin cans". One thus-derived use of the slang term " tinny " or "tinny"
means "can of beer". The tin whistle is so called because it was first mass-produced in tin-plated
steel.
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A coil of lead-free solder wire
Li-ion batteries
Tin forms several inter-metallic phases with Lithium metal and it makes it a potentiallyattractive material. Large volumetric expansion of tin upon alloying with Lithium and instability
of the Tin-organic electrolyte interface at low electrochemical potentials are the greatest
challenges in employing it in commercial cells. The problem was partially solved by Sony. Tin
inter-metallic compound with Cobalt, mixed with carbon, has been implemented by Sony in its
Nexelion cells released in late 2000's. The composition of the active materials is close to
Sn0.3Co0.4C0.3. Recent research showed that only some crystalline facets of tetragonal (beta) Sn are
responsible for undesirable electrochemical activity.
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Brass
Brass is an alloy made of copper and zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be
varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties. It is a substitutional alloy: atoms of the
two constituents may replace each other within the same crystal structure.
By comparison, bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze does not
necessarily contain tin, and a variety of alloys of copper, including alloys
with arsenic, phosphorus, aluminium, manganese, and silicon, are commonly termed "bronze".
The term is applied to a variety of brasses and the distinction is largely historical, and modern
practice in museums and archaeology is increasingly to avoid both terms for historical objects in
favour of the all-embracing "copper alloy".
Brass is used for decoration for its bright gold-like appearance; for applications where
low friction is required such as locks, gears, bearings,doorknobs, ammunition casings and valves;
for plumbing and electrical applications; and extensively in brass musical instruments such as
horns and bells for its acoustic properties. It is also used in zippers. Brass is often used in
situations where it is important that sparks not be struck, as in fittings and tools around explosive
gases.
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History
Although forms of brass have been in use since prehistory, its true nature as a copper-zinc
alloy was not understood until the post medieval period because the zinc vapor which reacted
with copper to make brass was not recognised as a metal. The King James Bible makes many
references to "brass". The Shakespearean English form of the word 'brass' can mean any bronze
alloy, or copper, rather than the strict modern definition of brass. The earliest brasses may have
been natural alloys made by smelting zinc-rich copper ores. By the Roman period brass was being
deliberately produced from metallic copper and zinc minerals using the cementation process and
variations on this method continued until the mid-19th century. It was eventually replaced
by speltering, the direct alloying of copper and zinc metal which was introduced to Europe in the
16th century.
Early copper zinc alloys
In West Asia and the Eastern Mediterranean early copper zinc alloys are now known in
small numbers from a number of third Millennium BC sites in the Aegean, Iraq, the United Arab
Emirates, Kalmykia, Turkmenistan and Georgia and from 2nd Millennium BC sites in West
India, Uzbekistan, Iran, Syria, Iraq and Israel. However, isolated examples of copper-zinc
alloys are known in China from as early as the 5th Millennium BC.
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The compositions of these early "brass" objects are very variable and most have zinc
contents of between 5% and 15% wt which is lower than in brass produced by cementation. These
may be "natural alloys" manufactured by smelting zinc rich copper ores in redox conditions.
Many have similar tin contents to contemporary bronze artefacts and it is possible that some
copper-zinc alloys were accidental and perhaps not even distinguished from copper. However the
large number of copper-zinc alloys now known suggests that at least some were deliberately
manufactured and many have zinc contents of more than 12% wt which would have resulted in a
distinctive golden color.
By the 8th ‟ 7th century BC Assyrian cuneiform tablets mention the exploitation of the
"copper of the mountains" and this may refer to "natural" brass. Oreichalkos, the Ancient
Greek translation of this term, was later adapted to the Latin aurichalcum meaning "golden
copper" which became the standard term for brass. In the 4th century
BC Plato kneworeichalkos as rare and nearly as valuable as gold and Pliny describes
how aurichalcum had come from Cypriot ore deposits which had been exhausted by the 1st
century AD.
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found on the walls of furnaces used to heat either zinc ore or copper and explaining that it can
then be used to make brass.
By the first century BC brass was available in sufficient supply to use
as coinage in Phrygia and Bithynia, and after the Augustan currency reform of 23 BC it was also
used to make Roman dupondii and sestertii. The uniform use of brass for coinage and military
equipment across the Roman world may indicate a degree of state involvement in the industry,
and brass even seems to have been deliberately boycotted by Jewish communities in Palestine
because of its association with Roman authority.
Brass making in the medieval period
Little is known about the production of brass during the centuries immediately after the
collapse of the Roman Empire. Disruption in the trade of tin for bronze from Western Europe may
have contributed to the increasing popularity of brass in the east and by the 6th ‟ 7th centuries AD
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Brass of types
ClassCopper
(%)
Zinc
(%)Notes
Alpha
brasses
>65 <35
Alpha brasses are malleable, can be worked cold, and are used in
pressing, forging, or similar applications. They contain only one
phase, with face-centered cubic crystal structure.
Alpha-
beta
brasses
55 ‟ 6535 ‟
45
Also called duplex brasses. Suited for hot working. It contains both
α and β' phase; the β'-phase is body-centered cubic and is harder
and stronger than α. Alpha-beta brasses are usually worked hot.
Beta
brasses50 ‟ 55
45 ‟
50
Can only be worked hot, and are harder, stronger, and suitable for
casting.
White
brass<50 >50
Too brittle for general use. The term may also refer to certain types
of nickel silver alloys as well as Cu-Zn-Sn alloys with high
proportions (typically 40%+) of tin and/or zinc, as well as
predominantly zinc casting alloys with copper additive.
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Brass alloys
Alloy nameCopper
(%)
Zinc
(%)Other Notes
Admiralty brass 69 30 1% tin
Contains 1% tin to
inhibit dezincification in
many environments.
Aich's alloy 60.66 36.58 1.02% tin, 1.74% iron
Designed for use in
marine service owing to
its corrosion resistance,
hardness and toughness.
A characteristic
application is to the
protection of ships'
bottoms, but more
modern methods of
cathodic protection have
rendered its use less
common. Its appearance
resembles that of gold.
Aluminium brass aluminum Contains aluminium,
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Brass alloys
Alloy nameCopper
(%)
Zinc
(%)Other Notes
which improves its
corrosion resistance. It is
used for seawater
service.
Arsenical brass arsenic, frequently aluminumUsed for
boiler fireboxes.
Cartridge brass 70 30
Good cold
working properties. Used
for ammunition cases.
Common brass 37
Also called rivet brass.
Cheap and standard for
cold working.
DZR brass arsenic
Dezincification resistant
brass with a small
percentage of arsenic.
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Brass alloys
Alloy nameCopper
(%)
Zinc
(%)Other Notes
Gilding metal
95 5
Softest type of brass
commonly available.
Gilding metal is typically
used for ammunition
bullet "jackets", e.g.,full
metal jacket bullets.
High brass 65 35
Has a high tensile
strength and is used
for springs, screws,
and rivets.
Leaded brass lead
An alpha-beta brass with
an addition of lead. It has
excellent machinability.
Lead-free brass <0.25% lead
Defined by California
Assembly Bill AB 1953
contains "not more than
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Brass alloys
Alloy nameCopper
(%)
Zinc
(%)Other Notes
0.25 percent lead
content".
Low brass 80 20
Has a light golden color
and excellent ductility; it
is used for flexible metal
hoses and metal bellows.
Manganese brass 70 29 1.3% manganese
Most notably used in
making golden
dollar coins in the United
States.
Muntz metal 60 40 traces of ironUsed as a lining on
boats.
Naval brass 59 40 1% tinSimilar to admiralty
brass.
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Brass alloys
Alloy nameCopper
(%)
Zinc
(%)Other Notes
Nickel brass 70 24.5 5.5% nickel
Used to make pound
coins in the pound
sterling currency.
Nordic gold 89 5 5% aluminium, 1% tinUsed in 10, 20, and 50
cents euro coins.
Prince's metal 75 25
A type of alpha brass.
Due to its yellow color, it
is used as an imitation of
gold. Also called Prince
Rupert's metal, the
alloy was named
after Prince Rupert of the
Rhine.
Red brass 85 5 5% tin, 5% lead
Both an American term
for the copper-zinc-tin
alloy known
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Brass alloys
Alloy nameCopper
(%)
Zinc
(%)Other Notes
seawater use, being
susceptible to
dezincification.
Yellow brass 67 33An American term for
33% zinc brass.
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Nonmetal
In chemistry, a nonmetal or non-metal is a chemical element that mostly lacks metallic
attributes. Physically, nonmetals tend to be highly volatile (easily vaporized), have low elasticity,
and are good insulators of heat and electricity; chemically, they tend to have high ionisation
energy and electronegativity values, and gain or share electrons when they react with other
elements or compounds. Seventeen elements are generally classified as nonmetals; most are gases
(hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, neon, chlorine, argon, krypton, xenon and radon);
one is a liquid (bromine); and a few are solids (carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, selenium, and iodine).
Applicable elements
The elements generally classified as nonmetals comprise one element each in group 1 and
group 14: hydrogen (H) and carbon (C); two elements in group 15 (the pnictogens): nitrogen (N)
and phosphorus (P); three elements in group 16 (the chalcogens): oxygen (OR), sulfur (S) and
selenium(Se); most elements in group 17 (the halogens): fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br)
and iodine (I); and all elements in group 18 (the noble gases), with the possible exception of
ununoctium (Uuo).
The distinction between nonmetals and metals is by no means clear. The result is that a
few borderline elements lacking a preponderance of either nonmetallic or metallic properties are
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classified as metalloids; and some elements classified as nonmetals are instead sometimes
classified as metalloids, or vice versa. For example, selenium (Se), a nonmetal, is sometimes
classified instead as a metalloid, particularly in environmental chemistry; and astatine (At), which
is a metalloid and a halogen, is sometimes classified instead as a nonmetal.
Categories
Nonmetals have structures in which each atom usually forms (8− N) bonds with (8−
N) nearest neighbours, where N is the number of valence electrons. Each atom is thereby able to
complete its valence shell and attain a stable noble gas configuration. Exceptions to the (8− N)
rule occur with hydrogen (which only needs one bond to complete its valence shell), carbon,
nitrogen and oxygen. Atoms of the latter three elements are sufficiently small such that they are
able to form alternative (more stable) bonding structures, with fewer nearest neighbours. Thus,
carbon is able to form its layered graphite structure, and nitrogen and oxygen are able to form
diatomic molecules having triple and double bonds, respectively. The larger size of the remaining
non-noble nonmetals weakens their capacity to form multiple bonds and they instead form two or
more single bonds to two or more different atoms. Sulfur, for example, forms an eight-membered
molecule in which the atoms are arranged in a ring, with each atom forming two single bonds to
different atoms.
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Noble gases
Six nonmetals occur naturally as monatomic noble gases: helium (He), neon (Ne), argon
(Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn). They comprise a group of
chemical elements with very similar properties. In their standard states they are all colorless,
odourless, non flammable gases with characteristically very low chemical reactivity.
With their closed valence shells, the noble gases have the highest first ionization potentials
in each of their periods, and feeble interatomic forces of attraction, with the latter property
resulting in very low melting and boiling points. That is why they are all gases under standard
conditions, even those with atomic masses larger than many normally solid elements.
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Polymer
History
A polymer (/ ̍p ɒlɨmər/) (poly-, "many" + -mer, "parts") is a large molecule, or
macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their broad range of properties,
both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life.
Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such
as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure and function. Polymers, both
natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as
monomers. Their consequently large molecular mass relative to small molecule compounds
produces unique physical properties, including toughness, viscoelasticity, and a tendency to form
glasses and semicrystalline structures rather than crystals.
The term "polymer" derives from the ancient Greek word πολύς (polus, meaning
"many, much") and μέρος (meros, meaning "parts"), and refers to a molecule whose structure
is composed of multiple repeating units, from which originates a characteristic of high relative
molecular mass and attendant properties. The units composing polymers derive, actually or
conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by
Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a definition distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The
modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in
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1920 by Hermann Staudinger, who spent the next decade finding experimental evidence for this
hypothesis.
The polymer (Polymer), a substance found in all living things is a large molecule. The
molecular basis of the so-called Monster Challenge (Monomer) Many bonds connected by
covalent bonds. The polymer of some kind may be the monomer, the same kind of link together,
such as starch and poly ethylene, but in some it may arise from monomers at. different link
together, for example, poly ester and protein etc..
At present, the polymer has a role to the lives of humans and various industrial processes
greatly by the example of a polymer that is widely known. And are very useful in plastics, rubber,
polyester and so on.
The type of polymer
The polymer is a substance that is of many kinds. Each type will have different
properties and origins. Thus, the classification of the polymer, so it can be done in several ways,
depending on whether the style is the criteria to consider. We can classify the polymer has. By the
following aspects.
1. Consider the source
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Is determined by the formation of a polymer type. The polymer can be classified into two
categories, was polymeric in nature. And a synthetic polymer.
1) Natural polymers (Natural Polymers) is a polymer that occurs naturally. Can be found
in all living things. The polymer is in the nature of these creatures produced by chemical
processes that occur within cells. And is stored in various parts of the polymer, so it's natural to
have a different kind of life and position in life. For polymer Natural fibers include cellulose and
chitin, etc..
2) Once the polymer synthesis (Synthetic Polymers) was synthesized by man. With the
introduction of a large number of monomers in the reaction under optimal conditions. Make
monomers by covalent bonding them together into molecules to the polymer. Passenger
monomers that are used as precursors in the synthesis of a polymer is a hydrocarbon that is a by-
product of crude oil distillation and separation of natural gas, such as PTT Polyethylene,
polystyrene, polypropylene sensitivity. vinyl chloride, etc.
2. Consider the monomer, which is a component.
Is determined by the manner in which the monomers bond together. It can be classified into two
types.
1) Homopolymer polymer. (Homopolymer) is a polymer made from the monomer-
type polymers such as starch and PVC and so on.
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2) DJ Paul polymer (Copolymer) is a polymer made from the monomer, rather than
one or more of protein, which is caused by an amino acid with a different link together and dad.
for example polyesters.
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The production of container such as a plastic spoon.
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The seven types of plastics recycling
No 1. copolymer plastic called ethylene Tech Rev Jonathan Lett (Polyethylne
Terephthalate), also known as PET (PET or PETE). The hard plastic is impact resistant. Not
brittle And good gas permeability Used to make bottles for water bottles and etc. can be taken.
Recycled fiber For synthetic fur carpet and for stuffing pillows, etc..
No. 2 plastic called poly ethylene, high density (High Density Polyethylene), also known
as El Simplified PE (HDPE). The plastic is tough and hard. Quite stiff, but very stretch Resistant
to chemicals and can take various shapes can be easily used to make baby bottles, water bottles.
And packaging for detergents, shampoo, etc. can be recycled. Oil bottle plastic pipe so artificial.
No.3 Plastic is called poly vinyl chloride. (Polyvinylchloride), also known as PVC (PVC)
pipe water supply hose clear. Film for food wrapping Plastic sheets for windows and doors,
leather etc. can be recycled for water supply pipe or conduit. For agriculture, furniture, benches,
traffic cones, plastic tape, cable, artificial wood and so on.
No.4 Plastic is called polyethylene, low density polyethylene (Low Density Polyethylene)
can be condensed to the PE. (LDPE) plastic with a soft, stretchy and very transparent but very
durable, resistant to heat. Used for food wrap and wrap the pastry bag. Bang cooler bags for food
packaging Can be recycled into plastic bags for your garbage bag trash sticks to wood, tiles,
furniture and so on.
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No.5 plastic called poly propylene (Polypropylene), abbreviated as P (PP) plastic with a
clear tolerance. It's hot and sticky and has excellent impact strength. It is also resistant to
chemicals and oils. Used to make food containers, such as boxes, baskets, bowl, plate cylinder.
Cylinder filled with water, frozen yogurt sauce bottle glass medicine bottles can be recycled into
the battery box in the car. Parts such as bumpers and Plastic funnel for oil light broom or brush.
Plastic No. 6 has been copolymer of styrene (Polystyrene), also referred to as PS (PS) is a
transparent plastic. But fragile and easily broken Use a container cover. Or foam tray etc. can be
recycled for hangers video box ruler bulb thermostat. Meter panel power switch, thermal
insulation, tools have egg tray.
Plastic number 7 it has no specific name. But not any of the six types of plastic as
mentioned above. It is used to Plastic New furnace.
Plastic waste should not be disposed of with waste that can not be recycled, garbage,
garbage that can be burned. Waste that can not be burned, for example.
But should separate waste by type of waste and cleaned before disposal. In order to bring
these to the plastic waste is recycled. Produce other equipment to reduce the environmental
problems of the world.
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History
Poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide ‟ branded Kevlar ‟ was invented by Polish-
American chemist Stephanie Kwolek while working for DuPont, in anticipation of a gasoline
shortage. In 1964, her group began searching for a new lightweight strong fiber to use for light
but strong tires. The polymers she had been working with at the time, poly-p-Phenylene-
terephthalate and poly benzamide, formed liquid crystal while in solution, something unique to
those polymers at the time.
The solution was "cloudy, opalescent upon being stirred, and of low viscosity" and usually
was thrown away. However, Kwolek persuaded the technician, Charles Smullen, who ran the
"spinneret", to test her solution, and was amazed to find that the fiber did not break, unlike nylon.
Her supervisor and her laboratory director understood the significance of her accidental discovery
and a new field of polymer chemistry quickly arose. By 1971, modern Kevlar was introduced.
However, Kwolek was not very involved in developing the applications of Kevlar.
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Production
Kevlar is synthesized in solution from the monomers 1,4-phenylene-diamine (para-
phenylenediamine) and terephthaloyl chloride in a condensation reaction yielding hydrochloric
acid as a byproduct. The result has liquid-crystalline behavior, and mechanical drawing orients
the polymer chains in the fiber direction. Hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA) was the solvent
initially used for the polymerization, but for safety reasons, DuPont replaced it by a solution of N-
methyl-pyrrolidone and calcium chloride. As this process was patented by Akzo (see above) in
the production of Twaron, a patent war ensued.
Kevlar (poly paraphenylene terephthalamide) production is expensive because of the
difficulties arising from using concentrated sulfuric acid, needed to keep the water-insoluble
polymer in solution during its synthesis and spinning.
Several grades of Kevlar are available:
1. Kevlar K-29 ‟ in industrial applications, such as cables, asbestos replacement,
brake linings, and body/vehicle armor.
2. Kevlar K 49 ‟ high modulus used in cable and rope products.
3. Kevlar K 100 ‟ colored version of Kevlar
4. Kevlar K 119 ‟ higher-elongation, flexible and more fatigue resistant.
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5. Kevlar K 129 ‟ higher tenacity for ballistic applications.
6.
Kevlar AP ‟ has 15% higher tensile strength than K-29.
7. Kevlar XP ‟ lighter weight resin and KM2 plus fiber combination.
8. Kevlar KM2 ‟ enhanced ballistic resistance for armor applications
The ultraviolet component of sunlight degrades and decomposes Kevlar, a problem known as UV
degradation, and so it is rarely used outdoors without protection against sunlight.
Applications
Protection
Cryogenics
Kevlar is often used in the field of cryogenics for its low thermal conductivity and high
strength relative to other materials for suspension purposes. It is most often used to suspend a
paramagnetic salt enclosure from a superconducting magnet mandrel in order to minimize any
heat leaks to the paramagnetic material. It is also used as a thermal standoff or structural support
where low heat leaks are desired.
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Armor
Kevlar is a well-known component of personal armor such as combat helmets, ballistic
face masks, and ballistic vests. The PASGT helmet and vest used by United States military forces
since the 1980s both have Kevlar as a key component, as do their replacements. Other military
uses include bulletproof facemasks used by sentries and spall liners used to protect the crews of
armoured fighting vehicles. Even Nimitz-class aircraft carriers include Kevlar armor around vital
spaces. Related civilian applications include Emergency Services protection gear if it involves
high heat (e.g., tackling a fire), and Kevlar body armor such as vests for police officers, security,
and SWAT.
Personal protection
Kevlar is used to manufacture gloves, sleeves, jackets, chaps and other articles of clothing
designed to protect users from cuts, abrasions and heat. Kevlar based protective gear is often
considerably lighter and thinner than equivalent gear made of more traditional materials.
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stringed instrument bodies, drum shells, golf clubs, rowing shells, crash helmets and billiards
cues.
Properties
Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers are composite materials. In this case the composite
consists of two parts: a matrix and a reinforcement. In CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber,
which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a polymer resin, such as epoxy, to bind the
reinforcements together. Because CFRP consists of two distinct elements, the material properties
depend on these two elements.
The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity; measured by stress and
elastic modulus respectively. Unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has
directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber
and the proportion of the carbon fibers relative to the polymer.
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Application
Aerospace engineering
The Airbus A350 XWB is built of 53% CFRP including wing and fuselage components,
the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, 50%. The A380 is the first commercial airliner to have a central wing
box made of CFRP; it is also the first to have a smoothly contoured wing cross section instead of
the wings beings partitioned span-wise into sections, this flowing, continuous cross section
optimises aerodynamic efficiency.
Specialist aircraft designer and manufacturer Scaled Composites have made extensive use
of CFRP throughout their design range including the first private spacecraft Spaceship One.
CFRP is widely used in micro air vehicles (MAVs) because of its high strength to weight ratio.
Ultralight aircraft (see SSDR) such as the E-Go, rely heavily on CFRP in order to meet the
category weight compliance requirement of less than 115 kg (254 lb) without pilot or fuel.
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Airbus A350, 53% composite materials
Automotive engineering
Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer is used extensively in high-end automobile racing. The
high cost of carbon fiber is mitigated by the material's unsurpassed strength-to-weight ratio, and
low weight is essential for high-performance automobile racing. Race-car manufacturers have
also developed methods to give carbon fiber pieces strength in a certain direction, making it
strong in a load-bearing direction, but weak in directions where little or no load would be placed
on the member. Conversely, manufacturers developed omnidirectional carbon fiber weaves that
apply strength in all directions. This type of carbon fiber assembly is most widely used in the
"safety cell" monocoque chassis assembly of high-performance race-cars.
Honeycomb structure made of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer on a BMW i3
Civil engineering
Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) has become a notable material in structural
engineering applications. Studied in an academic context as to its potential benefits in
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construction, it has also proved itself cost-effective in a number of field applications strengthening
concrete, masonry, steel, cast iron, and timber structures. Its use in industry can be either for
retrofitting to strengthen an existing structure or as an alternative reinforcing (or pre-stressing)
material instead of steel from the outset of a project.
Strengthened with carbon fiber the building.
Optical fiber
An optical fiber (or optical fibre) is a flexible, transparent fiber made of extruded glass
(silica) or plastic, slightly thicker than a human hair. It can function as a waveguide, or “light
pipe”, to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. Power over Fiber (PoF) optic cables can
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also work to deliver an electric current for low-power electric devices. The field of applied
science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as
fiber optics.
Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, where they permit
transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths(data rates) than wire cables. Fibers
are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also
immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in
bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces.
Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber
lasers.
Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding
material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by total internal reflection. This
causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse
modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those that only support a single mode are
called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter, and are
used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be
transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters
(3,300 ft). Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable.
The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then carefully spliced together with the
cores perfectly
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History
Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first
demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the early 1840s. John Tyndall
included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London, 12 years later. Tyndall also wrote
about the property of total internal reflection in an introductory book about the nature of light in
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1870: "When the light passes from air into water, the refracted ray is bent towards the
perpendicular.
When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular... If the angle
which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees,
the ray will not quit the water at all: it will be totally reflected at the surface.... The angle which
marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water
this angle is 48°27', for flint glass it is 38°41', while for diamond it is 23°42'." Unpigmented
human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber.
Application
Communication
Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and computer networking
because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance
communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to
electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.
The per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high
as 111 gigabits per second (Gbit/s) by NTT, although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typical in deployed
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systems. In June 2013, researchers demonstrated transmission of 400 Gbit/s over a single
channel using 4-
mode orbital angular momentum multiplexing.
Advantages over copper wiring
The advantages of optical fiber communication with respect to copper wire systems are:
Broad bandwidth A single optical fiber can carry 3,000,000 full-duplex voice calls or 90,000
TV channels.
Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Light transmission through optical fibers is unaffected by other electromagnetic radiation
nearby. The optical fiber is electrically non-conductive, so it does not act as an antenna to pick up
electromagnetic signals. Information traveling inside the optical fiber is immune to
electromagnetic interference, even electromagnetic pulses generated by nuclear devices.
Low attenuation loss over long distances
Attenuation loss can be as low as 0.2 dB/km in optical fiber cables, allowing transmission
over long distances without the need for repeaters.
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Electrical insulator
Optical fibers do not conduct electricity, preventing problems with ground loops and
conduction of lightning. Optical fibers can be strung on poles alongside high voltage power
cables.
Material cost and theft prevention
Conventional cable systems use large amounts of copper. In some places, this copper is a
target for theft due to its value on the scrap market.
Sensors
Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an
optical fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiberoptic sensor to a measurement
system. Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or the fact that
no electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can bemultiplexed
along the length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing
the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be determined
using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer.
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Power transmission
Optical fiber can be used to transmit power using a photovoltaic cell to convert the light
into electricity. While this method of power transmission is not as efficient as conventional ones,
it is especially useful in situations where it is desirable not to have a metallic conductor as in the
case of use near MRI machines, which produce strong magnetic fields. Other examples are for
powering electronics in high-powered antenna elements and measurement devices used in high-
voltage transmission equipment.
Principle of operation
An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting waveguide) that
transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core
surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the
optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding.
The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual,
in graded-index fiber.
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Asbestos
Asbestos (pronounced /æs ̍bɛstəs/ or /æz ̍bɛstəs/) is a set of six naturally occurring
silicate minerals which all have in common their eponymous asbestiform habit: long (roughly
1:20 aspect ratio), thin fibrous crystals.
Asbestos mining began more than 4,000 years ago, but did not start large-scale until the
end of the 19th century when manufacturers and builders used asbestos because of its desirable
physical properties sound absorption, average tensile strength, its resistance to fire, heat, electrical
and chemical damage, and affordability. It was used in such applications as electrical insulation
for hot plate wiring and building insulation. When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or
heat, the fibers are often mixed with cement or woven into fabric or mats.
History
Early uses
Asbestos use in human culture dates back at least 4,500 years, when evidence shows that
inhabitants of the Lake Juojärvi region in East Finland strengthened earthenware pots and cooking
utensils with the asbestos mineral anthophyllite (see Asbestos-ceramic). The word asbestos comes
from the ancient Greek ἄζβεζηος, meaning "unquenchable" or "inextinguishable".One of the
first descriptions of a material that may have been asbestos is in Theophrastus, On Stones, from
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around 300 BC, although this identification has been questioned. The naming of minerals was not
very consistent in ancient times. In both modern and ancient Greek, the usual name for the
material known in English as "asbestos" is amiantos ("undefiled", "pure") whence the term for it
in, e.g., French amiante. In modern Greek, the word ἀζβεζηος or αζβέζης stands
consistently and solely for lime.
Types and associated fibers
1.Serpentine
Chrysotile asbestos Chrysotile, CAS No. 12001-29-5, is obtained from serpentinite rocks
which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical
formula is Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4. Chrysotile appears under the microscope as a white fiber.
Chrysotile has been used more than any other type and accounts for about 95% of the
asbestos found in buildings in America. Chrysotile is more flexible than amphibole types of
asbestos, and can be spun and woven into fabric. Its most common use has been in corrugated
asbestos cement roof sheets typically used for outbuildings, warehouses and garages. It may also
be found in sheets or panels used for ceilings and sometimes for walls and floors. Chrysotile has
been a component in joint compound and some plasters. Numerous other items have been made
containing chrysotile, including brake linings, fire barriers in fuseboxes, pipe insulation, floor
tiles, and gaskets for high temperature equipment.
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tremolite, amosite, or crocidolite. They are referred to as "asbestiform" rather than asbestos.
Although the U.S. OSHA has not included them in the asbestos standard, NIOSH and the
American Thoracic Society have recommended that they be included as regulated materials. As
such, they may still be related to diseases and hazardous.
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Health problems
Figure A shows the location of the lungs, airways, pleura, and diaphragm in the body.
Figure B shows lungs with asbestos-related diseases, including pleural plaque, lung cancer,
asbestosis, plaque on the diaphragm, and mesothelioma.
Left-sided mesothelioma (seen on the right of the picture): chest CT
All types of asbestos fibers are known to cause serious health hazards in humans. While it is
agreed that amosite and crocidolite are the most hazardous asbestos fiber types, chrysotile
asbestos has produced tumors in animals and is a recognized cause of asbestosis and malignant
mesothelioma in humans.
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Mesothelioma have been observed in people who were occupationally exposed to
chrysotile, family members of the occupationally exposed, and residents who lived close to
asbestos factories and mines. According to the NCI, "A history of asbestos exposure at work is
reported in about 70 percent to 80 percent of all cases. However, mesothelioma has been reported
in some individuals without any known exposure to asbestos." The most common diseases
associated with chronic exposure to asbestos include: asbestosis and pleural abnormalities
(mesothelioma, lung cancer). Asbestosis has been reported primarily in asbestos workers, and
appears to require long-term exposure, high concentration for the development of the clinical
disease. There is also a long latency period (incubation period of an infectious disease, before
symptoms appear) of about 12 to 20 years.
Smoking has a supra-additive effect in increasing the risk of lung cancer in those exposed
to asbestos. Studies have shown an increased risk of lung cancer among smokers who are exposed
to asbestos compared to nonsmokers.
Asbestos exposure becomes a health concern when high concentrations of asbestos fibers
are inhaled over a long time period. People who become ill from inhaling asbestos are often those
who are exposed daily in a job where they worked directly with the material. As a person's
exposure to fibers increases, because of being exposed to higher concentrations of fibers and/or
by being exposed for a longer time, then that person's risk of disease also increases. Disease is
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very unlikely to result from a single, high-level exposure, or from a short period of exposure to
lower levels.
Fiberglass
This article is about the plastic composite. For the insulation material, see glass wool. For
the fiber itself, see glass fiber.
Fiberglass (or fibreglass) is the common name for glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) or
alternatively glass-fiber reinforced plastic (FRP)Fiberglass is also known as GFK, for German:
Glasfaserverstärkter Kunststoff.
Fiberglass is a fiber reinforced polymer made of plastic reinforced by glass fibers,
commonly woven into a mat. The plastic may be a thermosetting plastic- most often epoxy,
polyester- or vinylester or a thermoplastic.
Fiberglass is a strong lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it's not
as strong and stiff as carbon fiber it is less brittle, and its raw materials are much cheaper. Its bulk
strength and weight are also better than many metals, and it can be more readily molded into
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complex shapes. Applications of fiberglass include, aircraft, boats, automobiles, bath tubs and
enclosures, hot tubs, septic tanks, water tanks, roofing, pipes, cladding, casts, surfboards, and
external door skins.
Fiber
Glass reinforcements used for fiberglass are supplied in different physical forms,
microspheres, chopped or woven.
Unlike glass fibers used for insulation, for the final structure to be strong, the fiber's
surfaces must be almost entirely free of defects, as this permits the fibers to reach gigapascal
tensile strengths. If a bulk piece of glass were defect-free, it would be equally as strong as glass
fibers; however, it is generally impractical to produce bulk material in a defect-free state outside
of laboratory conditions.
Production
The process of manufacturing fiberglass is called pultrusion. The manufacturing process
for glass fibers suitable for reinforcement uses large furnaces to gradually melt the silica sand,
limestone, kaolin clay, fluorspar, colemanite, dolomite and other minerals to liquid form. It is then
extruded through bushings, which are bundles of very small orifices (typically 5 ‟ 25 micrometres
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in diameter for E-Glass, 9 micrometres for S-Glass). These filaments are then sized (coated) with
a chemical solution. The individual filaments are now bundled in large numbers to provide a
roving. The diameter of the filaments, and the number of filaments in the roving, determine its
weight, typically expressed in one of two measurement systems:
yield, or yards per pound (the number of yards of fiber in one pound of material; thus a smaller
number means a heavier roving). Examples of standard yields are 225yield, 450yield, 675yield.
tex, or grams per km (how many grams 1 km of roving weighs, inverted from yield; thus a smaller
number means a lighter roving). Examples of standard tex are 750tex, 1100tex, 2200tex.
Applications
Fiberglass is an immensely versatile material due to its light weight, inherent strength,
weather-resistant finish and variety of surface textures.
The development of fiber-reinforced plastic for commercial use was extensively
researched in the 1930s. It was of particular interest to the aviation industry. A means of mass
production of glass strands was accidentally discovered in 1932 when a researcher at Owens-
Illinois directed a jet of compressed air at a stream of molten glass and produced fibers. After
Owens merged with the Corning company in 1935, Owens Corning adapted the method to
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produce its patented "Fiberglas" (one "s"). A suitable resin for combining the "Fiberglas" with a
plastic was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is
Cyanamid of 1942. Peroxide curing systems were used by then.
During World War II, fiberglass was developed as a replacement for the molded plywood
used in aircraft radomes (fiberglass being transparent to microwaves). Its first main civilian
application was for the building of boats and sportscar bodies, where it gained acceptance in the
1950s. Its use has broadened to the automotive and sport equipment sectors. In some aircraft
production, fiberglass is now yielding to carbon fiber, which weighs less and is stronger by
volume and weight.
Because of fiberglass's light weight and durability, it is often used in protective equipment
such as helmets. Many sports use fiberglass protective gear, such as goaltenders' and catchers'
masks.
Storage tanks
Storage tanks can be made of fiberglass with capacities up to about 300 tonnes. Smaller
tanks can be made with chopped strand mat cast over a thermoplastic inner tank which acts as a
perform during construction. Much more reliable tanks are made using woven mat or filament
wound fibre, with the fibre orientation at right angles to the hoop stress imposed in the side wall
by the contents. Such tanks tend to be used for chemical storage because the plastic liner (often
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A fiberglass dome house in Davis, California
Piping
GRP and GRE pipe can be used in a variety of above- and below-ground systems,
including those for:
„ Firewater
„ Cooling water
„ Drinking water
„ Wastewater/sewage
„ Natural gas
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Air flow test for the extraction and filtration of styrene vapors in
a production hall for GRP yachts
Health problems
In June 2011, the National Toxicology Program (NTP) removed from its Report on
Carcinogens all biosoluble glass wool used in home and building insulation and for non-insulation
products. However, NTP considers fibrous glass dust to be "reasonably anticipated [as] a human
carcinogen (Certain Glass Wool Fibers (Inhalable))". Similarly, California's Office of
Environmental Health Hazard Assessment ("OEHHA") published a November, 2011 modification
to its Proposition 65 listing to include only "Glass wool fibers (inhalable and biopersistent)." The
actions of U.S. NTP and California's OEHHA mean that a cancer warning label for biosoluble
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fiber glass home and building insulation is no longer required under federal or California law. All
fiberglass wools commonly used for thermal and acoustical insulation were reclassified by the
International Agency for Research on Cancer ("IARC") in October 2001 as Not Classifiable as to
carcinogenicity to humans.
The European Union and Germany classify synthetic vitreous fibers as possibly or
probably carcinogenic, but fibers can be exempt from this classification if they pass specific tests.
Evidence for these classifications is primarily from studies on experimental animals and
mechanisms of carcinogenesis. The glass wool epidemiology studies have been reviewed by a
panel of international experts convened by the International Agency for Research on Cancer
("IARC"). These experts concluded: "Epidemiologic studies published during the 15 years since
the previous IARC monographs review of these fibres in 1988 provide no evidence of increased
risks of lung cancer or mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of the body cavities) from occupational
exposures during the manufacture of these materials, and inadequate evidence overall of any
cancer risk." Similar reviews of the epidemiology studies have been conducted by the Agency for
Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ("ATSDR"), the National Toxicology Program, the
National Academy of Sciences and Harvard's Medical and Public Health Schools which reached
the same conclusion as IARC that there is no evidence of increased risk from occupational
exposure to glass wool fibers.
Fiberglass will irritate the eyes, skin, and the respiratory system. Potential symptoms
include irritation of eyes, skin, nose, throat, dyspnea (breathing difficulty); sore throat, hoarseness
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and cough. Scientific evidence demonstrates that fiber glass is safe to manufacture, install and use
when recommended work practices are followed to reduce temporary mechanical irritation.
Fiberglass is resistant to mold but growth can occur if fiberglass becomes wet and contaminated
with organic material. Fiberglass insulation that has become wet should be inspected for evidence
of residual moisture and contamination. Contaminated fiberglass insulation should be promptly
removed.
While the resins are cured, styrene vapors are released. These are irritating to mucous
membranes and respiratory tract. Therefore, the Hazardous Substances Ordinance in Germany
dictates a maximum occupational exposure limit of 86 mg/m³. In certain concentrations may even
occur a potentially explosive mixture. Further manufacture of GRP components (grinding,
cutting, sawing) creates fine dusts and chips containing glass filaments, as well as tacky dust, in
quantities substantial enough to affect people's health and the functionality of machines and
equipment. The installation of effective extraction and filtration equipment is required to ensure
safety and efficiency.
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Piping
Within industry, piping is a system of pipes used to convey fluids (liquids and gases) from
one location to another. The engineering discipline of piping design studies the efficient transport
of fluid. Industrial process piping (and accompanying in-line components) can be manufactured
from wood, fiberglass, glass, steel, aluminum,plastic, copper, and concrete. The in-line
components, known as fittings, valves, and other devices, typically sense and control the pressure,
flow rate and temperature of the transmitted fluid, and usually are included in the field of Piping
Design (or Piping Engineering). Piping systems are documented in piping and instrumentation
diagrams (P&IDs). If necessary, pipes can be cleaned by the tube cleaning process.
Engineering subfields
Generally, industrial piping engineering has three major subfields:
„ Piping material
„ Piping design
„ Stress analysis
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Stress analysis
Process piping and power piping are typically checked by pipe stress engineers to verify
that the routing, nozzle loads, hangers, and supports are properly placed and selected such that
allowable pipe stress is not exceeded under different situation such as sustain, operating, pressure
testing etc., as per the ASME B31, EN 13480 or any other applicable codes and standards. It is
necessary to evaluate the mechanical behavior of the piping under regular loads (internal pressure
and thermal stresses) as well under occasional and intermittent loading cases such as earthquake,
high wind or special vibration, and water hammer. This evaluation is usually performed with the
assistance of a specialized (finite element) pipe stress analysis computer program.
In cryogenic pipe supports, most steel become more brittle as the temperature decreases
from normal operating conditions, so it is necessary to know the temperature distribution for
cryogenic conditions. Steel structures will have areas of high stress that may be caused by sharp
corners in the design, or inclusions in the material.
Wooden piping history
Early wooden pipes were constructed out of logs that had a large hole bored lengthwise
through the center. Later wooden pipes were constructed with staves and hoops similar to wooden
barrel construction. Stave pipes have the advantage that they are easily transported as a compact
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pile of parts on a wagon and then assembled as a hollow structure at the job site. Wooden pipes
were especially popular in mountain regions where transport of heavy iron or concrete pipes
would have been difficult.
Wooden pipes were easier to maintain than metal, because the wood did not expand or
contract with temperature changes as much as metal and so consequently expansion joints and
bends were not required. The thickness of wood afforded some insulating properties to the pipes
which helped prevent freezing as compared to metal pipes. Wood used for water pipes also does
not rot very easily. Electrolysis, that bugbear of many iron pipe systems, doesn't affect wood
pipes at all, since wood is a much better electrical insulator.
Materials
The material with which a pipe is manufactured often forms as the basis for choosing any
pipe. Materials that are used for manufacturing pipes include:
„ Carbon steel
„ Low temperature service carbon steel
„ Stainless steel
„ Non Ferrous metals, e.g. cupro-nickel
„ Nonmetallic, e.g. tempered glass
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Standards
There are certain standard codes that need to be followed while designing or
manufacturing any piping system. Organizations that promulgate piping standards include:
„ ASME - The American Society of Mechanical Engineers - B31 series
„ ASME B31.1 Power piping (steam piping etc.)
„ ASME B31.3 Process piping
„ ASME B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other
Liquids
„ ASME B31.5 Refrigeration piping and heat transfer components
„ ASME B31.8 Gas transmission and distribution piping systems
„ ASME B31.9 Building services piping
„ ASME B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems
„ ASME B31.12 Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines
„ ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials
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„ AWWA - American Water Works Association
„ MSS ‟ Manufacturers' Standardization Society
„ ANSI - American National Standards Institute
„ NFPA - National Fire Protection Association
„ EJMA - Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association
Steel pipe
Steel pipe (or black iron pipe) was once the most popular choice for supply of water and
flammable gases. Steel pipe is still used in many homes and businesses to convey natural gas or
propane fuel, and is a popular choice in fire sprinkler systems due to its high heat resistance. In
commercial buildings, steel pipe is used to convey heating or cooling water to heat exchangers,
air handlers, variable air volume (VAV) devices, or other HVAC equipment.
Steel pipe is sometimes joined using threaded connections, where tapered threads (see
National Pipe Thread) are cut into the end of the tubing segment, sealant is applied in the form of
thread sealing compound or thread seal tape (also known as PTFE or Teflon tape), and it is then
threaded into a corresponding threaded fitting using two pipe wrenches. Beyond domestic or light
commercial settings, steel pipe is often joined by welding, or by use of mechanical couplings
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made by companies such as Victaulic or Anvil International (formerly Grinnell) that hold the pipe
joint together via a groove pressed or cut (a rarely used older practice), into the ends of the pipes.
Other variations of steel pipe include various stainless steel and chrome alloys. In high-
pressure situations these are usually joined by TIG welding.
steel pipe
Copper pipe
Copper tubing is most often used for supply of hot and cold water, and as refrigerant line
in HVAC systems. There are two basic types of copper tubing, soft copper and rigid copper.
Copper tubing is joined using flare connection, compression connection, or solder. Copper offers
a high level of resistance to corrosion, but is becoming very costly.
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copper pipe
Soft copper
Soft (or ductile) copper tubing can be bent easily to travel around obstacles in the path of
the tubing. While the work hardening of the drawing process used to size the tubing makes the
copper hard/rigid, it is carefully annealed to make it soft again; it is therefore more expensive to
produce than non-annealed, rigid copper tubing. It can be joined by any of the three methods used
for rigid copper, and it is the only type of copper tubing suitable for flare connections. Soft copper
is the most popular choice for refrigerant lines in split-system air conditioners and heat pumps.
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Soft copper
Flare connections
Flare connections require that the end of a tubing section be spread outward in a bell shape
using a flare tool. A flare nut then compresses this bell-shaped end onto a male fitting. Flare
connections are a labor-intensive method of making connections, but are quite reliable over the
course of many years.
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Flare connections
Rigid copper
Rigid copper is a popular choice for water lines. It is joined using a sweat, compression or
crimp/pressed connection. Rigid copper, rigid due to the work hardening of the drawing process,
cannot be bent and must use elbow fittings to go around corners or around obstacles. If heated and
allowed to slowly cook, called annealing, then rigid copper will become soft and can be
bent/formed without cracking.
Rigid copper
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Aluminium pipe
Aluminium is sometimes used due to its low cost, resistance to corrosion and solvents, and
its ductility. Aluminium tube is more desirable than steel for the conveyance of flammable
solvents, since it cannot create sparks when manipulated. Aluminium tubing can be connected by
flare or compression fittings, or it can be welded by the TIG or heli arc processes.
Aluminium pipe
Glass pipe
Tempered glass pipes are used for specialized applications, such as corrosive liquids, medical or
laboratory wastes, or pharmaceutical manufacturing. Connections are generally made using
specialized gasket or O-ring fittings.
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Glass pipe
Plastic pipe
Poly(vinyl chloride), commonly abbreviated PVC, is the third-most widely produced
polymer, after polyethylene and polypropylene.
PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid (sometimes abbreviated as PVC) and flexible. The
rigid form of PVC is used in construction for pipe, and in profile applications such as doors and
windows. It is also used for bottles and other non-food packaging, and cards (such as bank or
membership cards). It can be made softer and more flexible by the addition of plasticizers, the
most widely used being phthalates. In this form, it is also used in plumbing, electrical cable
insulation, imitation leather, signage, inflatable products and many applications where it replaces
rubber.
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Plastic pipe
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APPENDIX
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ตนกาเนดเหลก
เหลก (องักฤษ:Iron)เปนธาตเคมในตารางธาต มสัญลักษณเปน Fe และ หมายเลขอะตอม
26. เหลกอย ในธาตหม 8 และคาบ 4 โลหะสัญลักษณ Fe ย อมาจากferrum, ในภาษาละตน
แปลว าเหลก
ยคเหลก เปนยคหลังจากยคสารตยคท มนษยเร มใชเหลกในการทาเคร องมอเคร อง ใช
ต างๆในการดารงชวต การใชเหลกเร มในตะวันออกกลางเม อ 467 ป ก อนพทธศักราช จากนั นจง
แพร เขาส ยโรปโดยเขามาแทนท เคร องมอจากสารด เม อประมาณ 57 ป ก อนพทธศักราช ใน
อนเดย เร มใชเหลกเม อ 457 ป ก อนพทธศักราช ในแอฟรกา เร มใชเหลกเม อราวพ.ศ. 43
เคร องมอเหลกแพร เขาไปในจนเม อ 107 ป ก อนพทธศักราช
แรเหลกในประเทศไทย
เหลก ในปัจจบันประเทศไทย ไดมการสารวจพบแร เหลกอย มากมายหลายแห งทั ว
ประเทศ โดยสารวจพบ ในบรเวณจังหวัดต างๆ รวม 29 จังหวัด แร เหลกท สารวจพบน บาง
บรเวณไดทาการสารวจจนสามารถประเมนปรมาณสารอง ของแร และพัฒนาเปดเหมองผลตได และยงัมอกหลายบรเวณท รอการสารวจและพัฒนาใหเก ดคณค าทางเศรษฐก จต อไป สาหรับ
บรเวณท มศักยภาพทางแร เหลกสงสด ไดแก บรเวณอาเภอเชยงคาน อาเภอเมอง และอาเภอวังสะ
พง จังหวัดเลย ซ งขณะน สามารถประเมนปรมาณสารองไดทั งหมดประมาณ 27 ลานตนั (45-
65% Fe) นอกจากนั นมอย กระจัดกระจาย ในภาคต างๆ ของประเทศไทย ซ งสามารถสรปพ นท
ศักยภาพทางแร เหลกท น าสนใจได ดังน
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1) ภาคเหนอ บรเวณอาเภอแม แจ ม จงัหวัดเชยงใหม บรเวณอาเภอเสรมงาม จังหวัด
ลาปาง-อาเภอวังช น จังหวัดแพร
2) ภาคกลาง บรเวณอาเภอพรานกระต าย จังหวัดก าแพงเพชร บรเวณอาเภอหนองไผ
จังหวัดเพชรบรณ บรเวณอาเภอโคกสาโรง และอาเภอเมอง จังหวัดลพบร
3) ภาคตะวันตก บรเวณอาเภอบ อพลอย จังหวัดกาญจนบร
4) ภาคตะวันออบรเวณอาเภอนาด จังหวัดปราจนบร บรเวณอาเภอบางคลา จงัหวัด
ฉะเชงเทรา-อาเภอพนสันคม จงัหวัดชลบร
5) ภาคตะวันออกเฉยงเหนอ บรเวณอาเภอเชยงคาน อาเภอเมอง และอาเภอวังสะพง
จังหวัดเลย
6) ภาคใต บรเวณอาเภอบานนาสาร จังหวัดสราษฎรธาน บรเวณอาเภอท าศาลา และ
อาเภอฉวาง จังหวัดนครศรธรรมราช สาหรับแหล งแร เหลกท สารวจพบในปัจจบัน เปนเพยง
แหล งแร เหลกท มขนาดไม ใหญ นัก เม อเทยบก ับแหล งแร เหลก ท มการผลตแลวในโลกน ซ งจะม
ปรมาณสารองของแร เหลกนับเปนพันลานตันหรออย างต าเป นรอยลาน ตนัข นไป โดยแหล งแร
เหลก ท พบแลวในไทยจะมปรมาณสารองของแต ละแหล งอย างมากไม เก น 15 ลานตันเท านั น
เช น แหล งภยาง อาเภอเชยงคาน จังหวัดเลย มปรมาณสารองของแร เหลกประมาณ 19 ลานตัน
สาหรับแหล งแร เหลกท สารวจพบ และสามารถประเมน ปรมาณสารองไดมากกว า 100,000 ตัน
นั น รวม 22 แหล ง คดเปนปรมาณสารองของแร เหลก รวมทั งส น ประมาณ 50 ลานตัน สาหรับแหล งแร เหลกท สารวจพบในปัจจบัน เปนเพยงแหล งแร เหลกท มขนาดไม ใหญ นัก เม อเทยบก ับ
แหล งแร เหลก ท มการผลตแลวในโลกน ซ งจะมปรมาณสารองของแร เหลกนับเปนพันลานตัน
หรออย างต าเปนรอยลาน ตันข นไป โดยแหล งแร เหลก ท พบแลวในไทยจะมปรมาณสารองของ
แต ละแหล งอย างมากไม เก น 15 ลานตันเท านั น เช น แหล งภยาง อาเภอเชยงคาน จังหวัดเลย ม
ปรมาณสารองของแร เหลกประมาณ19
ลานตัน สาหรับแหล งแร เหลกท สารวจพบ และสามารถ
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ประเมน ปรมาณสารองไดมากกว า 100,000 ตันนั น รวม 22 แหล ง คดเปนปรมาณสารองของแร
เหลก รวมทั งส น ประมาณ 50 ลานตัน
กระบวนการผลตเหลกและเหลกกลา
การผลตเหลกและเหลกกลาประกอบดวยขั นตอนดังน
1. การแต งแร และการถลง
2. การหลอมและการปรงส วนผสม
3. การหล อ
4. การแปรรป เช น การรด การตข นรป
ผลตภณัฑ ท ผ านขั นตอนท 4 แลว สามารถนาไปผ านขบวนต างๆ ของอตสาหกรรมต อเน อง เพ อ
ผลตผลตภณัฑท หลากหลายตามประเภทของการใชงาน เช น วสัดก อสราง ท อ คอนเทนเนอร ถงั
ความดัน ช นส วนยานยนต ไฟฟาและเคร องจักรกล เปนตน
ในประเทศไทย การผลตเหลกและเหลกกลาจะเร มจากขั นกลาง คอ การหลอมและการหล อ
1. การแต งแร และการถลง
การ แต งแร คอ การแปรสภาพสนแร ใหไดขนาดและคณสมบัตท เหมาะสมต อการถลง เช น การ
บดแร ใหละเอยดเพ อแยกเหลกจากมลทนแลว อาจแยกโดยอาศัยความถ วงเฉพาะท ต างก ัน
(Float) หรอใชการแยกดวยแม เหลก (Magnetic separation) ซ งแร ท ไดจะละเอยดเก นไป ตองทา
ใหเปนก อน (Agglomeration) ก อนปอนเขาเตาถลง
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1. ระบบอเมรก ัน AISI ( American Iron and Steel Institute )
การก าหนดมาตรฐานแบบน ตัวเลขดัชนจะมจานวนหลกัและตัวช บอกส วนประสมจะ
เหมอนก ับระบบ SAE จะต างก ันตรงท ระบบ AISI จะมตัวอักษรนาหนาตัวเลข ซ งตัวอักษรน จะ
บอกถงกรรมวธการผลตเหลกว าไดผลตมาจากเตาชนดใด
ตัวอักษรท บอกกรรมวธการผลตเหลกจะมดังน
A คอ เหลกประสมท ผลตจากเตาเบสเซมเมอร ( Bessemer ) ชนดท เปนด าง
B คอ เหลกประสมท ผลตจากเตาเบสเซมเมอร ( Bessemer ) ชนดท เป นกรด
C คอ เหลกท ผลตจากเตาโอเพนฮารท ( Open Hearth ) ชนดท เปนด าง
D คอ เหลกท ผลตจากเตาโอเพนฮารท ( Open Hearth ) ชนดท เปนกรด
E คอ เหลกท ผลตจากเตาไฟฟา
2. ระบบเยอรมัน DIN (Deutsch Institute Norms)
การจาแนกประเภทของเหลกตามมาตรฐานเยอรมันจะแบ งเหลกออกเปน 4 ประเภทดังน
2.1 เหลกกลาคารบอน(หรอเหลกไม ประสม)
2.2 เหลกกลาผสมต า
2.3 เหลกกลาผสมสง
2.4 เหลกหล อ
2.5 เหลกกลาคารบอน (หรอเหลกไม ประสม)
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เหลกท นาไปใชงานไดเลยโดยไม ตองผ านกรรมวธปรับปรงคณสมบัตโดยใชความรอน
(Heat Treatment) เหลกพวกน จะบอกย อคาหนาว า St.และจะมตวัเลขตามหลงั ซ งจะบอกถง
ความสามารถท จะทนแรงดงสงสดของเหลกชนดนั น มหน วยเปน ก.ก/มม.2
หมายเหต การก าหนดมาตรฐานทั งสองน เหลกท มความเคนแรงดงสงสดประมาณ 37 ก.ก/มม.2
จะสามารถใชสัญลักษณแทนเหลกชนดน ได 2 ลักษณะ คอ เขยนเปน St. หรอ C20
การก าหนดมาตรฐานเหล าน จะเหนมากในแบบสั งงาน ช นส วนบางชนดตองนาไปชบแขง
ก อนใชงาน ก จะก าหนดวัสดเปน C นาหนา ส วนช นงานท ไม ตองนาไปชบแขง ซ งนาไปใชงาน
ไดเลยจะก าหนดวัสดเปนตวั St. นาหนา ทั ง ๆ ท วสัดงานทั งสองช นน ใชวสัดอย างเดยวก ัน
เหลกกลาผสมต า การก าหนดมาตรฐานเหลกประเภทน จะบอกจานวนคารบอนไวขางหนาเสมอ
แต ไม นยมเขยนตวั C ก าก ับไว ตัวถดัมาจะเปนชนดของโลหะท เขาไปประสม ซ งอาจมชนดเดยวหรอหลายชนดก ได
ขอสังเกต เหลกกลาประสมต าตัวเลขท บอกปรมาณของโลหะประสมจะไม ใช จ านวน
เปอรเซนตท แทจรงของโลหะประสมนั นการท จะทราบจานวนเปอรเซนตท แท จรงจะตองเอา
แฟกเตอร (Factor) ของโลหะประสมแต ละชนดไปหารซ งค าแฟกเตอร (Factor) ของโลหะ
ประสมต าง ๆ มดงัน
หารดวย 4 ไดแก Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, Si, W
หารดวย 10 ไดแก Al, Cu, Mo, Pb, Ti, V
หารดวย 100 ไดแก C, N, P, S
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ไม ตองหาร ไดแก Zn, Sn, Mg, Fe
การใชสัญลักษณดงัตัวอย างท แลว เปนการบอกส วนผสมในทางเคม แต ในบางครั งจะม
การเขยนสัญลักษณบอกกรรมวธการผลตไวขางหนาอกดวย เช น
B = ผลตจากเตาเบสเซมเมอร
E = ผลตจากเตาไฟฟาทั วไป
F = ผลตจากเตาน ามัน
I = ผลตจากเตาไฟฟาชนดเตาเหน ยวนา (Induction Furnace)
LE = ผลตจากเตาไฟฟ าชนดอารค (Electric Arc Furnace)
M = ผลตจากเตาซเมนตมารตน หรอ เตาพดเดล
T = ผลตจากเตาโทมัส
TI = ผลตโดยกรรมวธ (Crucible Cast Steel)
W = เผาดวยอากาศบรสทธ
U = เหลกท ไม ไดผ านการก าจดัออกซเจน (Unkilled Steel)
R = เหลกท ผ านการก าจัดออกซเจน (Killed Steel)
RR = เหลกท ผ านการก าจดัออกซเจน 2 ครั ง
นอกจากน ยงัม สัญลกัษณแสดงคณสมบัตพเศษของเหลกนั นอกดวย เช น
A = ทนต อการก ัดกร อน
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Q = ตข นรปง าย
X = ประสมสง
Z = รดไดง าย
เหลกกลาผสมสง (High Alloy Steel) เหลกกลาประสมสง หมายถงเหลกกลาท มวสัดผสม
อย ในเน อเหลกเก นกว า 8 % การเขยนสัญลักษณของเหลกประเภทน เขยนนาหนาดวยตว X
ก อน แลวตามดวยจานวนส วนผสมของคารบอนจากนั นดวยชนดของโลหะประสม ซ งจะมชนดเดยวหรอชนดก ได แล วจงตามดวยตัวเลขแสดงปรมาณของโลหะประสม
ตัวเลขท แสดงปรมาณของโลหะประสม ไม ตองหารดวย แฟกเตอร (Factor) ใด ๆ ทั งส น
(แตกต างจากโลหะประสมต า) ส วนคารบอนยงัตองหารดวย 100 เสมอ
3. ระบบญ ป น JIS (Japaness Industrial Standards)
การจาแนกประเภทของเหลกตามมาตรฐานญ ป นซ งจัดวางระบบโดยสานักงานมาตรฐาน
อตสาหกรรมญ ป น (Japaness Industrial Standards, JIS) จะแบ งเหลกตามลักษณะงานท ใช
ตัวอักษรชดแรก จะมคาว า JIS หมายถง Japaness Industrial Standards ตัวอกัษร
สัญลักษณตวัถัดมาจะมไดหลายตวัแต ละตวัหมายถงการจัดกล มผลตภณัฑอตสาหกรรมต างๆ
เช น
A งานวศวกรรมก อสรางและงานสถาปัตย
B งานวศวกรรมเคร องกล
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C งานวศวกรรมไฟฟา
D งานวศวกรรมรถยนต
E งานวศวกรรมรถไฟ
F งานก อสรางเรอ
G โลหะประเภทเหลกและโลหะวทยา
H โลหะท มใช เหลก
K งานวศวกรรมเคม
L งานวศวกรรมส งทอ
M แร
P กระดาษและเย อกระดาษ
R เซรามค
S สนคาท ใชภายในบาน
T ยา
W การบน
ถัดจากตวัอักษรจะเปนตัวเลขซ งมอย ดวยก ัน 4 ตัว มความหมายดงัน ตัวเลขตัวแรก
หมายถง กล มประเภทของเหลก เช น
0 เร องท ัว ๆ ไป การทดสอบและกฎต าง ๆ
1 วธวเคราะห
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2 วตัถดบ เหลบดบ ธาตประสม
3 เหลกคารบอน
4 เหลกกลาประสม
ตัวเลขตัวท 2 จะเปนตัวแยกประเภทของวัสดในกล มนั น เช น ถาเปนในกรณเหลก จะมดังน
1 เหลกกลาประสมนเก ลและโครเมยม
2 เหลกกลาประสมอลมเนยมแลโครเมยม
3 เหลกไรสนม
4 เหลกเคร องมอ
8 เหลกสปรง
9 เหลกกลาทนการก ัดกร อนและความรอน
ตัวเลขท เหลอ 2 หลักสดทายจะเปนตวัแยกชนดของส วนผสมท มอย ในวัสดนั น เช น ถา
เปนเหลกตัวเลข 2 หลักสดทายจะเปนตัวแยกชนดเหลกตาม ส วนผสมธาตท มอย ในเหลกชนด
นั น ๆ เช น
01 เหลกเคร องมอ คารบอน
03 เหลกไฮสปด
04 เหลกเคร องมอประสม
4. มาตรฐาน ASTM
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A : Ferrous Metals
B : Nonferrous Metals
C : Cementitious, Ceramic, Concrete, and Masonry Meterials
D : Miscellaneous Materials
E : Miscellaneous Subjects
F : Materials for Specific Applications
G : Corrosion, Deterioration, and Degradation of Materials
เดม ASTM ไดแบ งประเภทมาตรฐาน ตามลกัษณะการก าหนดมาตรฐาน ออกเป น 3 ชนดคอ
•
Standards เปนมาตรฐานท จดัทาข น ตามมตเอกฉันทของสมาชก และผ านการรับรองตาม
ขั นตอน และกฎของสมาคมฯ เรยบรอยแลว
• ES.(Emergency Standard) เปนเอกสารท จัดพมพตามความตองการ เร งด วน แต ยงัไม
ผ านการรับรองของสมาคมฯ เพยงแต ผ านการพจารณา ของคณะอนกรรมการบรหาร
• P. (Proposal) เปนเอกสารมาตรฐานท พมพเพ อเผยแพร แนะนา ก อนท จะพจารณาลงมต
ใหใชเปนมาตรฐาน
แต ในป ค.ศ. 1995 สมาคม ASTM ไดก าหนดใหใช PS. (Provisional Standards) ซ งเปนเอกสารท ถกจดัพมพข นมา ใชแทน ES. และ P
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5. มาตรฐาน TIS
เปนคาย อมาจาก"มาตรฐานผลตภัณฑอตสาหกรรม" หมายถงขอก าหนดทางวชาการท
สานักงานมาตรฐานผลตภณัฑอตสาหกรรม(สมอ.)ไดก าหนดข นเพ อเปนแนวทางแก ผ ผลตใน
การผลตสนคาใหมคณภาพในระดบัท เหมาะสมก ับการใชงานมากท สดโดยจัดทาออกมาเปน
เอกสารและจัดพมพเปนเล ม
ภายในมอก.แต ละเล มประกอบดวยเน อหาท เก ยวของก ับการผลตผลตภณัฑนั นๆ เช น
เกณฑทางเทคนค คณสมบัตท สาคญั ประสทธภาพของการนาไปใชงาน คณภาพของวัตถท นามา
ผลต และวธการทดสอบเปนตน
มอก. มประโยชนต อผเก ยวของในหลายดานดวยก ัน ดังน
ประโยชนต อผผลต
1. ช วยเพ มประสทธภาพในการผลต
2. ลดรายจ าย ลดเคร องจักร ลดขั นตอนการทางานซ าซอน
3. ช วยใหไดสนคาท มคณภาพสม าเสมอ
4. ทาใหสนคามคณภาพดข น และมราคาถกลง
5. เพ มโอกาสทางการคา ในการจัดซ อจัดจางของหน วยงานราชการท มการก าหนดใหสนคานั นๆ
ตองไดรับมอก.
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ประโยชนผ บรโภค
1. ช วยในการตดัสนใจเลอกซ อสนคา และ
2. สรางความปลอดภัยในการนาไปใช
3. ในกรณท ชารด ก สามารถหาอะไหล ไดง าย เพราะสนคามมาตรฐานเดยวก ัน ใชทดแทนก ันได
4. วธการบารงรักษาใกลเคยงก ัน ไม ตองหัดใชสนคาใหม ทกครั งท ซ อ
5. ไดสนคาคณภาพดข นในราคาท เปนธรรมคมค าก ับการใชงาน
ประโยชนต อเศรษฐก จส วนรวมหรอประโยชนร วมก ัน
1. ช วยเปนส อกลางเปนบรรทัดฐานทางการคา ท าใหผผลตและผบรโภคมความ เขาใจท ตรงก ัน
2. ก อใหเก ดความยตธรรมในการซ อขาย3. ประหยดัการใชทรัพยากรของชาต ทาใหมการใชทรัพยากรอย างเก ดประโยชนสงสด
4. สรางโอกาสทางการแข งขันใหก ับผประกอบการไทย
5. ปองก ันสนคาคณภาพต าเขามาจาหน ายในประเทศ
6. สรางความเขมแขงใหก ับอตสาหกรรมและเศรษฐก จ
หมายเลขมาตราฐานคณภาพ (มอก.) คอหมายเลขท ก าหนดข นเพ อระบล าดับท ของการ
ออกมาตราฐานและปท สมอ. ประกาศเปนมาตราฐาน ซ งจะระบอย บนตัวสนคา ตัวอย างเช น
เคร องหมายมาตราฐานท แสดงสนคาไดรับมาตราฐานอะไร เช น มอก.(TIS) 56-2533 คอ
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ผลตภณัฑน าตาลทราย ซ งหากผลตภณัฑไดรับการรับรองคณภาพตามมาตราฐานอสาหกรรม
(มอก.) ก จะสามารถแสดงเคร องหมาย มอก. บนผลตภณัฑนั นได
ถัดจากตวัอกัษรจะเปนตัวเลขซ งมอย ดวยก ัน 4 ตัว มความหมายดงัน
ตัวเลขตัวแรก หมายถง กล มประเภทของเหลก เช น
0 เร องท ัว ๆ ไป การทดสอบและกฎต าง ๆ
1 วธวเคราะห
2 วตัถดบ เหลบดบ ธาตประสม
3 เหลกคารบอน
4 เหลกกลาประสม
ตัวเลขตัวท 2 จะเปนตัวแยกประเภทของวัสดในกล มนั น เช น ถาเปนในกรณเหลก จะมดังน
1 เหลกกลาประสมนเก ลและโครเมยม
2 เหลกกลาประสมอลมเนยมแลโครเมยม
3 เหลกไรสนม
4 เหลกเคร องมอ
8 เหลกสปรง
9 เหลกกลาทนการก ัดกร อนและความรอน
ตัวเลขท เหลอ 2 หลักสดทายจะเปนตวัแยกชนดของส วนผสมท มอย ในวัสดนั น เช น ถา
เปนเหลกตัวเลข 2 หลักสดทายจะเปนตวัแยกชนดเหลกตาม
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ส วนผสมธาตท มอย ในเหลกชนดนั น ๆ เช น
01 เหลกเคร องมอ คารบอน
03 เหลกไฮสปด
04 เหลกเคร องมอประสม
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Metallic elements
vocabulary แปล
metals
lithium lithium
sodium sodium
potassium potassium
rubidium rubidium
caesium caesium
francium francium
metals
beryllium beryllium
magnesium magnesium
calcium calcium
strontium strontium
barium barium
radium radium
Iron
steel steel
iron Iron
Wrought iron Wrought iron
Cast iron Cast iron
hydrogen hydrogen
Oxidizer Oxidizer
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Reducer Reducer
tensile strength tensile strength
atomic weight atomic weight
iron meteorites iron meteorites
iron oxide iron oxide
phosphorus phosphorus
melting point melting point
Carbon steel Carbon steel
Aluminium
Washington Monument Washington Monument
aluminium alloys aluminium alloys
yield strength yield strength
stiffness stiffness
aluminium foils aluminium foils
Aluminium oxide Aluminium oxide
fatigue limt fatigue limt
melting point
visible light melting point
visible light
Copper
substances substances
cytochrome cytochrome
hemoglobin hemoglobin
Chalcolithic Chalcolithic
copper backed currency copper backed currency
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alkaline electrolyte alkaline electrolyte
coefficient of friction coefficient of friction
Tin
polymetallic polymetallic
Arsenical bronze Arsenical bronze
prospectors prospectors
semiconductor semiconductor
superconductor superconductor
metastable isomers metastable isomers
carbothermic reduction carbothermic reduction
electromagnet electromagnet
furnace furnace
reverberatory reverberatory
Nonmetal
Submetallic Submetallic
Lustrous Lustrous
Electronegativity Electronegativity
ionisation energy ionisation energy
acidicoxides acidicoxides
Polymer
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molecule molecule
polystyrene polystyrene
viscoelasticity viscoelasticity
relative molecular mas relative molecular mas
biophysics biophysics
Plastic
vulcanization vulcanization
Imperial Chemical Industries Imperial Chemical Industries
Styrofoam Styrofoam
nylon stockings nylon stockings
colloidal suspension colloidal suspension
Kevlar
condensation reaction condensation reaction
liquid-crystalline liquid-crystalline
terephthaloyl chloride terephthaloyl chloride
thermal conductivity thermal conductivity
synthesized synthesized
Carbon-fiber
carbon nanotubes carbon nanotubes
composite materials composite materials
elastic modulus elastic modulus
compression mold compression mold
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fiber-reinforced polymer fiber-reinforced polymer
Optical fiber
fiber-optic communications fiber-optic communications
electromagnetic interference electromagnetic interference
fiber lasers fiber lasers
multi-mode fibers multi-mode fibers
single-mode fibers single-mode fibers
Asbestos
absorption absorption
tensile strength tensile strength
affordability affordability
fabric fabric
solely solely
Fiberglass
tensile strengths tensile strengths
Pultrusion Pultrusion
Thermoplastic Thermoplastic
Durability Durability
Lightweight Lightweight
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Piping
fiberglass fiberglass
Steel pipe Steel pipe
Copper pipe Copper pipe
Soft copper Soft copper
Flare connections Flare connections