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Project Report

On

Material

Submitted by

Wisarut Sawangchob

531201026 class 4/1 engine

Present to

Teacher Sutin Coadthong

ENGINEERING WORKSHOP 2 , Summer

September 15, 2014

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a

Contents

Metallurgical Operations  6 

  Metallurgical Operations 6 

Metal11

  History 12

  Categories 13 

  Applications 15

Iron  16

 Smeling of Iron  17

  Steel Making Process 20

  History 25

  Applications 34

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  Toxicity 40

Aluminum  41

  History 47

  Applications 48

Copper  52

  Copper Metalluergy 52

  History 60

  Production 63

  Applications 64

Lead  67

 Smelting of lead (Lead Metallurgy)  68

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  History 74

Silver  76

  History 81

  Applications 82

Zinc 85

 History  90

  Production 91

  Applications 92

Cadmium  93

History 99

  Production 100

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  Noble gases128

Polymer 129

  History129

  The type of polymer130

Plastic 133

  History133

  The seven types of plastics recycling

135

Kevlar 137

  History138

Production

139

  Applications140

Carbon-fiber 143

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  Health problems166

Piping 170

  Steel pipe175

  Copper pipe176

Soft copper 177

  Rigid copper179

  Aluminium pipe180

  Glass pipe

180

  Plastic pipe181

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1

Minerals and ores

Mineral chemistry In general, the compounds or elements in nature can be. But in

Mineralogy (mineralogy) and geology (geology) elements and compounds that occur. From The

inorganic processes such as petroleum and coal. This is the one that happens by. Degradation of

organic compounds But not considered a mineral Minerals over 3,000 known minerals. Each

element has characteristics such as chemical composition. structure And physical properties of

crystals Thus, the classification may be classified according to their chemical composition. Type

of crystalline solid and visible (color, gloss and opaque) minerals, mainly. The liquid metal is

solid except for mercury and water. Every stone on the earth's crust caused. Incorporation of

metal ore minerals (mineral) is an economic value. It is a important source of metals.

Figure 1.metals and minerals are well known.

Fe

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Ore is a mineral that can be used as components in the ore. And contains elements More than one

hundred species Makes it possible to distinguish three elements Types of alloy and non-ferrous

metals in Table 1 for examples of the ore.

  Barringerite (Fe, Ni)2P

  Carlsbergite CrN

  Cohenite Fe3C

  Haxonite (Fe, Ni)23C6 

   Niggliite PtSn

   Nierite Si3 N4 

  Osbornite TiN

  Perryite (Fe, Ni)8(Si, P)3 

  Roaldite Fe4 N

  Schreibersite (Fe, Ni)3P

  Siderazot Fe5 N2 

  Stistaite SnSb

  Suessite (Fe, Ni)3Si

  Tongbaite Cr 3C2 

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Table 1 shows metal ore and non-ferrous alloys.

Native MetalsMetallic Alloys Native Non-metals and

Semi-metals

  Aluminum Al

  Cadmium Cd

  Chromium Cr

  Gold Group:o  Copper Cu

o  Gold Au

o  Lead Pb

o  Mercury Hg

o  Silver Ag

  Indium In

  Iron Fe

   Nickel Ni

  Platinum Pt

  Tellurium Te

  Tin Sn

  Titanium Ti

  Zinc Zn

  Anyuiite Au(Pb,

Sb)2 

  Auricupride

Cu3Au  Belendorffite

Cu7Hg6 

  Brass Cu3Zn2 

  Cabriite

Pd2SnCu

  Chengdeite Ir 3Fe

  Cupalite (Cu,

Zn)Al

  Danbaite CuZn2 

  Eugenite Ag9Hg2 

  Hunchunite (Au,

Ag)2Pb

  Iron-nickel (Fe,

 Ni)

  Isoferroplatinum

(Pt, Pd)3(Fe, Cu)

  Arsenic As

  Arsenolamprite

As

  Bismuth Bi

  Carbon Group

  Chaoite C

  Diamond C

  Graphite C

  Lonsdaleite C

  Moissanite SiC

   Nierite Si3 N4 

  Paradocrasite

Sb2(Sb, As)2 

  Rosickyite S

  Selenium Se

  Silicon Si

  Sinoite Si2 N2O

  Stibarsen SbAs

  Sulfur S

  Tellurium Te

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  Kolymite

Cu7Hg6 

  Leadamalgam

HgPb2 

  Luanheite

Ag3Hg

  Maldonite Au2Bi

  Moschellandsber 

gite Ag2Hg3 

  Osmium (Os, Ir)

  Paraschachnerite

Ag3Hg2 

  Plumbopalladini

te Pd3Pb2 

  Schachnerite

Ag1.1Hg0.9

  Stannopalladinit

e (Pd, Cu)3Sn2 

  Tetraauricupride

AuCu

Tetraferroplatinum PtFe

  Weishanite (Au,

Ag3Hg2)

  Yuanjiangite

  Antimony Sb

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AuSn

  Zhanghengite

(Cu, Zn, Fe, Al,

Cr)

for Thailand Most mineral revenues include antimony, tin, lead, gypsum, respectively, Table 10.2

is a table that shows the type of mineral and metal ore.

Table 2 shows the type of ore metals.

Ore Metals from ores Metal compounds

in

Cassiterite Tin Oxide

Galena Lead Sulfide

Hematite Siderite Iron Oxide  ,Carbonate

Wolframite Tungsten Oxide

Malachite Copper Sulfide

Carbonate

Stibnite , Stibiconite Antimony  Sulfide, Oxide

Monazite Thorium Phosphate

Sphalerite and Zinc-blende Zinc Sulfide

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Metallurgical Operations

Metals from ore extraction process and result in a condition called active Metallurgical

(metallurgy) after a miner (mining) from the ground up. Need a way to separate the metal from

these ores. To choose the method depends on the properties. Physical properties of metals that

And the cost of separation. Metallurgical Operations generally have 2 stages.

1. Concentration  The ore contains impurities such as stone, sand, causing minimal sometimes

use rinse with water. But most often crushed or broken into small pieces (crushing) and heated.

And separating the metal powder froth floating on the liquid. The physical properties of gravity

and the weight of different metals and impurities separated by physical properties. Does not

change the chemical properties of metal separation depends on the composition of the ore metals

such as gold or silver out of the ore may be used only to cradle in a container shaped like a pan of

water. Gold or silver mixed with sand. Ground to sink at the bottom of the container The sand and

dirt will float out of the water. Because gold and silver are Denser than the sand itself, as Figure 2.

.

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Methods commonly used in the industry is how to flotation. (froth-flotation process) is a process

for extracting metal ore being mined. Often used with such ores Copper sulfide When the ore is

crushed into small pieces. Then add water and some chemicals mixed into the mortar used for

flotation. Of a homogeneous Metals, each with different properties of surface aeration and

chemicals to make metal mineral flotation separated from other minerals. Unwanted Figure 3.

Figure 3. Separation of minerals by flotation tank flotation tang.

***Other minerals that sank beneath the tank called gangue.

For chemicals that are added to.

1. frothing reagents substances that cause bubbles or foam. (Depending on the type of

metal) including soaps, detergents, turpentine, alcohol, poly propylene glycol, sulfur dioxide,

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*** fills the separation of metal called a flux (flux).

Figure 4. Separation of metals by heating.

Metals such as tin oxide Lead oxide and

2 SnO + C 2Sn + CO2.

2 PbO + C 2Pb + CO2.

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For liquid from the smelting of metal ores called slag (slag) carbon is used in the smelting of

metals trade. Especially for iron and steel making because it's cheap.

For sulfide ores in the air when burned. It has metal dioxides Sulfur Dioxide Then, the metal

oxide to be reduced again. The carbonate ores When fused To form a metal oxide and carbon

dioxide

The electrolyte separates the metal with air travel. (Electrometallurgy) by way of the past.

Electricity into the ore in a solution. To separate the metal from other compounds. Pure metal to

Koh cathode (negative electrode) consists of a metal with high activity, such as calcium, barium,

magnesium, aluminum and sodium, this method is costly, but are separate.

Figure 5. Separation of pure copper from copper ore has been defiled.

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Metal separation with (Hydrometallurgy) This method is sometimes called "leaching"

(leaching) the separation of metals from ores by solvent may be water, sulfuric acid, hydrochloric

acid. Or cyanide solution In the form of an aqueous solution of metal. Then separate the metal

from the solution again by adding chemicals or using electrochemical example, copper ore used

sulfuric acid soluble copper in the form of a solution of copper persulfate, and then extract the

metal copper. with the electrolyte in Tbilisi.

Metal

A metal (from Greek "μέταλλον" ‟  métallon, "mine, quarry, metal") is a solid

material (an element, compound, or alloy) that is typically hard, opaque, shiny, and features good

electrical and thermal conductivity. Metals are generally malleable † that is, they can be

hammered or pressed permanently out of shape without breaking or cracking † as well as fusible

(able to be fused or melted) and ductile(able to be drawn out into a thin wire). About 91 of the

118 elements in the periodic table are metals (some elements appear in both metallic and non-

metallic forms).

The meaning of "metal" differs for various communities. For example, astronomers use

the blanket term "metal" for convenience to collectively describe all elements other than hydrogen

and helium (the main components of stars, which in turn comprise most of the visible matter in

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the universe). Thus, in astronomy and physical cosmology, the metallicity of an object is the

 proportion of its matter made up of chemical elements other than hydrogen and helium. In

addition, many elements and compounds that are not normally classified as metals become

metallic under high pressures; these are known as metallic allotropes of non-metals.

History 

The nature of metals has fascinated mankind for many centuries, because these materials

 provided people with tools of unsurpassed properties both in war and in their preparation and

 processing. Sterling gold and silver were known to man since the Stone Age. Lead and silver were

fused from their ores as early as the fourth millennium BC.

Ancient Latin and Greek writers such as Theophrastus, Pliny the Elder in his Natural

History, or Pedanius Dioscorides, did not try to classify metals. The ancients never attained the

concept "metal" as a distinct elementary substance of fixed, characteristic chemical and physical

 properties. Following Empedocles, all substances within the sublunary sphere were assumed to

vary in their constituent classical elements of earth, water, air and fire. Following the

Pythagoreans, Plato assumed that these elements could be further reduced to plane geometrical

shapes (triangles and squares) bounding space and relating to the regular polyhedra in the

sequence earth:cube, water:icosahedron, air:octahedron, fire:tetrahedron. However, this

 philosophical extension did not become as popular as the simple four elements, after it was

rejected by Aristotle. Aristotle also rejected the atomic theory of Democritus, since he classified

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the implied existence of a vacuum necessary for motion as a contradiction (a vacuum implies

nonexistence, therefore cannot exist). Aristotle did, however, introduce underlying antagonistic

qualities (or forces) of dry vs. wet and cold vs. heat into the composition of each of the four

elements. The word "metal" originally meant "mines" and only later gained the general meaning

of products from materials obtained in mines. In the first centuries A.D. a relation between the

 planets and the existing metals was assumed as Gold:Sun, Silver:Moon, Electrum:Jupiter,

Iron:Mars, Copper:Venus, Tin:Mercury, Lead: Saturn. After electrum was determined to be a

combination of silver and gold, the relations Tin:Jupiter and Mercury:Mercury were substituted

into the previous sequence.

Categories

Base metal

In chemistry, the term base metal is used informally to refer to a metal that oxidizes or

corrodes relatively easily, and reacts variable with dilute hydrochloric acid (HCl) to form

hydrogen. Examples include iron, nickel, lead and zinc. Copper is considered a base metal as it

oxidizes relatively easily, although it does not react with HCl. It is commonly used in opposition

to noble metal.

In alchemy, a base metal was a common and inexpensive metal, as opposed to precious

metals, mainly gold and silver. A longtime goal of the alchemists was the transmutation of base

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metals into precious metals. In numismatics, coins in the past derived their value primarily from

the precious metal content. Most modern currencies are fiat currency, allowing the coins to be

made of base metal.

Ferrous metal

The term "ferrous" is derived from the Latin word meaning "containing iron". This can

include pure iron, such as wrought iron, or an alloy such as steel. Ferrous metals are often

magnetic, but not exclusively. 

Noble metal

 Noble metals are metals that are resistant to corrosion or oxidation, unlike most base

metals. They tend to be precious metals, often due to perceived rarity. Examples include gold,

 platinum, silver and rhodium.

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Precious metal

A precious metal is a rare metallic chemical element of high economic value.

Chemically, the precious metals are less reactive than most elements, have high luster and high

electrical conductivity. Historically, precious metals were important as currency, but are now

regarded mainly as investment and industrial commodities. Gold, silver, platinum and palladium

each have an ISO 4217 currency code. The best-known precious metals are gold and silver.

While both have industrial uses, they are better known for their uses in art, jewelry, and coinage.

Other precious metals include the platinum group metals: ruthenium, rhodium,

 palladium,osmium, iridium, and platinum, of which platinum is the most widely traded.

Applications

Some metals and metal alloys possess high structural strength per unit mass, making them

useful materials for carrying large loads or resisting impact damage. Metal alloys can be

engineered to have high resistance to shear, torque and deformation. However the same metal can

also be vulnerable to fatigue damage through repeated use or from sudden stress failure when a

load capacity is exceeded. The strength and resilience of metals has led to their frequent use in

high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as most vehicles, many appliances, tools,

 pipes, non-illuminated signs and railroad tracks.

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railway

Iron

Iron is a chemical element in the periodic table. To Fe-labeled iron has been used for over

4000 years before Christ. The Egyptians were the first to use steel. The panel found Steel pyramid

as well. Booming metal in the metal. Found on the surface of about 4.7 percent by mass of an

element that is ranked fourth. Iron is a metal with a high melting point, boiling point, gray being

attracted by magnets, and magnetic force can be maintained permanently.

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Iron found on earth are both iron ore and iron compounds. The compounds of iron are found in

soil. In plants and living things, especially in the blood, which are components of the fetal globin.

Iron ore found on Earth Often found in the shallow crust.

Smeling of Iron

Smeling of Iron to metallic iron. For use as a raw material for steel production using

carbon or charcoal to feed oxygen from iron ore. (A mixture of iron ore. Oxygen is called iron

oxide) is converted into metallic iron. The blast furnace iron making process currently has three

methods were refined using a blast furnace (blast furnace) for steel perforated (direct reduction)

and the smelting and iron (direct smelting).

The steel is most commonly used today. The blast furnace iron to steel in the form of

molten metal in the furnace is called pig iron furnace. Steel blast Need for coke (Coke) from the

 burning of coal (Coal) good quality with high prices of coking. Also contributes to air pollution is

high. At present, it is thought The new steel that can be used to replace conventional coal and

coke called COREX (Corex), but because the technology for iron making, there are still little

used. For blast furnace steel smelting temperatures up to 1600 ° C so that the molten metal. And

the stigma of As a separate skimmings.

Fe2O3 → Fe3O4 →FeO →Fe (metal)

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For steel reaction between iron oxide with carbon monoxide (caused by a combination of carbon

dioxide and carbon).

2 C (s) + O2 (g)→  2 CO (g) + heat.

Fe2O3 (s) + 3 CO (g) →  2 Fe (s) + 3 CO2 (g) + heat.

And a lime (CaCO3) is added to the raw material. The fused silica (The stigma) is a calcium

silicate. (CaSiO3) called slag or slag (slag).

the reaction

CaCO3 (s)→ CaO (s) + CO2 (g).

CaO (s) + SiO2 (g)→ CaSiO3 (l).

Figure 1.smelting iron ore in a blast furnace coke, limestone and charcoal on one side and a slag

and molten steel. Flow into the container below

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Figure 1. Smeling of Iron in a blast furnace.

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Steel Making Process

The steel mill will use elemental carbon or charcoal. To extract oxygen from the iron ore.

A metal But carbon is soluble in iron at the high dose. Which is not suitable for Be pressed into

steel We need to improve the properties of steel. By reducing Elemental carbon To get a more

cohesive or stainless steel (Steel) referred to steelmaking processes. 3 is a process that is using the

 barbecue aerobic - bass (Basic Oxygen Furnace) as shown in Figure 2, which is produced using

molten metal as raw material. The use of electric arc furnace (Electric Arc Furnace) material is in

solid form, such as sponge iron or pig iron. It has a steel melting furnace before chemical

additives and the use of Open Hearth Furnace (open hearth furnace) in an electric arc furnace

 practice. Is used to melt scrap metal recycling (Scrap steel from the non-use) rather than use the

steel is. From direct smelting Dare molten steel will be cast into semi-finished products. (Semi-

Finished Products) Steel types are small (Billet) and billet version (Bloom) for rolled steel long

 products. Or casting a slab (Slab) for the board. Next to Steel plate.

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Figure 2. Oxygen Furnace - bass.

The eliminate the stigma of Steel There are two steps to eliminate stigma.

1.Reaction Caused by injecting oxygen into the molten steel to reduce stigma, phosphorus,

silicon, carbon and manganese. Oxide was

2. Reduction Caused by the addition of oxygen reduction (flux) as CaO for the removal of

silicon and phosphorus oxide or manganese oxide SiO2 for defiled to reduce excess oxygen in the

molten steel. Another by-product Most sulfur Be removed from the equation.

CaO + FeS → CaS + FeO.

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For the processes occurring in the furnace oxygen - bass. Molten steel from the furnace The blast

is poured into the top of the container's vertical. The oxygen passes through the Figure 3.

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Figure 3. steel with oxygen furnace - bass.

Steel has come out with treasure depends on the chemical composition. Temperature

Heating process Temperatures Iron can combine with the carbon-iron carbide (Fe3C) we called

cementite post (Cementile), which are brittle.

Stainless steel is to be used for a wide range is due. the steel Has been a treasure to have

such a great impact (Impact Strength) Tensile (Tebsile Strength) compression (Compressive

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Strength) and shear (Shear Strength), so in order to achieve the desired properties of steel.

Therefore, the alloy metals such as chromium, nickel, molybdenum, tungsten, cobalt to

manganese and vanadium alloy steel, which is called that. Steel alloy (Alloyed Steel) for alloy

elements in steel alloys. Details are as follows:

silicon in steel with low carbon content. Silicon alloy that will contribute to the capture of

graphite, so the amount of silicon in the alloy with no more than 5 percent due to the graphite

itself and the silicon alloy may be separated into three categories.

Silicon-Manganese Steel contains silicon and manganese steel is used in the car's

suspension. This is because steel can. Great impact

Silicon Steel is valuable Carbon and silicon Steel Magnetism and high electrical resistance

as well. It adopted a core trans Ford Mercury and generator terminals, etc..

Valve Steel is an alloy steel used to make valves in various alloy parts, silicon is the

second most important example Silchcrome and alloys containing chromium and silicon, which

Valmax.

Molybdenum helps in the capture of carbide firmly and elements that help to prevent cracking

easily. Molybdenum alloy steel is used to make the tools that have been around for a very high

speed. Manufacturing and other jobs that require heat resistance. And resistance Corrosion

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Vanadium is an element that gives birth. The capture of carbide tightly. Vanadium alloy steel

Will be used to make tools. And the removal of oxygen is very good. Eliminates rust and other

impurities in the steel.

History

Steel

Steel is through the addition of other metals to adjust the properties of an alloy of iron

with carbon, 0.2-

 2.04% carbon composite materials to reduce costs. It has to mixing with

other elements such as manganese, chromium, vanadium, tungsten, carbon and other transition

metals determines the quality and quantity of the solid roll forming and the tension of the steel.

Structural steel spherical graphite is a high flexibility. With increasing carbon steel is

stronger. And hardness than steel, but are brittle maximum solubility of carbon in iron is 2.14% 

occurs at a temperature of 1149 ° C in an oven to a temperature of about 950 ° C higher

concentrations. Or low temperature To make an appearance as steel, cement. Alloys with carbon

It is a very solid steel. Because of the low melting point.

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Unlike steel Pure iron atoms, are very small, but with 1-3% by weight of waste products in the

form of particles in one direction. Which is more durable than steel And bend more easily than

older.

1. Carbon (Carbon Steel) is to increase carbon steel. (Chemical symbol: C) to increase the

mechanical properties to the steel.

2. Steel mix (Alloy Steel) is known to result from a combination of elements from two or more

following.

Mixing the 2 types of elements called binary alloy (Binary Alloy).

Mixing the 3 types of elements called Terry Canary alloy (Ternary Alloy).

Mixing the 4 types of elements called Clearwater Canary alloy (Quaternary Alloy).

Type of steel

1. Carbon (Carbon Steel).

2. Steel mix (Alloy Steel).

3. Special Steel mix (Special Alloy Steel).

4. Steel castings (Cast Steel).

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1. Carbon (Carbon Steel) is primarily a mixture of carbon up to 1.7%, and other elements such

as silicon, phosphorus, sulfur and manganese mixed in small amounts is attached to the steel from

the ore. This type of steel is a material that has properties of Hand Strength (Strength) and

weakness (Ductility) wide by changing the amount of carbon contained in the steel. Making it

ideal to choose the right style, sometimes called "Mild Steel".

Types of carbon steel can be divided into three types.

„  Low Carbon Steel (Low Carbon Steel) is a mild but not strong. Can be applied to

machining, drilling is easy due to the mild steel. Can be rolled or beaten into sheets easily. For

applications that do not require high tensile stress. Can not be hardened Or hard anodized But if

you need to fill hardened carbon layer. Because there is less carbon (up 0.2%) for applications

such as boiler plate steel pipes steel in the construction industry. Tin Such as food canning

Galvanized steel sheets such as galvanized roofing. Oil tank car tanks act made riveted bolts,

screws, wire, machine spare parts, hinges, door chains.

„  Medium carbon steel (Medium Carbon Steel) steel is strong. Stress and tension than low

carbon steel. But is less sticky It also provides better quality in processing and can be plated solid

surface. Suitable for applications requiring moderate tensile stress. To prevent wear to the surface.

And strength However, there is some stiff enough. Applications such as Making mechanical parts,

railroad mechanical shaft gear head hammer spring rod parts tractor nut screw screwdriver steel

 pipe must be strong.

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„  High Carbon Steel (High Carbon steel) high carbon steel is steel that is strong. Hardness

and high tensile stress due to a 0.5 percent carbon, 1.5% can be hardened to qualify changed.

But on the hardening properties change. But when hardening are brittle, ideal for applications that

require resistance to wear applications such as drill bits extracted scissors, knife roll Blade

Reamers threading (tap) razor blade, nail file, sheet gauge steel milling spring suspension ball.

 ball bearings

2. Steel mix (Alloy Steel) is not more than 1.7% carbon steel and other alloy elements such as

nickel, chromium, manganese, vanadium, molybdenum, tungsten, cobalt, mixing the elements.

Reduces the features to suit your needs, such as heat resistance, used for electric stove burner pans

and stove inductions.

The aim of the other alloying elements.

„  Increase strength

„  Increase the wear resistance And abrasion resistance

„  Add toughness to withstand shocks.

„  Increase the corrosion resistance properties.

„  Improve the magnetic properties

Steel mix can be divided according to the amount of material to mix 2 types.

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„  Steel mix high (High Alloy Steel) mixed with other elements such as iron, steel, over

10% of this group as well. Mix tool steel (Alloy Tool Steel) features on the side. Corrosion

resistance Resistant to corrosion It is used in making steel tools.

„  Steel mix low (Low Alloy Steel) mixed with other elements such as iron, not more than

10%, similar structural carbon steel, plain (Plain Carbon Steel) Steel mix high and homogeneous.

3.Special Steel mix (Special Alloy Steel) Special Steel mix. Steel mix is developed to suit

specific applications such as.

„  High Tensile Strength Steel mix (High tensile strength alloy Steels) properties of stainless

steel is generally mixed with a very high tensile strength. And high toughness Moreover, the

method is different from hardened steel, general mix. The percentage of carbon is about 0.2%,

suitable for shaft or gear, etc..

„  Abrasion resistant steel And impact (Wear Resistant Steel) is Manganese Steel mix. Also

known as "Steel Bernhard Phil House" with alloying elements such as silicon, manganese, 0.4 to

1%, but 11-14% of steel produced in the first pass has not been used. It is very brittle Must be

 plated at a temperature of 1000-1100 ° C and the water quickly. This will make steel toughness

 properties. Steel is not suitable for a particular job solely because friction is not worth the cost of

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„  Stainless steel (Stainless Steel) with chromium alloy to ensure corrosion resistance

 properties. And chromium to be reasonably high. Therefore, stainless steel is. Mix one high steel

features

Prevents rust Chemical corrosion from acids.

„  Heat resistance (depending on the amount of chromium is high).

„  The percentage of carbon up to 0.4%.

„  Mixing elements such as chromium, nickel, manganese, aluminum, etc. 15 -18%.

„  Use the seized parts, such as the seizure of the Stove Pipe made utensils or equipment

such as knives Chemical. Or in the kitchen sink (Sink).

4.Steel castings (Cast Steel) steel is taken up by the casting method. Look beyond to make

complex shapes, forgings and castings, extruded or rolled, which means this will be a similar size

to the desired size. This cast steel Compared to steel, the forming with the hit or the

measurements are different. Mechanical parts through porous castings appear small.

Cast steel is divided into 2 groups.

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„ Carbon steel casting (Carbon Steel Castings) carbon steel is essentially only the percentage of

carbon up to 0.6% of other metals such as manganese mixed with 0.5-

1% silicon 0.2 to

0.75% sulfur <0.5%, P <. 0.5%, which is the element that comes in the form of polluted

substances. Except aluminum, manganese, silicon, because the duty is eliminated Gas

(Deoxidizer), most applications will use. Terry bytes turbines

Carbon steel casting divided into three categories.

-Low carbon steel casting (Containing carbon up to 0.2%).

-Medium carbon steel castings (carbon 0.2 -0.5%).

-Cast carbon steel (high carbon, 0.5-0.6%). 

„  Steel mix cast (Alloy Steel Castings) is carbon steel with less than 1.7% percent carbon

and other elements such as manganese, silicon, chromium, nickel alloys, vanadium, molybdenum,

tungsten, copper at the molybdenum or cobalt to the elements. Mixed into the carbon steel, in

order to improve properties such as hardening and corrosion resistance at high temperature and

conductivity and magnetic properties. Production process to produce a pan on the stove, electric

stove and oven inductions. Most are used for components in the chemical industry.

Steel casting mix Can be divided into two groups.

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„  Steel mix low (alloying elements such as manganese, chromium, nickel, tungsten, up to

10%).

„  Steel mix of high (There is an important alloying element exceeds 10%). 

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Applications 

Iron Ore

Rank CountryIron ore production

(thousands of tonnes)year

World 2,950,000 2013

1 People's Republic of China  1,320,000 2013

2  Australia  530,000 2013

3 Brazil  398,000 2013

4 India  150,000 2013

5 Russia  102,000 2013

6 Ukraine  80,000 2013

7 South Africa  67,000 2013

8 United States  52,000 2013

9 Canada  40,000 2013

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Rank CountryIron ore production

(thousands of tonnes)

year

10 Iran  37,000 2013

11 Venezuela  30,000 2013

12 Sweden  26,000 2013

13 Kazakhstan  25,000 2013

14 Mexico  14,482 2011

15 Chile  12,624 2011

16 Mauritania  12,000 2011

17 Peru  10,459 2011

18 Malaysia  7,696 2011

19 North Korea  5,300 2011

20 Turkey  4,500 2011

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Rank CountryIron ore production

(thousands of tonnes)

year

21 Mongolia  3,000 2011

22 New Zealand  2,300 2011

23  Austria  2,050 2011

24 Bosnia and Herzegovina  1,850 2011

25  Algeria  1,500 2011

26 Greece  1,200 2011

27 Thailand  1,000 2011

28 Vietnam  1,000 2011

29 Norway  700 2011

30 South Korea  510 2011

31 Germany  400 2011

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Pig iron production

Rank CountryIron ore production

(thousands of tonnes)year

World 1,170,000 2013

1 People's Republic of China  720,000 2013

2 Japan  84,000 2013

3 Russia  50,000 2013

4 India  50,000 2013

5 South Korea  39,000 2013

6 United States  31,000 2013

7 Ukraine  29,000 2013

8 Germany  27,000 2013

9 Brazil  26,000 2013

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Rank CountryIron ore production

(thousands of tonnes)year

10 Taiwan  14,000 2013

11 Turkey  9,000 2013

other countries91,000 

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Toxicity 

Large amounts of ingested iron can cause excessive levels of iron in the blood. High blood

levels of free ferrous iron react with peroxides to produce free radicals, which are highly reactive

and can damage DNA, proteins, lipids, and other cellular components. Thus, iron toxicity occurs

when there is free iron in the cell, which generally occurs when iron levels exceed the capacity of

transferrin to bind the iron. Damage to the cells of the gastrointestinal tract can also prevent them

from regulating iron absorption leading to further increases in blood levels. Iron typically

damages cells in the heart, liver and elsewhere, which can cause significant adverse effects,

including coma, metabolic acidosis, shock, liver failure, coagulopathy, adult respiratory distress

syndrome, long-term organ damage, and even death. Humans experience iron toxicity above 20

milligrams of iron for every kilogram of mass, and 60 milligrams per kilogram is considered a

lethal dose. Over consumption of iron, often the result of children eating large quantities of

ferrous sulfate tablets intended for adult consumption, is one of the most common toxicological

causes of death in children under six. The Dietary Reference Intake (DRI) lists the Tolerable

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Upper Intake Level (UL) for adults as 45 mg/day. For children under fourteen years old the UL is

40 mg/day.

The medical management of iron toxicity is complicated, and can include use of a specific

chelating agent called deferoxamine to bind and expel excess iron from the body.

Aluminum

Aluminum (Aluminium, Al) This is the most common and the most common elements on

Earth are found as free elements in nature. Ore important is the Bogside (Bauxite, Al2O3.H2O) and

is also found in other minerals including Aarsotecls Beryl (Emerald) Acroaalts and corundum

(ruby) in 1892, there has been a split aluminum. first Of aluminum chloride reacts. With

 potassium amalgam * (potassium amalgam) in the price of aluminum is still expensive present

was prepared aluminum from the Bogside with silica, iron oxide and titanium oxide is mixed with

the ore. such boiling with sodium hydroxide. To replace silica as silicate melts well. And

replacement of aluminum oxide and aluminum ions Connecticut. Then add the acid to form a

 precipitate. High aluminum hydroxides. When sludge incineration is anhydrous aluminum oxide,

which is reducing the aluminum. With the Hall (Hall process) Figure 1. shows the cell electrolyte.

Peter Hall catalytic model. By Creole Delight (cryolite, Na3AlF6) as solvent aluminum oxide.

Then the solution is to electrically separate.

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Figure 1 Production of aluminum by electrolysis City Hall Process.

Equation that occurs at the anode and the cathode.

Anode (oxidation): 3 [2O2-

 → O2 (g) + 4e-].

Cathode (reduction): 4 [Al3 + + 3e- → Al (l)].

Reactions include: 2Al2O3 → 4Al (l) + 3O2 (g).

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The oxygen reacts with the carbon anode. Carbon dioxide is the metal to molten aluminum sinks

to the bottom. And flows out to the outside.

Aluminum

Atomic number  13

Standard atomic weight 26.9815385(7)

Element category post-transition metal, sometimes considered

ametalloid

Group, period,block  group 13, period 3, p-block

Electron configuration [Ne] 3s2 3p

1 

per shell: 2, 8, 3

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Physical properties

Phase solid

Melting point 933.47 K, 660.32 °C, 1220.58 °F

Boiling point 2743 K, 2470 °C, 4478 °F

Density(near  r.t.)  2.70 g·cm−3

(at 0 °C, 101.325 kPa) 

Liquid density at m.p.: 2.375 g·cm−3

Heat of fusion 10.71 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization 284 kJ·mol−1

Molar heat capacity 24.20 J·mol−1

·K−1

Vapor pressure 

P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k

at T (K) 1482 1632 1817 2054 2364 2790

Atomic properties

Oxidation states  3, 2, 1 (anamphoteric oxide)

Electronegativity 1.61 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies  1st: 577.5 kJ·mol−1

2nd: 1816.7 kJ·mol−1

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3rd: 2744.8 kJ·mol−1

Atomic radius empirical: 143 pm

Covalent radius 121±4 pm

Van der Waals radius   184 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure  face-centered cubic (fcc)

Speed of sound  thin rod: (rolled) 5000 m·s−1

 (at r.t.)

Thermal expansion 23.1 µm·m−1

·K−1

(at 25 °C)

Thermal conductivity 237 W·m−1

·K−1

Electrical resistivity at 20 °C: 28.2 nΩ·m 

Magnetic ordering  paramagnetic

 Young's modulus  70 GPa

Shear modulus  26 GPa

Bulk modulus 76 GPa

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Poisson ratio 0.35

Mohs hardness 2.75

Vickers hardness 167 MPa

Brinell hardness  245 MPa

CAS Number   7429-90-5

History

Prediction  Antoine Lavoisier (1787)

First isolation Friedrich Wöhler (1827)

Named by Humphry Davy (1807)

Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of aluminium

iso  NA half-life  DM  DE (MeV)  DP 

26Al trace  7.17×105 y β+  1.17 26Mg

ε - Mg

γ 1.8086 -

Al 100% Al is stable with 14 neutrons

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History

Ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants and as astringents

for dressing wounds; alum is still used as a styptic. In 1761, Guyton de Morveau suggested calling

the base alum alumine. In 1808, Humphry Davy identified the existence of a metal base of alum,

which he at first termed aluminum and later aluminum .The metal was first produced in 1825 in

an impure form by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian roasted. He reacted anhydrous

aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin.

Friedrich Wöhler was aware of these experiments and cited them, but after redoing the

experiments of rasted he concluded that this metal was pure potassium. He conducted a similar

experiment in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and yielded

aluminium. Wöhler is generally credited with isolating aluminium (Latin alumen, alum). Further,

Pierre Berthier discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it. Frenchman

Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville improved Wöhler's method in 1846, and described his

improvements in a book in 1859, chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the

considerably more expensive potassium. Deville likely also conceived the idea of the electrolysis

of aluminium oxide dissolved in cryolite; Charles Martin Hall and Paul Hér oult might have

developed the more practical process .

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Applications

General use

Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal. Global production of aluminium in

2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million

tonnes). Forecast for 2012 is 42 ‟ 45 million tonnes, driven by rising Chinese output.

Aluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves its mechanical properties,

especially when tempered. For example, the common aluminium foils and beverage cans are

alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium. The main alloying agents are copper, zinc, magnesium,

manganese, and silicon (e.g., duralumin) and the levels of these other metals are in the range of a

few percent by weight.

Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:

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„  Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, etc.)

as sheet, tube, castings, etc.

„  Packaging (cans, foil, frame of etc.)

„  Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, etc.).

„  A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to baseball bats, watches.

„  Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walking poles, etc.

„  Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases for equipment e.g. photographic

equipment, MacBook Pro's casing

„  Electrical transmission lines for power distribution

„  MKM steel and Alnico magnets

„  Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and CDs.

„  Heat sinks for electronic appliances such as transistors and CPUs.

„  Substrate material of metal-core copper clad laminates used in high brightness LED

lighting.

„  Powdered aluminium is used in paint, and in pyrotechnics such as solid rocket fuels and

thermite.

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„  Aluminium can be reacted with hydrochloric acid or with sodium hydroxide to produce

hydrogen gas.

„  A variety of countries, including France, Italy, Poland, Finland, Romania, Israel, and the

former Yugoslavia, have issued coins struck in aluminium or aluminium-copper alloys.

„  Some guitar models sport aluminium diamond plates on the surface of the instruments,

usually either chrome or black. Kramer Guitars andTravis Bean are both known for having

 produced guitars with necks made of aluminium, which gives the instrument a very distinct

sound.

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Copper

Copper (Cu) Evolution of copper. Originated more than 10,000 years ago, copper was the

first metal. The man known and used. The evidence showed that the human race is made up of

refined copper utensils. Since prehistoric times, though copper is a very small amount in the crust

(only 0.0001%) when compared to other metals like steel.

Due to the toughness properties The Neanderthal is this metal used to make weapons can

 be formed without the risk of fracture. And also Properties Its resistance to corrosion by sea water

and acid as well. However, the weakness of copper The low strength As a result, its use is limited.

The smelting of copper metal (Copper Metalluergy).

Copper is a metal found in liberty. Also found in the form of copper sulfide, oxide,

carbonate, sulfate and silicate. Most of the sulfide ore smelting of copper present in the ore, such

as copper.

Copper pyrite or chalcopyrite (CuFeS2).

Chalocite (Cu2S) or copper glance.

Malachite green [CuCO3.Cu (OH) 2].

Azurite blue [2CuCO3.Cu (OH) 2].

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Bornite (3Cu2S.Fe2S3) or peacock ore.

Melaconite (CuO), etc.

Such ores containing copper, such as copper pyrite ore by smelting copper ore is melted.

With copper about 4% or more would be melting. Figure 1. but less copper ore. Were processed

metals with water. (hydro-metallurgical process)

Figure 1. molten copper from copper smelting.

When the copper molten copper will separate out again to burn waste at low temperatures. Sulfur

will be made dioxide (SO2) in the form of gas, as well as arsenic and antimony. The reaction

 below occurs

2CuFeS2 + O

2 → Cu

2S + 2FeS + SO

2

S + O2 → SO

2 

4As + 3O2 → As2O

3

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Figure 2. gives a more pure copper. The acid electrolyte.

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Boiling point 2835 K, 2562 °C, 4643 °F

Density(near  r.t.)  8.96 g·cm−3

(at 0 °C, 101.325 kPa) 

Liquid density at m.p.: 8.02 g·cm−3

Heat of fusion 13.26 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization 300.4 kJ·mol−1

Molar heat capacity 24.440 J·mol−1

·K−1

Vapor pressure 

P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k

at T (K) 1509 1661 1850 2089 2404 2834

Atomic properties

Oxidation states  +1, +2, +3, +4 (a mildlybasic oxide)

Electronegativity 1.90 (Pauling scale)

Ionization

energies

1st: 745.5 kJ·mol−1

2nd: 1957.9 kJ·mol−1

3rd: 3555 kJ·mol−1 

(more)

Atomic radius empirical: 128 pm

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Covalent radius 132±4 pm

Van der Waals

radius

140 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure  face-centered cubic (fcc)

Speed of sound   thin rod: (annealed)

3810 m·s−1

 (at r.t.)

Thermal

expansion

16.5 µm·m−1

·K−1

(at 25 °C)

Thermalconductivity

401 W·m

−1

·K

−1

Electrical

resistivity

at 20 °C: 16.78 nΩ·m 

Magnetic ordering  diamagnetic

 Young's modulus  110 –128 GPa

Shear modulus  48 GPa

Bulk modulus 140 GPa

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Poisson ratio 0.34

Mohs hardness 3.0

Vickers hardness 369 MPa

Brinell hardness  35 HB=874 MPa

CAS Number   7440-50-8

History

Naming after  Cyprus, principal mining place in

Roman era (Cyprium)

Discovery Middle East (9000 BC) 

Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of copper  

iso  NA half-life  DM  DE (MeV)  DP 

Cu 69.15% Cu is stable with 34 neutrons

Cu  syn  12.700 h ε -  Ni  

β−  - Zn

65Cu 30.85% 65Cu is stable with 36 neutrons

Cu syn  61.83 h β−  - Zn 

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History

Copper Age

Copper occurs naturally as native copper and was known to some of the oldest

civilizations on record. It has a history of use that is at least 10,000 years old, and estimates of its

discovery place it at 9000 BC in the Middle East. a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq

that dates to 8700 BC. There is evidence that gold and meteoric iron (but not iron smelting) were

the only metals used by humans before copper. The history of copper metallurgy is thought to

have followed the following sequence: 1) cold working of native copper, 2)annealing, 3) smelting,

and 4) the lost wax method. In southeastern Anatolia, all four of these metallurgical techniques

appears more or less simultaneously at the beginning of the Neolithic c. 7500 BC. However, just

as agriculture was independently invented in several parts of the world (including Pakistan,

China, and the Americas) copper smelting was invented locally in several different places. It was

 probably discovered independently in China before 2800 BC, in Central America perhaps around

600 AD, and in West Africa about the 9th or 10th century AD. Investment casting was invented in

4500 ‟ 4000 BC in Southeast Asia and carbon dating has established mining at Alderley Edge in

Cheshire, UK at 2280 to 1890 BC. Ötzi the Iceman, a male dated from 3300 ‟ 3200 BC, was found

with an axe with a copper head 99.7% pure; high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest his

involvement in copper smelting. Experience with copper has assisted the development of other

metals; in particular, copper smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting. Production in the Old

Copper Complex in Michigan andWisconsin is dated between 6000 and 3000 BC. Natural bronze,

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a type of copper made from ores rich in silicon, arsenic, and (rarely) tin, came into general use in

the Balkans around 5500 BC.

Bronze Age

Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was first practiced about 4000 years after the

discovery of copper smelting, and about 2000 years after "natural bronze" had come into general

use. Bronze artifacts from the Vinča culture date to 4500 BC. Sumerian and Egyptian artifacts of

copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC. The Bronze Age began in Southeastern Europe around

3700 ‟ 3300 BC, in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC. It ended with the beginning of the Iron

Age, 2000 ‟ 1000 BC in the Near East, 600 BC in Northern Europe. The transition between the

 Neolithic period and the Bronze Age was formerly termed the Chalcolithic period (copper-stone),

with copper tools being used with stone tools. This term has gradually fallen out of favor because

in some parts of the world the Chalcolithic and Neolithic are coterminous at both ends. Brass, an

alloy of copper and zinc, is of much more recent origin. It was known to the Greeks, but became a

significant supplement to bronze during the Roman Empire.

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Antiquity and Middle Ages

In Greece, copper was known by the name chalkos (ταλκός). It was an important

resource for the Romans, Greeks and other ancient peoples. In Roman times, it was known as aes

Cyprium, aes being the generic Latin term for copper alloys and Cyprium from Cyprus, where

much copper was mined. The phrase was simplified to cuprum, hence the English copper.

Aphrodite and Venus represented copper in mythology and alchemy, because of its lustrous

 beauty, its ancient use in producing mirrors, and its association with Cyprus, which was sacred to

the goddess. The seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with the seven

metals known in antiquity, and Venus was assigned to copper.

Britain's first use of brass occurred around the 3rd ‟ 2nd century BC. In North America,

copper mining began with marginal workings by Native Americans. Native copper is known to

have been extracted from sites on Isle Royale with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600.

Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America, particularly in Peru around 1000 AD; it

 proceeded at a much slower rate on other continents. Copper burial ornamentals from the 15th

century have been uncovered, but the metal's commercial production did not start until the early

20th century.

The cultural role of copper has been important, particularly in currency. Romans in the 6th

through 3rd centuries BC used copper lumps as money. At first, the copper itself was valued, but

gradually the shape and look of the copper became more important. Julius Caesar had his own

coins made from brass, while Octavianus Augustus Caesar's coins were made from Cu-Pb-Sn

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conductivity, tensile strength, ductility, creep (deformation) resistance, corrosion resistance, low

thermal expansion, high thermal conductivity, solderability, and ease of installation.

Electronics and related devices

Integrated circuits and printed circuit boards increasingly feature copper in place of

aluminium because of its superior electrical conductivity (Copper interconnect for main article);

heat sinks and heat exchangers use copper as a result of its superior heat dissipation capacity to

aluminium. Electromagnetic, vacuum tubes, cathode ray tubes, and magnetrons in microwave

ovens use copper, as do wave guides for microwave radiation.

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Electric motors

Copper’s greater conductivity versus other metals enhances the electrical energy

efficiency of motors. This is important because motors and motor-driven systems account for

43%-46% of all global electricity consumption and 69% of all electricity used by industry.

Increasing the mass and cross section of copper in a coil increases the electrical energy efficiency

of the motor. Copper motor rotors, a new technology designed for motor applications where

energy savings are prime design objectives, are enabling general-purpose induction motors to

meet and exceed National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) premium efficiency

standards.

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Lead

Lead is a chemical element with the symbol Pb (from the Latin Plumbum) Lead is a soft,

soft metals can be extended. When a new cut Are white and blue But when the Air, the color

changes to gray. Lead is a toxic heavy metal. Humans are known to lead to several thousand years

ago in the early days of history. China takes the lead in Roman coin silver, European appliances,

such as the use of lead pipe, etc. Gold jewelry is usually associated with zinc-lead metal prices. In

natural ores containing galena, lead, lead compounds include a metal base that is most important

for hundreds of years, so in the lead. Zinc oxide has been used for many advantages such as light

industrial use battery and metal clad electrical cable is widely used as ingredients in the

 production of industrial pipes and industrial alloy shell, etc..

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Smelting of lead (Lead Metallurgy)

Lead ore is found Zinc is present in the Important ore of lead include

Gelena, PbS

Cerussite, PbCO3 

Anglesite, PbSO4

Crocoisite, PbCrO4 

Wulfenite, PbMoO4 

Pyromorphite, PbCl2.3Pb (PO4) 2 

Matlockite, PbCl2 

In the smelting lead ore is galena (lead sulfide, PbS) with burning sand. Limestone and iron ore

Of lead sulfide Will lead oxide and lead silicate.

3 PbS + 3 O2 → 2 PbO + 2 SO2

PbS + 2 O2 → PbSO

4

PbSO4 + SiO

2 → PbSiO

3 + 2 SO

3

When high-temperature sintering of zinc is reduced coke charcoal will float out the top of the

furnace.

2 C + O2→ 2 CO

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PbO + CO → Pb + CO2

PbSiO3+ CaO + CO → Pb + CaSiO

3 + CO

2 

The molten lead to flow underneath. If you want to lead a more pure way to separate electrolyte

Catalytic again. Lead is often used to fuse new again.

Furnace (Reverbatory Furnace)

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Furnace (Shaft Furnace) 

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Lead

Atomic number  82

Standard atomic

weight

207.2(1)

Element category post-transition metal

Group, period,block  group 14 (carbon group),period 6, p-

block

Electron configuration [Xe] 4f 14

 5d10

 6s2 6p

2 

per shell:2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 4

Physical properties

Phase solid

Melting point 600.61 K, 327.46 °C, 621.43 °F

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Boiling point 2022 K, 1749 °C, 3180 °F

Density(near  r.t.)  11.34 g·cm−3

(at 0 °C, 101.325 kPa) 

Liquid density at m.p.: 10.66 g·cm−3

Heat of fusion 4.77 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization 179.5 kJ·mol−1

Molar heat capacity 26.650 J·mol−1

·K−1

Vapor pressure 

P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k

at T (K) 978 1088 1229 1412 1660 2027

Atomic properties

Oxidation states  4, 3, 2, 1 (an Amphotericoxide)

Electronegativity 1.87 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies  1st: 715.6 kJ·mol−1

2nd: 1450.5 kJ·mol−1

3rd: 3081.5 kJ·mol−1

Atomic radius empirical: 175 pm

Covalent radius 146±5 pm

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Van der Waals radius   202 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure  face-centered cubic (fcc)

Speed of sound   thin rod: 1190 m·s−1

(at r.t.) (annealed)

Thermal expansion 28.9 µm·m−1

·K−1

(at 25 °C)

Thermal conductivity 35.3 W·m−1

·K−1

Electrical resistivity at 20 °C: 208 nΩ·m 

Magnetic ordering  diamagnetic

 Young's modulus  16 GPa

Shear modulus  5.6 GPa

Bulk modulus 46 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.44

Mohs hardness 1.5

Brinell hardness  5.0 MPa HB=38.3

CAS Number   7439-92-1

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History

Discovery Middle Easterns (7000 BC) 

Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of lead 

iso  NA half-life  DM  DE(MeV)  DP 

Pb 1.4% >1.4×10 y (α)  1.972 Hg 

Pb syn  1.53×10  y ε 0.051 Tl  

Pb 24.1% - (α)  1.1366 Hg 

Pb 22.1% - (α)  0.3915 Hg 

Pb 52.4% >2×10  y (α)  0.5188 Hg 

Pb trace  22.3 y α  3.792 Hg 

β−  0.064 Bi 

History

Lead has been commonly used for thousands of years because it is widespread, easy to

extract and easy to work with. It is highly malleable as well as easy to smelt. Metallic lead beads

dating back to 6400 BCE have been found in Çatalhöyük in modern-day Turkey. In the early

Bronze Age, lead was used with antimony and arsenic.

The largest preindustrial producer of lead was the Roman economy, with an estimated

annual output of 80,000 tonnes, which was typically won as a by-product of extensive silver

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smelting. Roman mining activities occurred in Central Europe, Roman Britain, the Balkans,

Greece, Asia Minor And Hispania which alone accounted for 40% of world production.

Roman lead pipes often bore the insignia of Roman emperors (see Roman lead pipe

inscriptions). Lead plumbing in the Latin West may have been continued beyond the age of

Theodoric the Great into the medieval period. Many Roman "pigs" (ingots) of lead figure in

Derbyshire lead mining history and in the history of the industry in other English centers. The

Romans also used lead in molten form to secure iron pins that held together large limestone

 blocks in certain monumental buildings. In alchemy, lead was thought to be the oldest metal and

was associated with the planet Saturn. Alchemists accordingly used Saturn's symbol (the scythe,

♄) to refer to lead.

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Silver

Silver is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Ag (Greek: άργσρος árguros,

Latin: argentum, both from the Indo-European root*arg- for "grey" or "shining") and atomic

number 47. A soft, white, lustrous transition metal, it possesses the highest electrical

conductivity of any element and the highest thermal conductivity of any metal. The metal occurs

naturally in its pure, free form (native silver), as an alloy with gold and other metals, and in

minerals such as aragonite and chlorargyrite. Most silver is produced as a byproduct of copper,

gold, lead, and zinc refining.

Silver has long been valued as a precious metal, used in currency coins, to make

ornaments, jewelry, high-value tableware and utensils (hence the term silverware) and as an

investment in the forms of coins and bullion. Silver metal is used industrially in electrical contacts

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and conductors, in mirrors and in catalysis of chemical reactions. Its compounds are used in

 photographic film and dilute silver nitrate solutions and other silver compounds are used as

disinfectants and microbicides (oligodynamic effect). While many medical antimicrobial uses of

silver have been supplanted by antibiotics, further research into clinical potential continues.

Silver 

Atomic number  47

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Standard atomic weight 107.8682(2)

Element category transition metal

Group, period,block  group 11, period 5, d-block

Electron configuration [Kr] 4d10

 5s1 

per shell: 2, 8, 18, 18, 1

Physical properties

Phase solid

Melting point 1234.93 K, 961.78 °C, 1763.2 °F

Boiling point 2435 K, 2162 °C, 3924 °F

Density(near  r.t.)  10.49 g·cm−3

(at 0 °C,

101.325 kPa) 

Liquid density at m.p.: 9.320 g·cm−3

Heat of fusion 11.28 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization 254 kJ·mol−1

Molar heat capacity 25.350 J·mol

−1

·K

−1

Vapor pressure 

P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k

at T (K) 1283 1413 1575 1782 2055 2433

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Atomic properties

Oxidation states  1, 2, 3 (an amphotericoxide)

Electronegativity 1.93 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies  1st: 731.0 kJ·mol−1

2nd: 2070 kJ·mol−1

3rd: 3361 kJ·mol−1

Atomic radius empirical: 144 pm

Covalent radius 145±5 pm

Van der Waals radius   172 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure  face-centered cubic (fcc)

Speed of sound   thin rod: 2680 m·s−1

(at r.t.)

Thermal expansion 18.9 µm·m−1

·K−1

(at 25 °C)

Thermal conductivity 429 W·m−1

·K−1

Thermal diffusivity 174 mm2/s (at 300 K)

Electrical resistivity at 20 °C: 15.87 nΩ·m 

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Magnetic ordering  diamagnetic 

 Young's modulus  83 GPa

Shear modulus  30 GPa

Bulk modulus 100 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.37

Mohs hardness 2.5

Vickers hardness 251 MPa

Brinell hardness  206 MPa

CAS Number   7440-22-4

History

Discovery before 5000 BC

Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of silver  

iso  NA half-

life

DM  DE (MeV)  DP 

Ag syn  41.2 d ε - Pd

γ 0.344,0.280,0.644,0.443

-

mAg syn  8.28 d ε - Pd

γ 0.511, -

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Reaching a peak production of 200 t per year, an estimated silver stock of 10,000 t circulated in

the Roman economyin the middle of the second century AD, five to ten times larger than the

combined amount of silver available to medieval Europe and the Caliphatearound 800 AD.

Financial officials of the Roman Empire worried about the loss of silver to pay for highly

demanded silk from Sinica (China).

Applications

Many well-known uses of silver involve its precious metal properties, including currency,

decorative items, and mirrors. The contrast between its bright white color and other media makes

it very useful to the visual arts. By contrast, fine silver particles form the dense black in

 photographs and in silverpoint drawings. It has also long been used to confer high monetary value

as objects (such as silver coins and investment bars) or make objects symbolic of high social or

 political rank. Silver salts have been used since the Middle Ages to produce a yellow or orange

colors to stained glass, and more complex decorative color reactions can be produced by

incorporating silver metal in blowing, kiln formed or torch worked glass.

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Jewelry and silverware

Jewelry and silverware are traditionally made from sterling silver (standard silver), an

alloy of 92.5% silver with 7.5% copper. In the US, only an alloy consisting of at least 90.0%

fine silver can be marketed as "silver" (thus frequently stamped 900). Sterling silver (stamped

925) is harder than pure silver, and has a lower melting point (893°C) than either pure silver or

 pure copper. Britannia silver is an alternative, hallmark-quality standard containing 95.8%

silver, often used to make silver tableware and wrought plate. With the addition of germanium,

the patented modified alloy Argentium Sterling silver is formed, with improved properties,

including resistance to fire scale.

Medicine

The medical uses of silver include its incorporation into wound dressings, and its use as an

antibiotic coating in medical devices. Wound dressings containing silver sulfadiazine or silver

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Zinc

Zinc, in commerce also spelter, is a metallic chemical element; it has the symbol Zn and

atomic number 30. It is the first element of group 12 of the periodic table. In some respects zinc

is chemically similar to magnesium: its ion is of similar size and it's only common oxidation state

is +2. Zinc is the 24th most abundant element in the Earth's crust and has five stable isotopes.

The most common zinc ore is sphalerite (zinc blende), a zinc sulfide mineral. The largest

mineable amounts are found in Australia, Asia, and the United States. Zinc production includes

froth flotation of the ore, roasting, and final extraction using electricity.

Brass, which is an alloy of copper and zinc, has been used since at least the 10th century

BC in Judea and by the 7th century BC in Ancient Greece. Zinc metal was not produced on a

large scale until the 12th century in India and was unknown to Europe until the end of the 16th

century. The mines of Rajasthan have given definite evidence of zinc production going back to

6th century BC. To date, the oldest evidence of pure zinc comes from Zawar, in Rajasthan, as

early as the 9th century AD when a distillation process was employed to make pure zinc.

Alchemists burned zinc in air to form what they called "philosopher's wool" or "white snow".

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Zinc

Atomic number  30

Standard atomic

weight

65.38(2)

Element categorytransition metal, alternativelyconsidered apost-transition metal

Group, period,block  group 12, period 4, d-block

Electron

configuration

[Ar] 3d10

 4s2 

per shell: 2, 8, 18, 2

Physical properties

Phase solid

Melting point 692.68 K, 419.53 °C, 787.15 °F

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Van der Waals radius   139 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure  hexagonal close-packed(hcp)

Speed of sound   thin rod: 3850 m·s−1

(at r.t.)

(rolled)

Thermal expansion 30.2 µm·m−1

·K−1

(at 25 °C)

Thermal conductivity 116 W·m−1

·K−1

Electrical resistivity at 20 °C: 59.0 nΩ·m 

Magnetic ordering  diamagnetic 

 Young's modulus  108 GPa

Shear modulus  43 GPa

Bulk modulus 70 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.25

Mohs hardness 2.5

Brinell hardness  412 MPa

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CAS Number   7440-66-6

History

Discovery Indian metallurgists(before 1000

BC) 

First isolation  Andreas Sigismund

Marggraf(1746)

Recognized as an unique

metal by

Rasaratna Samuccaya (800)

Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of zinc 

iso  NA half-life  DM  DE(MeV)  DP 

Zn 48.6% >2.3×10 y (β+β+)  1.096  Ni 

65Zn syn  243.8 d ε 1.3519 65Cu 

γ 1.1155 -

66Zn 27.9% 66Zn is stable with 36 neutrons

Zn 4.1% Zn is stable with 37 neutrons

Zn 18.8% Zn is stable with 38 neutrons

Zn syn  56 min β−  0.906 Ga 

mZn syn  13.76 h β−  0.906 Ga

Zn 0.6% >1.3×10 y  (β−β−)  0.998 Ge 

Zn syn  2.4 min β−  2.82 Ga 

71mZn syn  3.97 d β−  2.82 71Ga

Zn syn  46.5 h β−  0.458 Ga 

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History

Ancient use

Various isolated examples of the use of impure zinc in ancient times have been

discovered. Zinc ores were used to make the zinc ‟ copper alloy brass many centuries prior to the

discovery of zinc as a separate element. Judean brass from the 14th to 10th centuries BC

contains 23% zinc.

Knowledge of how to produce brass spread to Ancient Greece by the 7th century BC, but

few varieties were made. Ornaments made of alloys containing 80 ‟ 90% zinc, with lead, iron,

antimony, and other metals making up the remainder, have been found that are 2,500 years old.

A possibly prehistoric statuette containing 87.5% zinc was found in a Dacian archaeological

site.

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Production

Mining and processing

Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only iron, aluminium, and copper

with an annual production of about 12 million tonnes. The world's largest zinc producer is

 Nyrstar, a merger of the Australian OZ Minerals and the Belgian Umicore. About 70% of the

world's zinc originates from mining, while the remaining 30% comes from recycling secondary

zinc. Commercially pure zinc is known as Special High Grade, often abbreviated SHG, and is

99.995% pure.

Environmental impact

The production for sulfidic zinc ores produces large amounts of sulfur dioxide and

cadmium vapor. Smelter slag and other residues of process also contain significant amounts of

heavy metals. About 1.1 million tonnes of metallic zinc and 130 thousand tonnes of lead were

mined and smelted in the Belgian towns of La Calamine and Plombières between 1806 and

1882. 

The dumps of the past mining operations leach significant amounts of zinc and cadmium,

and, as a result, the sediments of the Geul River contain significant amounts of heavy metals.

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About two thousand years ago emissions of zinc from mining and smelting totaled 10 thousand

tonnes a year. After increasing 10-

fold from 1850, zinc emissions peaked at 3.4 million tonnes

 per year in the 1980s and declined to 2.7 million tonnes in the 1990s, although a 2005 study

of the Arctic troposphere found that the concentrations there did not reflect the decline.

Anthropogenic and natural emissions occur at a ratio of 20 to 1. Levels of zinc in rivers flowing

through industrial or mining areas can be as high as 20 ppm. Effective sewage treatment greatly

reduces this; treatment along the Rhine, for example, has decreased zinc levels to 50 ppb.

Concentrations of zinc as low as 2 ppm adversely affects the amount of oxygen that fish can carry

in their blood.

Applications

Dietary supplement

Zinc is included in most single tablet over-the-counter daily vitamin and mineral

supplements. Preparations include zinc oxide, zinc acetate, and zinc gluconate. It is believed to

 possess antioxidant properties, which may protect against accelerated aging of the skin and

muscles of the body; studies differ as to its effectiveness. Zinc also helps speed up the healing

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 process after an injury. It is also suspected of being beneficial to the body's immune system.

Indeed, zinc deficiency may have effects on virtually all parts of the human immune system.

GNC zinc 50 mg tablets (AU)

Cadmium

Cadmium is a chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. This soft,

 bluish-white metal is chemically similar to the two other stable metals in group 12, zinc and

mercury. Like zinc, it prefers oxidation state +2 in most of its compounds and like mercury it

shows a low melting point compared to transition metals. Cadmium and its congeners are not

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always considered transition metals, in that they do not have partly filled d or f electron shells in

the elemental or common oxidation states. The average concentration of cadmium in the Earth's

crust is between 0.1 and 0.5 parts per million (ppm). It was discovered in 1817 simultaneously

 by Stromeyer and Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in zinc carbonate.

Cadmium occurs as a minor component in most zinc ores and therefore is a byproduct of

zinc production. It was used for a long time as a pigment and for corrosion resistant plating on

steel while cadmium compounds were used to stabilize plastic. The use of cadmium is generally

decreasing due to its toxicity (it is specifically listed in the European Restriction of Hazardous

Substances ) and the replacement of nickel-cadmium batteries with nickel-metal hydride and

lithium-ion batteries. One of its few new uses is in cadmium telluride solar panels. Although

cadmium has no known biological function in higher organisms, a cadmium-dependent carbonic

anhydrase has been found in marine diatoms.

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Density(near  r.t.)  8.65 g·cm−3

(at 0 °C, 101.325 kPa) 

Liquid density at m.p.: 7.996 g·cm−3

Heat of fusion 6.21 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization 99.87 kJ·mol−1

Molar heat capacity 26.020 J·mol−1

·K−1

Vapor pressure 

P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k

at T (K) 530 583 654 745 867 1040

Atomic properties

Oxidation states  2, 1 (mildly basic oxide)

Electronegativity 1.69 (Pauling scale)

Ionization

energies

1st: 867.8 kJ·mol−1

2nd: 1631.4 kJ·mol−1

3rd: 3616 kJ·mol−1

Atomic radius empirical: 151 pm

Covalent radius 144±9 pm

Van der Waals

radius

158 pm

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Miscellanea

Crystal structure  hexagonal close-packed (hcp)

Speed of sound   thin rod: 2310 m·s−1

 (at 20 °C)

Thermal

expansion

30.8 µm·m−1

·K−1

 (at 25 °C)

Thermal

conductivity

96.6 W·m−1

·K−1

Electrical

resistivity

(22 °C) 72.7 n Ω·m 

Magnetic ordering  diamagnetic

 Young's modulus  50 GPa

Shear modulus  19 GPa

Bulk modulus 42 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.30

Mohs hardness 2.0

Brinell hardness  203 MPa

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History

Cadmium (Latin cadmium, Greek καδμεία meaning "calamine", a cadmium-bearing

mixture of minerals, which was named after the Greek mythological character Κάδμος,

Cadmus, the founder of Thebes) was discovered simultaneously in 1817 by Friedrich Stromeyer

and Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann, both in Germany, as an impurity in zinc carbonate.

Stromeyer found the new element as an impurity in zinc carbonate (calamine), and, for 100

years, Germany remained the only important producer of the metal. The metal was named after

the Latin word for calamine, since the metal was found in this zinc compound. Stromeyer noted

that some impure samples of calamine changed color when heated but pure calamine did not. He

was persistent in studying these results and eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and

reduction of the sulfide. The possibility to use cadmium yellow as pigment was recognized in the

1840s but the lack of cadmium limited this application.

After the industrial scale production of cadmium started in the 1930s and 1940s, the

major application of cadmium was the coating of iron and steel to prevent corrosion; in 1944,

62% and in 1956, 59% of the cadmium in the United States was for coating. In 1956, 24%

of the cadmium used within the United States was used for the second application, which was for

red, orange and yellow pigments based on sulfates and sulfides of cadmium. The stabilizing effect

of cadmium-containing chemicals like the carboxylates cadmium laureate and cadmium stearate

on PVC led to an increased use of those compounds in the 1970s and 1980s. The use of

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cadmium in applications such as pigments, coatings, stabilizers and alloys declined due to

environmental and health regulations in the 1980s and 1990s; in 2006, only 7% of total

cadmium consumption was used for plating and coating and only 10% was used for pigments.

The decrease in consumption in other applications was made up by a growing demand of

cadmium in nickel-cadmium batteries, which accounted for 81% of the cadmium consumption in

the United States in 2006. 

Production

The British Geological Survey reports that in 2001, China was the top producer of

cadmium, producing almost one-sixth of the world share, closely followed by South Korea and

Japan.

Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores, and it is most often isolated during the

 production of zinc. Some zinc ores concentrates from sulfidic zinc ores contain up to 1.4% of

cadmium. In 1970s, the output of cadmium was 6.5 pounds per ton of zinc. Zinc sulfide ores are

roasted in the presence of oxygen, converting the zinc sulfide to the oxide. Zinc metal is produced

either by smelting the oxide with carbon or by electrolysis in sulfuric acid. Cadmium is isolated

from the zinc metal by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate is

 precipitated out of the electrolysis solution.

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Applications

Cadmium has many common industrial uses as it is a key component in battery

 production, is present in cadmium pigments, coatings, and is commonly used in electroplating.

Batteries

In 2009, 86% of cadmium was used in batteries, predominantly in rechargeable nickel-

cadmium batteries. Nickel-cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 V. The cell

consists of a positive nickel hydroxide electrode and a negative cadmium electrode plate

separated by an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide) The European Union set the allowed

use of cadmium in electronics in 2004 to limits of 0.01%, with several exceptions, but reduced

the allowed content of cadmium in batteries to 0.002% 

 Ni-Cd batteries

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Electroplating

Cadmium electroplating, consuming 6% of the global production, can be found in the

aircraft industry due to the ability to resist corrosion when applied to steel components. This

coating is passivated by the usage of chromate salts. A limitation of cadmium plating hydrogen

embrittlement of high-strength steels caused by the electroplating process. Therefore, steel parts

heat-treated to tensile strength above 1300 MPa (200 ksi) should be coated by an alternative

method (such as special low-embrittlement cadmium electroplating processes or physical vapor

deposition). In addition, titanium embrittlement caused by cadmium-plated tool residues resulted

in banishment of these tools (along with routine tool testing programs to detect any cadmium

contamination) from the A-12/SR-71 and U-2 programs, and subsequent aircraft programs using

titanium.

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Tin 

Tin is a chemical element with symbol Sn (for  Latin:  stannum) and atomic number 50. It

is a main group metal in group 14 of the periodic table. Tin shows chemical similarity to both

neighboring group-14 elements, germanium and lead, and has two possible oxidation states, +2

and the slightly more stable +4. Tin is the 49th most abundant element and has, with 10 stable

isotopes, the largest number of stable isotopes in the periodic table. Tin is obtained chiefly from

the mineral cassiterite, where it occurs as tin dioxide, SnO2.

This silvery, malleable other metal is not easily oxidized in air and is used to coat other

metals to prevent corrosion. The first alloy, used in large scale since 3000 BC, was bronze, an

alloy of tin and copper. After 600 BC pure metallic tin was produced. Pewter, which is an alloy of

85 ‟ 90% tin with the remainder commonly consisting of copper, antimony and lead, was used

for  flatware from the Bronze Age until the 20th century. In modern times tin is used in many

alloys, most notably tin/lead soft solders, typically containing 60% or more of tin. Another large

application for tin is corrosion-resistant tin plating of steel. Because of its low toxicity, tin-plated

metal is also used for food packaging, giving the name to tin cans, which are made mostly of

steel.

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Tin 

Atomic number  50

Standard atomic

weight

118.710(7)

Element category post-transition metal

Group, period,block  group 14 (carbon group),period 5, p-

block

Electron

configuration

[Kr] 4d10

 5s2 5p

2 

per shell: 2, 8, 18, 18, 4

Physical properties

Phase solid

Melting point 505.08 K, 231.93 °C, 449.47 °F

Boiling point 2875 K, 2602 °C, 4716 °F

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Density(near  r.t.)  white, β: 7.365 g·cm−3

(at 0 °C,

101.325 kPa) 

gray, α: 5.769 g·cm−3

Liquid density at m.p.: 6.99 g·cm−3

Heat of fusion white, β: 7.03 kJ·mol−1

Heat of vaporization white, β: 296.1 kJ·mol−1

Molar heat capacity white, β: 27.112 J·mol−1

·K−1

Vapor pressure 

P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k

at T (K) 1497 1657 1855 2107 2438 2893

Atomic properties

Oxidation states 4, 3, 2, 1, −4 (anamphoteric oxide)

Electronegativity 1.96 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies  1st: 708.6 kJ·mol−1

2nd: 1411.8 kJ·mol−1

3rd: 2943.0 kJ·mol−1

Atomic radius empirical: 140 pm

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Covalent radius 139±4 pm

Van der Waals radius   217 pm

Miscellanea

Crystal structure  tetragonal

white (β) 

Crystal structure diamond cubic

gray (α) 

Speed of sound   thin rod: 2730 m·s−1

 (at r.t.) (rolled)

Thermal expansion 22.0 µm·m−1

·K−1

 (at 25 °C)

Thermal conductivity 66.8 W·m−1

·K−1

Electrical resistivity at 0 °C: 115 nΩ·m 

Magnetic ordering  gray: diamagnetic

white (β): paramagnetic

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 Young's modulus  50 GPa

Shear modulus  18 GPa

Bulk modulus 58 GPa

Poisson ratio 0.36

Mohs hardness 1.5

Brinell hardness  ~350 MPa

CAS Number   7440-31-5

History

Discovery around 3500 BC

Most stable isotopes

Main article: Isotopes of tin 

iso   NA  half-life   DM  DE(MeV)  DP 

Sn 0.97% - (β+β

+)  1.9222 Cd 

114Sn 0.66% - (SF)  <27.965

115

Sn 0.34% - (SF)  <26.791

116Sn 14.54% - (SF)  <25.905

117Sn 7.68% - (SF)  <25.334

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118Sn 24.22% - (SF)  <23.815

119Sn 8.59% - (SF)  <23.140

120Sn 32.58% - (SF)  <21.824

122Sn 4.63% - (β

−β−)  0.3661

122Te  

124Sn 5.79% >1×10

17y (β

−β−)  2.2870

124Te  

126Sn trace 2.3×10

5y β

−  0.380 +

126Sb 

History

Tin extraction and use can be dated to the beginnings of the Bronze Age around 3000 BC,

when it was observed that copper objects formed of  polymetallic ores with different metal

contents had different physical properties. The earliest bronze objects had tin or arsenic content of

less than 2% and are therefore believed to be the result of unintentional  alloying due to trace

metal content in the copper ore. The addition of a second metal to copper increases its hardness,

lowers the melting temperature, and improves the casting process by producing a more fluid melt

that cools to a denser, less spongy metal. This was an important innovation that allowed for the

much more complex shapes cast in closed moulds of the Bronze Age. Arsenical bronze objects

appear first in the Near East where arsenic is commonly found in association with copper ore, but

the health risks were quickly realized and the quest for sources of the much less hazardous tinores began early in the Bronze Age. This created the demand for rare tin metal and formed

a trade network that linked the distant sources of tin to the markets of Bronze Age cultures. 

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Production

Tin is produced by carbothermic reduction of the oxide ore with carbon or coke.

Both reverberatory furnace and electric furnace can be used.

Mining and smelting

Industry

The ten largest companies produced most of the world's tin in 2007. It is not clear which

of these companies include tin smelted from the mine at Bisie, Democratic Republic of the

Congo, which is controlled by a renegade militia and produces 15,000 tonnes. Most of the world's

tin is traded on the London Metal Exchange (LME), from 8 countries, under 17 brands.

Applications

Tin plating

Tin bonds readily to iron and is used for coating lead or zinc and steel to prevent

corrosion. Tin-plated steel containers are widely used for  food preservation, and this forms a large

 part of the market for metallic tin. A tinplate canister for preserving food was first manufactured

in London in 1812. Speakers of British English call them "tins", while speakers of American

English call them "cans" or "tin cans". One thus-derived use of the slang term " tinny " or "tinny"

means "can of beer". The tin whistle is so called because it was first mass-produced in tin-plated

steel.

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A coil of lead-free solder wire

Li-ion batteries

Tin forms several inter-metallic phases with Lithium metal and it makes it a potentiallyattractive material. Large volumetric expansion of tin upon alloying with Lithium and instability

of the Tin-organic electrolyte interface at low electrochemical potentials are the greatest

challenges in employing it in commercial cells. The problem was partially solved by Sony. Tin

inter-metallic compound with Cobalt, mixed with carbon, has been implemented by Sony in its

 Nexelion cells released in late 2000's. The composition of the active materials is close to

Sn0.3Co0.4C0.3. Recent research showed that only some crystalline facets of tetragonal (beta) Sn are

responsible for undesirable electrochemical activity.

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Brass

Brass is an alloy made of  copper and zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be

varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties. It is a substitutional alloy: atoms of the

two constituents may replace each other within the same crystal structure.

By comparison, bronze is principally an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze does not

necessarily contain tin, and a variety of alloys of copper, including alloys

with arsenic, phosphorus, aluminium, manganese, and silicon, are commonly termed "bronze".

The term is applied to a variety of brasses and the distinction is largely historical, and modern

 practice in museums and archaeology is increasingly to avoid both terms for historical objects in

favour of the all-embracing "copper alloy".

Brass is used for decoration for its bright gold-like appearance; for applications where

low friction is required such as locks, gears, bearings,doorknobs, ammunition casings and valves;

for plumbing and electrical applications; and extensively in brass musical instruments such as

horns and bells for its acoustic properties. It is also used in  zippers. Brass is often used in

situations where it is important that sparks not be struck, as in fittings and tools around explosive

gases.

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History

Although forms of brass have been in use since prehistory, its true nature as a copper-zinc

alloy was not understood until the post medieval period because the zinc vapor which reacted

with copper to make brass was not recognised as a metal. The King James Bible makes many

references to "brass". The Shakespearean English form of the word 'brass' can mean any bronze

alloy, or copper, rather than the strict modern definition of brass. The earliest brasses may have

 been natural alloys made by smelting zinc-rich copper  ores. By the Roman period brass was being

deliberately produced from metallic copper and zinc minerals using the  cementation process and

variations on this method continued until the mid-19th century. It was eventually replaced

 by speltering, the direct alloying of copper and zinc metal which was introduced to  Europe in the

16th century.

Early copper zinc alloys

In West Asia and the Eastern Mediterranean early copper zinc alloys are now known in

small numbers from a number of third Millennium BC sites in the  Aegean, Iraq, the United Arab

Emirates, Kalmykia, Turkmenistan and Georgia and from 2nd Millennium BC sites in West

India, Uzbekistan, Iran, Syria, Iraq and Israel. However, isolated examples of copper-zinc

alloys are known in China from as early as the 5th Millennium BC.

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The compositions of these early "brass" objects are very variable and most have zinc

contents of between 5% and 15% wt which is lower than in brass produced by cementation. These

may be "natural alloys" manufactured by smelting zinc rich copper ores in redox conditions.

Many have similar tin contents to contemporary bronze artefacts and it is possible that some

copper-zinc alloys were accidental and perhaps not even distinguished from copper. However the

large number of copper-zinc alloys now known suggests that at least some were deliberately

manufactured and many have zinc contents of more than 12% wt which would have resulted in a

distinctive golden color.

By the 8th ‟ 7th century BC Assyrian cuneiform tablets mention the exploitation of the

"copper of the mountains" and this may refer to "natural" brass.  Oreichalkos, the Ancient

Greek translation of this term, was later adapted to the Latin aurichalcum meaning "golden

copper" which became the standard term for brass. In the 4th century

BC Plato kneworeichalkos as rare and nearly as valuable as gold and Pliny describes

how aurichalcum had come from Cypriot ore deposits which had been exhausted by the 1st

century AD.

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found on the walls of  furnaces used to heat either zinc ore or copper and explaining that it can

then be used to make brass.

By the first century BC brass was available in sufficient supply to use

as coinage in Phrygia and Bithynia, and after the Augustan currency reform of 23 BC it was also

used to make Roman dupondii and  sestertii. The uniform use of brass for coinage and military

equipment across the Roman world may indicate a degree of state involvement in the industry,

and brass even seems to have been deliberately boycotted by Jewish communities in Palestine

 because of its association with Roman authority.

Brass making in the medieval period

Little is known about the production of brass during the centuries immediately after the

collapse of the Roman Empire. Disruption in the trade of tin for bronze from Western Europe may

have contributed to the increasing popularity of brass in the east and by the 6th ‟ 7th centuries AD

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Brass of types

ClassCopper

(%)

Zinc

(%)Notes

Alpha

 brasses

>65 <35

Alpha brasses are malleable, can be worked cold, and are used in

 pressing, forging, or similar applications. They contain only one

 phase, with face-centered cubic crystal structure. 

Alpha-

 beta

 brasses

55 ‟ 6535 ‟ 

45

Also called duplex brasses. Suited for hot working. It contains both

α and β' phase; the β'-phase is body-centered cubic and is harder

and stronger than α. Alpha-beta brasses are usually worked hot.

Beta

 brasses50 ‟ 55

45 ‟ 

50

Can only be worked hot, and are harder, stronger, and suitable for

casting.

White

 brass<50 >50

Too brittle for general use. The term may also refer to certain types

of  nickel silver alloys as well as Cu-Zn-Sn alloys with high

 proportions (typically 40%+) of tin and/or zinc, as well as

 predominantly zinc casting alloys with copper additive.

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Brass alloys

Alloy nameCopper

(%)

Zinc

(%)Other Notes

Admiralty brass 69 30 1% tin

Contains 1% tin to

inhibit dezincification in

many environments.

Aich's alloy 60.66 36.58 1.02% tin, 1.74% iron

Designed for use in

marine service owing to

its corrosion resistance,

hardness and toughness.

A characteristic

application is to the

 protection of ships'

 bottoms, but more

modern methods of

cathodic protection have

rendered its use less

common. Its appearance

resembles that of gold.

Aluminium brass aluminum Contains aluminium, 

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Brass alloys

Alloy nameCopper

(%)

Zinc

(%)Other Notes

which improves its

corrosion resistance. It is

used for seawater

service.

Arsenical brass arsenic, frequently aluminumUsed for

 boiler  fireboxes. 

Cartridge brass 70 30

Good cold

working properties. Used

for ammunition cases.

Common brass 37

Also called rivet brass.

Cheap and standard for

cold working.

DZR brass arsenic

Dezincification resistant

 brass with a small

 percentage of arsenic.

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Brass alloys

Alloy nameCopper

(%)

Zinc

(%)Other Notes

Gilding metal 

95 5

Softest type of brass

commonly available.

Gilding metal is typically

used for ammunition

 bullet "jackets", e.g.,full

metal jacket bullets.

High brass 65 35

Has a high tensile

strength and is used

for  springs, screws, 

and rivets. 

Leaded brass lead

An alpha-beta brass with

an addition of  lead. It has

excellent machinability.

Lead-free brass <0.25% lead

Defined by California

Assembly Bill AB 1953

contains "not more than

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Brass alloys

Alloy nameCopper

(%)

Zinc

(%)Other Notes

0.25 percent lead

content".

Low brass 80 20

Has a light golden color

and excellent ductility; it

is used for flexible metal

hoses and metal bellows. 

Manganese brass 70 29 1.3% manganese

Most notably used in

making golden

dollar coins in the United

States.

Muntz metal 60 40 traces of ironUsed as a lining on

 boats.

 Naval brass 59 40 1% tinSimilar to admiralty

 brass.

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Brass alloys

Alloy nameCopper

(%)

Zinc

(%)Other Notes

 Nickel brass 70 24.5 5.5% nickel

Used to make pound

coins in the pound

sterling currency.

 Nordic gold  89 5 5% aluminium, 1% tinUsed in 10, 20, and 50

cents euro coins. 

Prince's metal 75 25

A type of alpha brass.

Due to its yellow color, it

is used as an imitation of

gold. Also called Prince

Rupert's metal, the

alloy was named

after  Prince Rupert of the

Rhine. 

Red brass 85 5 5% tin, 5% lead

Both an American term

for the copper-zinc-tin

alloy known

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Brass alloys

Alloy nameCopper

(%)

Zinc

(%)Other Notes

seawater use, being

susceptible to

dezincification.

Yellow brass 67 33An American term for

33% zinc brass.

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Nonmetal

In chemistry, a nonmetal or non-metal is a chemical element that mostly lacks metallic

attributes. Physically, nonmetals tend to be highly volatile (easily vaporized), have low elasticity,

and are good insulators of heat and electricity; chemically, they tend to have high ionisation

energy and electronegativity values, and gain or share electrons when they react with other

elements or compounds. Seventeen elements are generally classified as nonmetals; most are gases

(hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, neon, chlorine, argon, krypton, xenon and radon);

one is a liquid (bromine); and a few are solids (carbon, phosphorus, sulfur, selenium, and iodine).

Applicable elements

The elements generally classified as nonmetals comprise one element each in group 1 and

group 14: hydrogen (H) and carbon (C); two elements in group 15 (the pnictogens): nitrogen (N)

and phosphorus (P); three elements in group 16 (the chalcogens): oxygen (OR), sulfur (S) and

selenium(Se); most elements in group 17 (the halogens): fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br)

and iodine (I); and all elements in group 18 (the noble gases), with the possible exception of

ununoctium (Uuo).

The distinction between nonmetals and metals is by no means clear. The result is that a

few borderline elements lacking a preponderance of either nonmetallic or metallic properties are

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classified as metalloids; and some elements classified as nonmetals are instead sometimes

classified as metalloids, or vice versa. For example, selenium (Se), a nonmetal, is sometimes

classified instead as a metalloid, particularly in environmental chemistry; and astatine (At), which

is a metalloid and a halogen, is sometimes classified instead as a nonmetal.

Categories

 Nonmetals have structures in which each atom usually forms (8−  N) bonds with (8− 

 N) nearest neighbours, where N is the number of valence electrons. Each atom is thereby able to

complete its valence shell and attain a stable noble gas configuration. Exceptions to the (8−  N)

rule occur with hydrogen (which only needs one bond to complete its valence shell), carbon,

nitrogen and oxygen. Atoms of the latter three elements are sufficiently small such that they are

able to form alternative (more stable) bonding structures, with fewer nearest neighbours. Thus,

carbon is able to form its layered graphite structure, and nitrogen and oxygen are able to form

diatomic molecules having triple and double bonds, respectively. The larger size of the remaining

non-noble nonmetals weakens their capacity to form multiple bonds and they instead form two or

more single bonds to two or more different atoms. Sulfur, for example, forms an eight-membered

molecule in which the atoms are arranged in a ring, with each atom forming two single bonds to

different atoms.

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Noble gases

Six nonmetals occur naturally as monatomic noble gases: helium (He), neon (Ne), argon

(Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and the radioactive radon (Rn). They comprise a group of

chemical elements with very similar properties. In their standard states they are all colorless,

odourless, non flammable gases with characteristically very low chemical reactivity.

With their closed valence shells, the noble gases have the highest first ionization potentials

in each of their periods, and feeble interatomic forces of attraction, with the latter property

resulting in very low melting and boiling points. That is why they are all gases under standard

conditions, even those with atomic masses larger than many normally solid elements.

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Polymer

History

A polymer (/  ̍p ɒlɨmər/) (poly-, "many" + -mer, "parts") is a large molecule, or

macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits. Because of their broad range of properties,

 both synthetic and natural polymers play an essential and ubiquitous role in everyday life.

Polymers range from familiar synthetic plastics such as polystyrene to natural biopolymers such

as DNA and proteins that are fundamental to biological structure and function. Polymers, both

natural and synthetic, are created via polymerization of many small molecules, known as

monomers. Their consequently large molecular mass relative to small molecule compounds

 produces unique physical properties, including toughness, viscoelasticity, and a tendency to form

glasses and semicrystalline structures rather than crystals.

The term "polymer" derives from the ancient Greek word πολύς (polus, meaning

"many, much") and μέρος (meros, meaning "parts"), and refers to a molecule whose structure

is composed of multiple repeating units, from which originates a characteristic of high relative

molecular mass and attendant properties. The units composing polymers derive, actually or

conceptually, from molecules of low relative molecular mass. The term was coined in 1833 by

Jöns Jacob Berzelius, though with a definition distinct from the modern IUPAC definition. The

modern concept of polymers as covalently bonded macromolecular structures was proposed in

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1920 by Hermann Staudinger, who spent the next decade finding experimental evidence for this

hypothesis.

The polymer (Polymer), a substance found in all living things is a large molecule. The

molecular basis of the so-called Monster Challenge (Monomer) Many bonds connected by

covalent bonds. The polymer of some kind may be the monomer, the same kind of link together,

such as starch and poly ethylene, but in some it may arise from monomers at. different link

together, for example, poly ester and protein etc..

At present, the polymer has a role to the lives of humans and various industrial processes

greatly by the example of a polymer that is widely known. And are very useful in plastics, rubber,

 polyester and so on.

The type of polymer

The polymer is a substance that is of many kinds. Each type will have different

 properties and origins. Thus, the classification of the polymer, so it can be done in several ways,

depending on whether the style is the criteria to consider. We can classify the polymer has. By the

following aspects.

1. Consider the source

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Is determined by the formation of a polymer type. The polymer can be classified into two

categories, was polymeric in nature. And a synthetic polymer.

1) Natural polymers (Natural Polymers) is a polymer that occurs naturally. Can be found

in all living things. The polymer is in the nature of these creatures produced by chemical

 processes that occur within cells. And is stored in various parts of the polymer, so it's natural to

have a different kind of life and position in life. For polymer Natural fibers include cellulose and

chitin, etc..

2) Once the polymer synthesis (Synthetic Polymers) was synthesized by man. With the

introduction of a large number of monomers in the reaction under optimal conditions. Make

monomers by covalent bonding them together into molecules to the polymer. Passenger

monomers that are used as precursors in the synthesis of a polymer is a hydrocarbon that is a by-

 product of crude oil distillation and separation of natural gas, such as PTT Polyethylene,

 polystyrene, polypropylene sensitivity. vinyl chloride, etc.

2. Consider the monomer, which is a component.

Is determined by the manner in which the monomers bond together. It can be classified into two

types.

1) Homopolymer polymer. (Homopolymer) is a polymer made from the monomer-

type polymers such as starch and PVC and so on.

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2) DJ Paul polymer (Copolymer) is a polymer made from the monomer, rather than

one or more of protein, which is caused by an amino acid with a different link together and dad.

for example polyesters.

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The production of container such as a plastic spoon.

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The seven types of plastics recycling

 No 1. copolymer plastic called ethylene Tech Rev Jonathan Lett (Polyethylne

Terephthalate), also known as PET (PET or PETE). The hard plastic is impact resistant. Not

 brittle And good gas permeability Used to make bottles for water bottles and etc. can be taken.

Recycled fiber For synthetic fur carpet and for stuffing pillows, etc..

 No. 2 plastic called poly ethylene, high density (High Density Polyethylene), also known

as El Simplified PE (HDPE). The plastic is tough and hard. Quite stiff, but very stretch Resistant

to chemicals and can take various shapes can be easily used to make baby bottles, water bottles.

And packaging for detergents, shampoo, etc. can be recycled. Oil bottle plastic pipe so artificial.

 No.3 Plastic is called poly vinyl chloride. (Polyvinylchloride), also known as PVC (PVC)

 pipe water supply hose clear. Film for food wrapping Plastic sheets for windows and doors,

leather etc. can be recycled for water supply pipe or conduit. For agriculture, furniture, benches,

traffic cones, plastic tape, cable, artificial wood and so on.

 No.4 Plastic is called polyethylene, low density polyethylene (Low Density Polyethylene)

can be condensed to the PE. (LDPE) plastic with a soft, stretchy and very transparent but very

durable, resistant to heat. Used for food wrap and wrap the pastry bag. Bang cooler bags for food

 packaging Can be recycled into plastic bags for your garbage bag trash sticks to wood, tiles,

furniture and so on.

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 No.5 plastic called poly propylene (Polypropylene), abbreviated as P (PP) plastic with a

clear tolerance. It's hot and sticky and has excellent impact strength. It is also resistant to

chemicals and oils. Used to make food containers, such as boxes, baskets, bowl, plate cylinder.

Cylinder filled with water, frozen yogurt sauce bottle glass medicine bottles can be recycled into

the battery box in the car. Parts such as bumpers and Plastic funnel for oil light broom or brush.

Plastic No. 6 has been copolymer of styrene (Polystyrene), also referred to as PS (PS) is a

transparent plastic. But fragile and easily broken Use a container cover. Or foam tray etc. can be

recycled for hangers video box ruler bulb thermostat. Meter panel power switch, thermal

insulation, tools have egg tray.

Plastic number 7 it has no specific name. But not any of the six types of plastic as

mentioned above. It is used to Plastic New furnace.

Plastic waste should not be disposed of with waste that can not be recycled, garbage,

garbage that can be burned. Waste that can not be burned, for example.

But should separate waste by type of waste and cleaned before disposal. In order to bring

these to the plastic waste is recycled. Produce other equipment to reduce the environmental

 problems of the world.

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History

Poly-paraphenylene terephthalamide ‟  branded Kevlar ‟  was invented by Polish-

American chemist Stephanie Kwolek while working for DuPont, in anticipation of a gasoline

shortage. In 1964, her group began searching for a new lightweight strong fiber to use for light

 but strong tires. The polymers she had been working with at the time, poly-p-Phenylene-

terephthalate and poly benzamide, formed liquid crystal while in solution, something unique to

those polymers at the time.

The solution was "cloudy, opalescent upon being stirred, and of low viscosity" and usually

was thrown away. However, Kwolek persuaded the technician, Charles Smullen, who ran the

"spinneret", to test her solution, and was amazed to find that the fiber did not break, unlike nylon.

Her supervisor and her laboratory director understood the significance of her accidental discovery

and a new field of polymer chemistry quickly arose. By 1971, modern Kevlar was introduced.

However, Kwolek was not very involved in developing the applications of Kevlar.

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Production

Kevlar is synthesized in solution from the monomers 1,4-phenylene-diamine (para-

 phenylenediamine) and terephthaloyl chloride in a condensation reaction yielding hydrochloric

acid as a byproduct. The result has liquid-crystalline behavior, and mechanical drawing orients

the polymer chains in the fiber direction. Hexamethylphosphoramide (HMPA) was the solvent

initially used for the polymerization, but for safety reasons, DuPont replaced it by a solution of N-

methyl-pyrrolidone and calcium chloride. As this process was patented by Akzo (see above) in

the production of Twaron, a patent war ensued.

Kevlar (poly paraphenylene terephthalamide) production is expensive because of the

difficulties arising from using concentrated sulfuric acid, needed to keep the water-insoluble

 polymer in solution during its synthesis and spinning.

Several grades of Kevlar are available:

1.  Kevlar K-29  ‟  in industrial applications, such as cables, asbestos replacement,

 brake linings, and body/vehicle armor.

2.  Kevlar K 49  ‟  high modulus used in cable and rope products.

3.  Kevlar K 100  ‟  colored version of Kevlar

4.  Kevlar K 119  ‟  higher-elongation, flexible and more fatigue resistant.

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5.  Kevlar K 129  ‟  higher tenacity for ballistic applications.

6. 

Kevlar AP ‟  has 15% higher tensile strength than K-29.

7.  Kevlar XP ‟  lighter weight resin and KM2 plus fiber combination.

8.  Kevlar KM2  ‟  enhanced ballistic resistance for armor applications

The ultraviolet component of sunlight degrades and decomposes Kevlar, a problem known as UV

degradation, and so it is rarely used outdoors without protection against sunlight.

Applications

Protection

Cryogenics

Kevlar is often used in the field of cryogenics for its low thermal conductivity and high

strength relative to other materials for suspension purposes. It is most often used to suspend a

 paramagnetic salt enclosure from a superconducting magnet mandrel in order to minimize any

heat leaks to the paramagnetic material. It is also used as a thermal standoff or structural support

where low heat leaks are desired.

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Armor

Kevlar is a well-known component of personal armor such as combat helmets, ballistic

face masks, and ballistic vests. The PASGT helmet and vest used by United States military forces

since the 1980s both have Kevlar as a key component, as do their replacements. Other military

uses include bulletproof facemasks used by sentries and spall liners used to protect the crews of

armoured fighting vehicles. Even Nimitz-class aircraft carriers include Kevlar armor around vital

spaces. Related civilian applications include Emergency Services protection gear if it involves

high heat (e.g., tackling a fire), and Kevlar body armor such as vests for police officers, security,

and SWAT.

Personal protection

Kevlar is used to manufacture gloves, sleeves, jackets, chaps and other articles of clothing

designed to protect users from cuts, abrasions and heat. Kevlar based protective gear is often

considerably lighter and thinner than equivalent gear made of more traditional materials.

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stringed instrument bodies, drum shells, golf clubs, rowing shells, crash helmets and billiards

cues.

Properties

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymers are composite materials. In this case the composite

consists of two parts: a matrix and a reinforcement. In CFRP the reinforcement is carbon fiber,

which provides the strength. The matrix is usually a polymer resin, such as epoxy, to bind the

reinforcements together. Because CFRP consists of two distinct elements, the material properties

depend on these two elements.

The reinforcement will give the CFRP its strength and rigidity; measured by stress and

elastic modulus respectively. Unlike isotropic materials like steel and aluminum, CFRP has

directional strength properties. The properties of CFRP depend on the layouts of the carbon fiber

and the proportion of the carbon fibers relative to the polymer.

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Application

Aerospace engineering

The Airbus A350 XWB is built of 53% CFRP including wing and fuselage components,

the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, 50%. The A380 is the first commercial airliner to have a central wing

 box made of CFRP; it is also the first to have a smoothly contoured wing cross section instead of

the wings beings partitioned span-wise into sections, this flowing, continuous cross section

optimises aerodynamic efficiency.

Specialist aircraft designer and manufacturer Scaled Composites have made extensive use

of CFRP throughout their design range including the first private spacecraft Spaceship One.

CFRP is widely used in micro air vehicles (MAVs) because of its high strength to weight ratio.

Ultralight aircraft (see SSDR) such as the E-Go, rely heavily on CFRP in order to meet the

category weight compliance requirement of less than 115 kg (254 lb) without pilot or fuel.

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Airbus A350, 53% composite materials

Automotive engineering

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer is used extensively in high-end automobile racing. The

high cost of carbon fiber is mitigated by the material's unsurpassed strength-to-weight ratio, and

low weight is essential for high-performance automobile racing. Race-car manufacturers have

also developed methods to give carbon fiber pieces strength in a certain direction, making it

strong in a load-bearing direction, but weak in directions where little or no load would be placed

on the member. Conversely, manufacturers developed omnidirectional carbon fiber weaves that

apply strength in all directions. This type of carbon fiber assembly is most widely used in the

"safety cell" monocoque chassis assembly of high-performance race-cars.

Honeycomb structure made of carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer on a BMW i3

Civil engineering

Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) has become a notable material in structural

engineering applications. Studied in an academic context as to its potential benefits in

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construction, it has also proved itself cost-effective in a number of field applications strengthening

concrete, masonry, steel, cast iron, and timber structures. Its use in industry can be either for

retrofitting to strengthen an existing structure or as an alternative reinforcing (or pre-stressing)

material instead of steel from the outset of a project.

Strengthened with carbon fiber the building.

Optical fiber

An optical fiber (or optical fibre) is a flexible, transparent fiber made of extruded glass

(silica) or plastic, slightly thicker than a human hair. It can function as a waveguide, or “light

 pipe”, to transmit light between the two ends of the fiber. Power over Fiber (PoF) optic cables can

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also work to deliver an electric current for low-power electric devices. The field of applied

science and engineering concerned with the design and application of optical fibers is known as

fiber optics.

Optical fibers are widely used in fiber-optic communications, where they permit

transmission over longer distances and at higher bandwidths(data rates) than wire cables. Fibers

are used instead of metal wires because signals travel along them with less loss and are also

immune to electromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for illumination, and are wrapped in

 bundles so that they may be used to carry images, thus allowing viewing in confined spaces.

Specially designed fibers are used for a variety of other applications, including sensors and fiber

lasers.

Optical fibers typically include a transparent core surrounded by a transparent cladding

material with a lower index of refraction. Light is kept in the core by total internal reflection. This

causes the fiber to act as a waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation paths or transverse

modes are called multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those that only support a single mode are

called single-mode fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have a wider core diameter, and are

used for short-distance communication links and for applications where high power must be

transmitted. Single-mode fibers are used for most communication links longer than 1,000 meters

(3,300 ft). Joining lengths of optical fiber is more complex than joining electrical wire or cable.

The ends of the fibers must be carefully cleaved, and then carefully spliced together with the

cores perfectly

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History

Guiding of light by refraction, the principle that makes fiber optics possible, was first

demonstrated by Daniel Colladon and Jacques Babinet in Paris in the early 1840s. John Tyndall

included a demonstration of it in his public lectures in London, 12 years later. Tyndall also wrote

about the property of total internal reflection in an introductory book about the nature of light in

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1870: "When the light passes from air into water, the refracted ray is bent towards the

 perpendicular.

When the ray passes from water to air it is bent from the perpendicular... If the angle

which the ray in water encloses with the perpendicular to the surface be greater than 48 degrees,

the ray will not quit the water at all: it will be totally reflected at the surface.... The angle which

marks the limit where total reflection begins is called the limiting angle of the medium. For water

this angle is 48°27', for flint glass it is 38°41', while for diamond it is 23°42'." Unpigmented

human hairs have also been shown to act as an optical fiber.

Application

Communication

Optical fiber can be used as a medium for telecommunication and computer networking

 because it is flexible and can be bundled as cables. It is especially advantageous for long-distance

communications, because light propagates through the fiber with little attenuation compared to

electrical cables. This allows long distances to be spanned with few repeaters.

The per-channel light signals propagating in the fiber have been modulated at rates as high

as 111 gigabits per second (Gbit/s) by NTT, although 10 or 40 Gbit/s is typical in deployed

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systems. In June 2013, researchers demonstrated transmission of 400 Gbit/s over a single

channel using 4-

mode orbital angular momentum multiplexing.

Advantages over copper wiring

The advantages of optical fiber communication with respect to copper wire systems are:

Broad bandwidth A single optical fiber can carry 3,000,000 full-duplex voice calls or 90,000 

TV channels.

Immunity to electromagnetic interference

Light transmission through optical fibers is unaffected by other electromagnetic radiation

nearby. The optical fiber is electrically non-conductive, so it does not act as an antenna to pick up

electromagnetic signals. Information traveling inside the optical fiber is immune to

electromagnetic interference, even electromagnetic pulses generated by nuclear devices.

Low attenuation loss over long distances

Attenuation loss can be as low as 0.2 dB/km in optical fiber cables, allowing transmission

over long distances without the need for repeaters.

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Electrical insulator

Optical fibers do not conduct electricity, preventing problems with ground loops and

conduction of lightning. Optical fibers can be strung on poles alongside high voltage power

cables.

Material cost and theft prevention

Conventional cable systems use large amounts of copper. In some places, this copper is a

target for theft due to its value on the scrap market.

Sensors

Fibers have many uses in remote sensing. In some applications, the sensor is itself an

optical fiber. In other cases, fiber is used to connect a non-fiberoptic sensor to a measurement

system. Depending on the application, fiber may be used because of its small size, or the fact that

no electrical power is needed at the remote location, or because many sensors can bemultiplexed

along the length of a fiber by using different wavelengths of light for each sensor, or by sensing

the time delay as light passes along the fiber through each sensor. Time delay can be determined

using a device such as an optical time-domain reflectometer.

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Power transmission

Optical fiber can be used to transmit power using a photovoltaic cell to convert the light

into electricity. While this method of power transmission is not as efficient as conventional ones,

it is especially useful in situations where it is desirable not to have a metallic conductor as in the

case of use near MRI machines, which produce strong magnetic fields. Other examples are for

 powering electronics in high-powered antenna elements and measurement devices used in high-

voltage transmission equipment.

Principle of operation

An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (nonconducting waveguide) that

transmits light along its axis, by the process of total internal reflection. The fiber consists of a core

surrounded by a cladding layer, both of which are made of dielectric materials. To confine the

optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that of the cladding.

The boundary between the core and cladding may either be abrupt, in step-index fiber, or gradual,

in graded-index fiber.

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Asbestos

Asbestos (pronounced /æs  ̍bɛstəs/ or /æz  ̍bɛstəs/) is a set of six naturally occurring

silicate minerals which all have in common their eponymous asbestiform habit: long (roughly

1:20 aspect ratio), thin fibrous crystals.

Asbestos mining began more than 4,000 years ago, but did not start large-scale until the

end of the 19th century when manufacturers and builders used asbestos because of its desirable

 physical properties sound absorption, average tensile strength, its resistance to fire, heat, electrical

and chemical damage, and affordability. It was used in such applications as electrical insulation

for hot plate wiring and building insulation. When asbestos is used for its resistance to fire or

heat, the fibers are often mixed with cement or woven into fabric or mats.

History

Early uses

Asbestos use in human culture dates back at least 4,500 years, when evidence shows that

inhabitants of the Lake Juojärvi region in East Finland strengthened earthenware pots and cooking

utensils with the asbestos mineral anthophyllite (see Asbestos-ceramic). The word asbestos comes

from the ancient Greek ἄζβεζηος, meaning "unquenchable" or "inextinguishable".One of the

first descriptions of a material that may have been asbestos is in Theophrastus, On Stones, from

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around 300 BC, although this identification has been questioned. The naming of minerals was not

very consistent in ancient times. In both modern and ancient Greek, the usual name for the

material known in English as "asbestos" is amiantos ("undefiled", "pure") whence the term for it

in, e.g., French amiante. In modern Greek, the word ἀζβεζηος or αζβέζης stands

consistently and solely for lime.

Types and associated fibers

1.Serpentine

Chrysotile asbestos Chrysotile, CAS No. 12001-29-5, is obtained from serpentinite rocks

which are common throughout the world. Its idealized chemical

formula is Mg3(Si2O5)(OH)4. Chrysotile appears under the microscope as a white fiber.

Chrysotile has been used more than any other type and accounts for about 95% of the

asbestos found in buildings in America. Chrysotile is more flexible than amphibole types of

asbestos, and can be spun and woven into fabric. Its most common use has been in corrugated

asbestos cement roof sheets typically used for outbuildings, warehouses and garages. It may also

 be found in sheets or panels used for ceilings and sometimes for walls and floors. Chrysotile has

 been a component in joint compound and some plasters. Numerous other items have been made

containing chrysotile, including brake linings, fire barriers in fuseboxes, pipe insulation, floor

tiles, and gaskets for high temperature equipment.

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tremolite, amosite, or crocidolite. They are referred to as "asbestiform" rather than asbestos. 

Although the U.S. OSHA has not included them in the asbestos standard, NIOSH and the

American Thoracic Society have recommended that they be included as regulated materials. As

such, they may still be related to diseases and hazardous. 

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Health problems

Figure A shows the location of the lungs, airways, pleura, and diaphragm in the body.

Figure B shows lungs with asbestos-related diseases, including pleural plaque, lung cancer,

asbestosis, plaque on the diaphragm, and mesothelioma.

Left-sided mesothelioma (seen on the right of the picture): chest CT

All types of asbestos fibers are known to cause serious health hazards in humans. While it is

agreed that amosite and crocidolite are the most hazardous asbestos fiber types, chrysotile

asbestos has produced tumors in animals and is a recognized cause of asbestosis and malignant

mesothelioma in humans.

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Mesothelioma have been observed in people who were occupationally exposed to

chrysotile, family members of the occupationally exposed, and residents who lived close to

asbestos factories and mines. According to the NCI, "A history of asbestos exposure at work is

reported in about 70 percent to 80 percent of all cases. However, mesothelioma has been reported

in some individuals without any known exposure to asbestos." The most common diseases

associated with chronic exposure to asbestos include: asbestosis and pleural abnormalities

(mesothelioma, lung cancer). Asbestosis has been reported primarily in asbestos workers, and

appears to require long-term exposure, high concentration for the development of the clinical

disease. There is also a long latency period (incubation period of an infectious disease, before

symptoms appear) of about 12 to 20 years.

Smoking has a supra-additive effect in increasing the risk of lung cancer in those exposed

to asbestos. Studies have shown an increased risk of lung cancer among smokers who are exposed

to asbestos compared to nonsmokers.

Asbestos exposure becomes a health concern when high concentrations of asbestos fibers

are inhaled over a long time period. People who become ill from inhaling asbestos are often those

who are exposed daily in a job where they worked directly with the material. As a person's

exposure to fibers increases, because of being exposed to higher concentrations of fibers and/or

 by being exposed for a longer time, then that person's risk of disease also increases. Disease is

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very unlikely to result from a single, high-level exposure, or from a short period of exposure to

lower levels.

Fiberglass

This article is about the plastic composite. For the insulation material, see glass wool. For

the fiber itself, see glass fiber.

Fiberglass (or fibreglass) is the common name for glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) or

alternatively glass-fiber reinforced plastic (FRP)Fiberglass is also known as GFK, for German:

Glasfaserverstärkter Kunststoff.

Fiberglass is a fiber reinforced polymer made of plastic reinforced by glass fibers,

commonly woven into a mat. The plastic may be a thermosetting plastic- most often epoxy,

 polyester- or vinylester or a thermoplastic.

Fiberglass is a strong lightweight material and is used for many products. Although it's not

as strong and stiff as carbon fiber it is less brittle, and its raw materials are much cheaper. Its bulk

strength and weight are also better than many metals, and it can be more readily molded into

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complex shapes. Applications of fiberglass include, aircraft, boats, automobiles, bath tubs and

enclosures, hot tubs, septic tanks, water tanks, roofing, pipes, cladding, casts, surfboards, and

external door skins.

Fiber

Glass reinforcements used for fiberglass are supplied in different physical forms,

microspheres, chopped or woven.

Unlike glass fibers used for insulation, for the final structure to be strong, the fiber's

surfaces must be almost entirely free of defects, as this permits the fibers to reach gigapascal

tensile strengths. If a bulk piece of glass were defect-free, it would be equally as strong as glass

fibers; however, it is generally impractical to produce bulk material in a defect-free state outside

of laboratory conditions.

Production

The process of manufacturing fiberglass is called pultrusion. The manufacturing process

for glass fibers suitable for reinforcement uses large furnaces to gradually melt the silica sand,

limestone, kaolin clay, fluorspar, colemanite, dolomite and other minerals to liquid form. It is then

extruded through bushings, which are bundles of very small orifices (typically 5 ‟ 25 micrometres

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in diameter for E-Glass, 9 micrometres for S-Glass). These filaments are then sized (coated) with

a chemical solution. The individual filaments are now bundled in large numbers to provide a

roving. The diameter of the filaments, and the number of filaments in the roving, determine its

weight, typically expressed in one of two measurement systems:

yield, or yards per pound (the number of yards of fiber in one pound of material; thus a smaller

number means a heavier roving). Examples of standard yields are 225yield, 450yield, 675yield.

tex, or grams per km (how many grams 1 km of roving weighs, inverted from yield; thus a smaller

number means a lighter roving). Examples of standard tex are 750tex, 1100tex, 2200tex.

Applications

Fiberglass is an immensely versatile material due to its light weight, inherent strength,

weather-resistant finish and variety of surface textures.

The development of fiber-reinforced plastic for commercial use was extensively

researched in the 1930s. It was of particular interest to the aviation industry. A means of mass

 production of glass strands was accidentally discovered in 1932 when a researcher at Owens-

Illinois directed a jet of compressed air at a stream of molten glass and produced fibers. After

Owens merged with the Corning company in 1935, Owens Corning adapted the method to

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 produce its patented "Fiberglas" (one "s"). A suitable resin for combining the "Fiberglas" with a

 plastic was developed in 1936 by du Pont. The first ancestor of modern polyester resins is

Cyanamid of 1942. Peroxide curing systems were used by then.

During World War II, fiberglass was developed as a replacement for the molded plywood

used in aircraft radomes (fiberglass being transparent to microwaves). Its first main civilian

application was for the building of boats and sportscar bodies, where it gained acceptance in the

1950s. Its use has broadened to the automotive and sport equipment sectors. In some aircraft

 production, fiberglass is now yielding to carbon fiber, which weighs less and is stronger by

volume and weight.

Because of fiberglass's light weight and durability, it is often used in protective equipment

such as helmets. Many sports use fiberglass protective gear, such as goaltenders' and catchers'

masks.

Storage tanks

Storage tanks can be made of fiberglass with capacities up to about 300 tonnes. Smaller

tanks can be made with chopped strand mat cast over a thermoplastic inner tank which acts as a

 perform during construction. Much more reliable tanks are made using woven mat or filament

wound fibre, with the fibre orientation at right angles to the hoop stress imposed in the side wall

 by the contents. Such tanks tend to be used for chemical storage because the plastic liner (often

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A fiberglass dome house in Davis, California

Piping

GRP and GRE pipe can be used in a variety of above- and below-ground systems,

including those for:

„  Firewater

„  Cooling water

„  Drinking water

„  Wastewater/sewage

„  Natural gas

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Air flow test for the extraction and filtration of styrene vapors in

a production hall for GRP yachts

Health problems

In June 2011, the National Toxicology Program (NTP) removed from its Report on

Carcinogens all biosoluble glass wool used in home and building insulation and for non-insulation

 products. However, NTP considers fibrous glass dust to be "reasonably anticipated [as] a human

carcinogen (Certain Glass Wool Fibers (Inhalable))". Similarly, California's Office of

Environmental Health Hazard Assessment ("OEHHA") published a November, 2011 modification

to its Proposition 65 listing to include only "Glass wool fibers (inhalable and biopersistent)." The

actions of U.S. NTP and California's OEHHA mean that a cancer warning label for biosoluble

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fiber glass home and building insulation is no longer required under federal or California law. All

fiberglass wools commonly used for thermal and acoustical insulation were reclassified by the

International Agency for Research on Cancer ("IARC") in October 2001 as Not Classifiable as to

carcinogenicity to humans.

The European Union and Germany classify synthetic vitreous fibers as possibly or

 probably carcinogenic, but fibers can be exempt from this classification if they pass specific tests.

Evidence for these classifications is primarily from studies on experimental animals and

mechanisms of carcinogenesis. The glass wool epidemiology studies have been reviewed by a

 panel of international experts convened by the International Agency for Research on Cancer

("IARC"). These experts concluded: "Epidemiologic studies published during the 15 years since

the previous IARC monographs review of these fibres in 1988 provide no evidence of increased

risks of lung cancer or mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of the body cavities) from occupational

exposures during the manufacture of these materials, and inadequate evidence overall of any

cancer risk." Similar reviews of the epidemiology studies have been conducted by the Agency for

Toxic Substances and Disease Registry ("ATSDR"), the National Toxicology Program, the

 National Academy of Sciences and Harvard's Medical and Public Health Schools which reached

the same conclusion as IARC that there is no evidence of increased risk from occupational

exposure to glass wool fibers.

Fiberglass will irritate the eyes, skin, and the respiratory system. Potential symptoms

include irritation of eyes, skin, nose, throat, dyspnea (breathing difficulty); sore throat, hoarseness

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and cough. Scientific evidence demonstrates that fiber glass is safe to manufacture, install and use

when recommended work practices are followed to reduce temporary mechanical irritation.

Fiberglass is resistant to mold but growth can occur if fiberglass becomes wet and contaminated

with organic material. Fiberglass insulation that has become wet should be inspected for evidence

of residual moisture and contamination. Contaminated fiberglass insulation should be promptly

removed.

While the resins are cured, styrene vapors are released. These are irritating to mucous

membranes and respiratory tract. Therefore, the Hazardous Substances Ordinance in Germany

dictates a maximum occupational exposure limit of 86 mg/m³. In certain concentrations may even

occur a potentially explosive mixture. Further manufacture of GRP components (grinding,

cutting, sawing) creates fine dusts and chips containing glass filaments, as well as tacky dust, in

quantities substantial enough to affect people's health and the functionality of machines and

equipment. The installation of effective extraction and filtration equipment is required to ensure

safety and efficiency.

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Piping

Within industry, piping is a system of pipes used to convey fluids (liquids and gases) from

one location to another. The engineering discipline of piping design studies the efficient transport

of fluid. Industrial process piping (and accompanying in-line components) can be manufactured

from wood, fiberglass, glass, steel, aluminum,plastic, copper, and concrete. The in-line

components, known as fittings, valves, and other devices, typically sense and control the pressure,

flow rate and temperature of the transmitted fluid, and usually are included in the field of Piping

Design (or Piping Engineering). Piping systems are documented in piping and instrumentation

diagrams (P&IDs). If necessary, pipes can be cleaned by the tube cleaning process.

Engineering subfields

Generally, industrial piping engineering has three major subfields:

„  Piping material

„  Piping design

„  Stress analysis

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Stress analysis

Process piping and power piping are typically checked by pipe stress engineers to verify

that the routing, nozzle loads, hangers, and supports are properly placed and selected such that

allowable pipe stress is not exceeded under different situation such as sustain, operating, pressure

testing etc., as per the ASME B31, EN 13480 or any other applicable codes and standards. It is

necessary to evaluate the mechanical behavior of the piping under regular loads (internal pressure

and thermal stresses) as well under occasional and intermittent loading cases such as earthquake,

high wind or special vibration, and water hammer. This evaluation is usually performed with the

assistance of a specialized (finite element) pipe stress analysis computer program.

In cryogenic pipe supports, most steel become more brittle as the temperature decreases

from normal operating conditions, so it is necessary to know the temperature distribution for

cryogenic conditions. Steel structures will have areas of high stress that may be caused by sharp

corners in the design, or inclusions in the material.

Wooden piping history

Early wooden pipes were constructed out of logs that had a large hole bored lengthwise

through the center. Later wooden pipes were constructed with staves and hoops similar to wooden

 barrel construction. Stave pipes have the advantage that they are easily transported as a compact

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 pile of parts on a wagon and then assembled as a hollow structure at the job site. Wooden pipes

were especially popular in mountain regions where transport of heavy iron or concrete pipes

would have been difficult.

Wooden pipes were easier to maintain than metal, because the wood did not expand or

contract with temperature changes as much as metal and so consequently expansion joints and

 bends were not required. The thickness of wood afforded some insulating properties to the pipes

which helped prevent freezing as compared to metal pipes. Wood used for water pipes also does

not rot very easily. Electrolysis, that bugbear of many iron pipe systems, doesn't affect wood

 pipes at all, since wood is a much better electrical insulator.

Materials

The material with which a pipe is manufactured often forms as the basis for choosing any

 pipe. Materials that are used for manufacturing pipes include:

„  Carbon steel

„  Low temperature service carbon steel

„  Stainless steel

„  Non Ferrous metals, e.g. cupro-nickel

„  Nonmetallic, e.g. tempered glass

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Standards

There are certain standard codes that need to be followed while designing or

manufacturing any piping system. Organizations that promulgate piping standards include:

„  ASME - The American Society of Mechanical Engineers - B31 series

„  ASME B31.1 Power piping (steam piping etc.)

„  ASME B31.3 Process piping

„  ASME B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquid Hydrocarbons and Other

Liquids

„  ASME B31.5 Refrigeration piping and heat transfer components

„  ASME B31.8 Gas transmission and distribution piping systems

„  ASME B31.9 Building services piping

„  ASME B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems

„  ASME B31.12 Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines

„  ASTM - American Society for Testing and Materials

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„  AWWA - American Water Works Association

„  MSS ‟  Manufacturers' Standardization Society

„  ANSI - American National Standards Institute

„  NFPA - National Fire Protection Association

„  EJMA - Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association

Steel pipe

Steel pipe (or black iron pipe) was once the most popular choice for supply of water and

flammable gases. Steel pipe is still used in many homes and businesses to convey natural gas or

 propane fuel, and is a popular choice in fire sprinkler systems due to its high heat resistance. In

commercial buildings, steel pipe is used to convey heating or cooling water to heat exchangers,

air handlers, variable air volume (VAV) devices, or other HVAC equipment.

Steel pipe is sometimes joined using threaded connections, where tapered threads (see

 National Pipe Thread) are cut into the end of the tubing segment, sealant is applied in the form of

thread sealing compound or thread seal tape (also known as PTFE or Teflon tape), and it is then

threaded into a corresponding threaded fitting using two pipe wrenches. Beyond domestic or light

commercial settings, steel pipe is often joined by welding, or by use of mechanical couplings

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made by companies such as Victaulic or Anvil International (formerly Grinnell) that hold the pipe

 joint together via a groove pressed or cut (a rarely used older practice), into the ends of the pipes.

Other variations of steel pipe include various stainless steel and chrome alloys. In high-

 pressure situations these are usually joined by TIG welding.

steel pipe

Copper pipe

Copper tubing is most often used for supply of hot and cold water, and as refrigerant line

in HVAC systems. There are two basic types of copper tubing, soft copper and rigid copper.

Copper tubing is joined using flare connection, compression connection, or solder. Copper offers

a high level of resistance to corrosion, but is becoming very costly.

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copper pipe

Soft copper

Soft (or ductile) copper tubing can be bent easily to travel around obstacles in the path of

the tubing. While the work hardening of the drawing process used to size the tubing makes the

copper hard/rigid, it is carefully annealed to make it soft again; it is therefore more expensive to

 produce than non-annealed, rigid copper tubing. It can be joined by any of the three methods used

for rigid copper, and it is the only type of copper tubing suitable for flare connections. Soft copper

is the most popular choice for refrigerant lines in split-system air conditioners and heat pumps.

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Soft copper

Flare connections

Flare connections require that the end of a tubing section be spread outward in a bell shape

using a flare tool. A flare nut then compresses this bell-shaped end onto a male fitting. Flare

connections are a labor-intensive method of making connections, but are quite reliable over the

course of many years.

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Flare connections

Rigid copper

Rigid copper is a popular choice for water lines. It is joined using a sweat, compression or

crimp/pressed connection. Rigid copper, rigid due to the work hardening of the drawing process,

cannot be bent and must use elbow fittings to go around corners or around obstacles. If heated and

allowed to slowly cook, called annealing, then rigid copper will become soft and can be

 bent/formed without cracking.

Rigid copper

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Aluminium pipe

Aluminium is sometimes used due to its low cost, resistance to corrosion and solvents, and

its ductility. Aluminium tube is more desirable than steel for the conveyance of flammable

solvents, since it cannot create sparks when manipulated. Aluminium tubing can be connected by

flare or compression fittings, or it can be welded by the TIG or heli  arc processes.

Aluminium pipe

Glass pipe

Tempered glass pipes are used for specialized applications, such as corrosive liquids, medical or

laboratory wastes, or pharmaceutical manufacturing. Connections are generally made using

specialized gasket or O-ring fittings.

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Glass pipe

Plastic pipe

Poly(vinyl chloride), commonly abbreviated PVC, is the third-most widely produced

 polymer, after polyethylene and polypropylene.

PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid (sometimes abbreviated as PVC) and flexible. The

rigid form of PVC is used in construction for pipe, and in profile applications such as doors and

windows. It is also used for bottles and other non-food packaging, and cards (such as bank or

membership cards). It can be made softer and more flexible by the addition of plasticizers, the

most widely used being phthalates. In this form, it is also used in plumbing, electrical cable

insulation, imitation leather, signage, inflatable products and many applications where it replaces

rubber.

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Plastic pipe

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APPENDIX

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ตนกาเนดเหลก 

เหลก (องักฤษ:Iron)เปนธาตเคมในตารางธาต มสัญลักษณเปน Fe และ หมายเลขอะตอม

26. เหลกอย ในธาตหม  8 และคาบ 4 โลหะสัญลักษณ Fe ย อมาจากferrum, ในภาษาละตน

แปลว าเหลก 

ยคเหลก เปนยคหลังจากยคสารตยคท มนษยเร มใชเหลกในการทาเคร องมอเคร อง ใช

ต างๆในการดารงชวต การใชเหลกเร มในตะวันออกกลางเม อ 467 ป ก อนพทธศักราช จากนั นจง

แพร  เขาส ยโรปโดยเขามาแทนท เคร องมอจากสารด เม อประมาณ 57 ป ก อนพทธศักราช ใน

อนเดย เร มใชเหลกเม อ 457 ป ก อนพทธศักราช ในแอฟรกา เร มใชเหลกเม อราวพ.ศ. 43

เคร องมอเหลกแพร  เขาไปในจนเม อ 107 ป ก อนพทธศักราช 

แรเหลกในประเทศไทย 

เหลก ในปัจจบันประเทศไทย ไดมการสารวจพบแร  เหลกอย มากมายหลายแห งทั ว

ประเทศ โดยสารวจพบ ในบรเวณจังหวัดต างๆ รวม 29 จังหวัด แร เหลกท สารวจพบน  บาง

บรเวณไดทาการสารวจจนสามารถประเมนปรมาณสารอง ของแร และพัฒนาเปดเหมองผลตได และยงัมอกหลายบรเวณท รอการสารวจและพัฒนาใหเก   ดคณค าทางเศรษฐก   จต อไป สาหรับ

บรเวณท มศักยภาพทางแร เหลกสงสด ไดแก  บรเวณอาเภอเชยงคาน อาเภอเมอง และอาเภอวังสะ

พง จังหวัดเลย ซ งขณะน สามารถประเมนปรมาณสารองไดทั งหมดประมาณ 27 ลานตนั (45-

65% Fe) นอกจากนั นมอย กระจัดกระจาย ในภาคต างๆ ของประเทศไทย ซ งสามารถสรปพ นท 

ศักยภาพทางแร  เหลกท น าสนใจได ดังน  

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1) ภาคเหนอ บรเวณอาเภอแม แจ ม จงัหวัดเชยงใหม  บรเวณอาเภอเสรมงาม จังหวัด

ลาปาง-อาเภอวังช น จังหวัดแพร   

2) ภาคกลาง บรเวณอาเภอพรานกระต าย จังหวัดก  าแพงเพชร บรเวณอาเภอหนองไผ  

จังหวัดเพชรบรณ บรเวณอาเภอโคกสาโรง และอาเภอเมอง จังหวัดลพบร 

3) ภาคตะวันตก บรเวณอาเภอบ อพลอย จังหวัดกาญจนบร

4) ภาคตะวันออบรเวณอาเภอนาด จังหวัดปราจนบร บรเวณอาเภอบางคลา จงัหวัด

ฉะเชงเทรา-อาเภอพนสันคม จงัหวัดชลบร 

5) ภาคตะวันออกเฉยงเหนอ บรเวณอาเภอเชยงคาน อาเภอเมอง และอาเภอวังสะพง

จังหวัดเลย

6) ภาคใต บรเวณอาเภอบานนาสาร จังหวัดสราษฎรธาน บรเวณอาเภอท าศาลา และ

อาเภอฉวาง จังหวัดนครศรธรรมราช สาหรับแหล งแร เหลกท สารวจพบในปัจจบัน เปนเพยง

แหล งแร เหลกท มขนาดไม ใหญ นัก เม อเทยบก  ับแหล งแร เหลก ท มการผลตแลวในโลกน  ซ งจะม

ปรมาณสารองของแร เหลกนับเปนพันลานตันหรออย างต าเป นรอยลาน ตนัข นไป โดยแหล งแร 

เหลก ท พบแลวในไทยจะมปรมาณสารองของแต ละแหล งอย างมากไม เก   น 15 ลานตันเท านั น

เช น แหล งภยาง อาเภอเชยงคาน จังหวัดเลย มปรมาณสารองของแร เหลกประมาณ 19 ลานตัน

สาหรับแหล งแร เหลกท สารวจพบ และสามารถประเมน ปรมาณสารองไดมากกว า 100,000 ตัน

นั น รวม 22 แหล ง คดเปนปรมาณสารองของแร  เหลก รวมทั งส น ประมาณ 50 ลานตัน สาหรับแหล งแร  เหลกท สารวจพบในปัจจบัน เปนเพยงแหล งแร  เหลกท มขนาดไม ใหญ นัก เม อเทยบก  ับ

แหล งแร  เหลก ท มการผลตแลวในโลกน  ซ งจะมปรมาณสารองของแร  เหลกนับเปนพันลานตัน

หรออย างต าเปนรอยลาน ตันข นไป โดยแหล งแร เหลก ท พบแลวในไทยจะมปรมาณสารองของ

แต ละแหล งอย างมากไม เก   น 15 ลานตันเท านั น เช น แหล งภยาง อาเภอเชยงคาน จังหวัดเลย ม

ปรมาณสารองของแร  เหลกประมาณ19

ลานตัน สาหรับแหล งแร  เหลกท สารวจพบ และสามารถ

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ประเมน ปรมาณสารองไดมากกว า 100,000 ตันนั น รวม 22 แหล ง คดเปนปรมาณสารองของแร 

เหลก รวมทั งส น ประมาณ 50 ลานตัน 

กระบวนการผลตเหลกและเหลกกลา 

การผลตเหลกและเหลกกลาประกอบดวยขั นตอนดังน  

1. การแต งแร และการถลง 

2. การหลอมและการปรงส วนผสม 

3. การหล อ 

4. การแปรรป เช น การรด การตข นรป 

ผลตภณัฑ ท ผ านขั นตอนท  4 แลว สามารถนาไปผ านขบวนต างๆ ของอตสาหกรรมต อเน อง เพ อ

ผลตผลตภณัฑท หลากหลายตามประเภทของการใชงาน เช น วสัดก อสราง ท อ คอนเทนเนอร ถงั

ความดัน ช นส วนยานยนต ไฟฟาและเคร องจักรกล เปนตน 

ในประเทศไทย การผลตเหลกและเหลกกลาจะเร มจากขั นกลาง คอ การหลอมและการหล อ 

1. การแต งแร และการถลง 

การ แต งแร   คอ การแปรสภาพสนแร ใหไดขนาดและคณสมบัตท เหมาะสมต อการถลง เช น การ

บดแร ใหละเอยดเพ อแยกเหลกจากมลทนแลว อาจแยกโดยอาศัยความถ วงเฉพาะท ต างก  ัน

(Float) หรอใชการแยกดวยแม เหลก (Magnetic separation) ซ งแร ท ไดจะละเอยดเก   นไป ตองทา

ใหเปนก  อน (Agglomeration) ก อนปอนเขาเตาถลง 

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1. ระบบอเมรก  ัน AISI ( American Iron and Steel Institute )

การก  าหนดมาตรฐานแบบน  ตัวเลขดัชนจะมจานวนหลกัและตัวช บอกส วนประสมจะ

เหมอนก  ับระบบ SAE จะต างก  ันตรงท ระบบ AISI จะมตัวอักษรนาหนาตัวเลข ซ งตัวอักษรน จะ

บอกถงกรรมวธการผลตเหลกว าไดผลตมาจากเตาชนดใด 

ตัวอักษรท บอกกรรมวธการผลตเหลกจะมดังน  

A คอ เหลกประสมท ผลตจากเตาเบสเซมเมอร ( Bessemer ) ชนดท เปนด าง 

B คอ เหลกประสมท ผลตจากเตาเบสเซมเมอร ( Bessemer ) ชนดท เป นกรด 

C คอ เหลกท ผลตจากเตาโอเพนฮารท ( Open Hearth ) ชนดท เปนด าง 

D คอ เหลกท ผลตจากเตาโอเพนฮารท ( Open Hearth ) ชนดท เปนกรด 

E คอ เหลกท ผลตจากเตาไฟฟา 

2. ระบบเยอรมัน DIN (Deutsch Institute Norms) 

การจาแนกประเภทของเหลกตามมาตรฐานเยอรมันจะแบ งเหลกออกเปน 4 ประเภทดังน  

2.1 เหลกกลาคารบอน(หรอเหลกไม ประสม) 

2.2 เหลกกลาผสมต า 

2.3 เหลกกลาผสมสง 

2.4 เหลกหล อ

2.5 เหลกกลาคารบอน (หรอเหลกไม ประสม) 

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เหลกท นาไปใชงานไดเลยโดยไม ตองผ านกรรมวธปรับปรงคณสมบัตโดยใชความรอน

(Heat Treatment) เหลกพวกน จะบอกย อคาหนาว า St.และจะมตวัเลขตามหลงั ซ งจะบอกถง

ความสามารถท จะทนแรงดงสงสดของเหลกชนดนั น มหน วยเปน ก.ก/มม.2

หมายเหต การก  าหนดมาตรฐานทั งสองน  เหลกท มความเคนแรงดงสงสดประมาณ 37 ก.ก/มม.2

จะสามารถใชสัญลักษณแทนเหลกชนดน ได 2 ลักษณะ คอ เขยนเปน St. หรอ C20

การก  าหนดมาตรฐานเหล าน จะเหนมากในแบบสั งงาน ช นส วนบางชนดตองนาไปชบแขง

ก อนใชงาน ก  จะก  าหนดวัสดเปน C นาหนา ส วนช นงานท ไม ตองนาไปชบแขง ซ งนาไปใชงาน

ไดเลยจะก  าหนดวัสดเปนตวั St. นาหนา ทั ง ๆ ท วสัดงานทั งสองช นน ใชวสัดอย างเดยวก  ัน

เหลกกลาผสมต า การก  าหนดมาตรฐานเหลกประเภทน จะบอกจานวนคารบอนไวขางหนาเสมอ

แต ไม นยมเขยนตวั C ก  าก  ับไว ตัวถดัมาจะเปนชนดของโลหะท เขาไปประสม ซ งอาจมชนดเดยวหรอหลายชนดก  ได 

ขอสังเกต เหลกกลาประสมต าตัวเลขท บอกปรมาณของโลหะประสมจะไม ใช จ านวน

เปอรเซนตท แทจรงของโลหะประสมนั นการท จะทราบจานวนเปอรเซนตท แท จรงจะตองเอา

แฟกเตอร (Factor) ของโลหะประสมแต ละชนดไปหารซ งค าแฟกเตอร (Factor) ของโลหะ

ประสมต าง ๆ มดงัน  

หารดวย 4 ไดแก  Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, Si, W

หารดวย 10 ไดแก  Al, Cu, Mo, Pb, Ti, V

หารดวย 100 ไดแก  C, N, P, S

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ไม ตองหาร ไดแก  Zn, Sn, Mg, Fe

การใชสัญลักษณดงัตัวอย างท แลว เปนการบอกส วนผสมในทางเคม แต ในบางครั งจะม

การเขยนสัญลักษณบอกกรรมวธการผลตไวขางหนาอกดวย เช น 

B = ผลตจากเตาเบสเซมเมอร 

E = ผลตจากเตาไฟฟาทั วไป 

F = ผลตจากเตาน ามัน 

I = ผลตจากเตาไฟฟาชนดเตาเหน ยวนา (Induction Furnace)

LE = ผลตจากเตาไฟฟ าชนดอารค (Electric Arc Furnace)

M = ผลตจากเตาซเมนตมารตน หรอ เตาพดเดล 

T = ผลตจากเตาโทมัส 

TI = ผลตโดยกรรมวธ (Crucible Cast Steel)

W = เผาดวยอากาศบรสทธ  

U = เหลกท ไม ไดผ านการก  าจดัออกซเจน (Unkilled Steel)

R = เหลกท ผ านการก  าจัดออกซเจน (Killed Steel)

RR = เหลกท ผ านการก  าจดัออกซเจน 2 ครั ง 

นอกจากน ยงัม สัญลกัษณแสดงคณสมบัตพเศษของเหลกนั นอกดวย เช น 

A = ทนต อการก  ัดกร อน 

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Q = ตข นรปง าย 

X = ประสมสง 

Z = รดไดง าย 

เหลกกลาผสมสง (High Alloy Steel) เหลกกลาประสมสง หมายถงเหลกกลาท มวสัดผสม

อย ในเน อเหลกเก   นกว า 8 % การเขยนสัญลักษณของเหลกประเภทน  เขยนนาหนาดวยตว X

ก อน แลวตามดวยจานวนส วนผสมของคารบอนจากนั นดวยชนดของโลหะประสม ซ งจะมชนดเดยวหรอชนดก  ได แล วจงตามดวยตัวเลขแสดงปรมาณของโลหะประสม 

ตัวเลขท แสดงปรมาณของโลหะประสม ไม ตองหารดวย แฟกเตอร (Factor) ใด ๆ ทั งส น

(แตกต างจากโลหะประสมต า) ส วนคารบอนยงัตองหารดวย 100 เสมอ

3. ระบบญ ป  น JIS (Japaness Industrial Standards) 

การจาแนกประเภทของเหลกตามมาตรฐานญ ป  นซ งจัดวางระบบโดยสานักงานมาตรฐาน

อตสาหกรรมญ ป  น (Japaness Industrial Standards, JIS) จะแบ งเหลกตามลักษณะงานท ใช 

ตัวอักษรชดแรก จะมคาว า JIS หมายถง Japaness Industrial Standards ตัวอกัษร

สัญลักษณตวัถัดมาจะมไดหลายตวัแต ละตวัหมายถงการจัดกล มผลตภณัฑอตสาหกรรมต างๆ

เช น 

A งานวศวกรรมก อสรางและงานสถาปัตย 

B งานวศวกรรมเคร องกล 

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C งานวศวกรรมไฟฟา 

D งานวศวกรรมรถยนต 

E งานวศวกรรมรถไฟ 

F งานก อสรางเรอ 

G โลหะประเภทเหลกและโลหะวทยา 

H โลหะท มใช เหลก 

K งานวศวกรรมเคม 

L งานวศวกรรมส งทอ 

M แร  

P กระดาษและเย อกระดาษ 

R เซรามค 

S สนคาท ใชภายในบาน 

T ยา 

W การบน 

ถัดจากตวัอักษรจะเปนตัวเลขซ งมอย ดวยก  ัน 4 ตัว มความหมายดงัน   ตัวเลขตัวแรก

หมายถง กล มประเภทของเหลก เช น 

0 เร องท ัว ๆ ไป การทดสอบและกฎต าง ๆ 

1 วธวเคราะห 

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2 วตัถดบ เหลบดบ ธาตประสม 

3 เหลกคารบอน 

4 เหลกกลาประสม 

ตัวเลขตัวท  2 จะเปนตัวแยกประเภทของวัสดในกล มนั น เช น ถาเปนในกรณเหลก จะมดังน  

1 เหลกกลาประสมนเก   ลและโครเมยม 

2 เหลกกลาประสมอลมเนยมแลโครเมยม 

3 เหลกไรสนม 

4 เหลกเคร องมอ 

8 เหลกสปรง 

9 เหลกกลาทนการก  ัดกร อนและความรอน 

ตัวเลขท เหลอ 2 หลักสดทายจะเปนตวัแยกชนดของส วนผสมท มอย ในวัสดนั น เช น ถา

เปนเหลกตัวเลข 2 หลักสดทายจะเปนตัวแยกชนดเหลกตาม ส วนผสมธาตท มอย ในเหลกชนด

นั น ๆ เช น 

01 เหลกเคร องมอ คารบอน 

03 เหลกไฮสปด 

04 เหลกเคร องมอประสม 

4. มาตรฐาน ASTM

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A : Ferrous Metals 

B : Nonferrous Metals 

C : Cementitious, Ceramic, Concrete, and Masonry Meterials 

D : Miscellaneous Materials 

E : Miscellaneous Subjects 

F : Materials for Specific Applications

G : Corrosion, Deterioration, and Degradation of Materials 

เดม ASTM ไดแบ งประเภทมาตรฐาน ตามลกัษณะการก  าหนดมาตรฐาน ออกเป น 3 ชนดคอ 

• 

Standards เปนมาตรฐานท จดัทาข น ตามมตเอกฉันทของสมาชก และผ านการรับรองตาม

ขั นตอน และกฎของสมาคมฯ เรยบรอยแลว 

•  ES.(Emergency Standard) เปนเอกสารท จัดพมพตามความตองการ เร งด วน แต ยงัไม 

ผ านการรับรองของสมาคมฯ เพยงแต ผ านการพจารณา ของคณะอนกรรมการบรหาร 

•  P. (Proposal) เปนเอกสารมาตรฐานท พมพเพ อเผยแพร   แนะนา ก อนท จะพจารณาลงมต

ใหใชเปนมาตรฐาน 

แต ในป ค.ศ. 1995 สมาคม ASTM ไดก  าหนดใหใช PS. (Provisional Standards) ซ  งเปนเอกสารท ถกจดัพมพข นมา ใชแทน ES. และ P

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5. มาตรฐาน TIS

เปนคาย อมาจาก"มาตรฐานผลตภัณฑอตสาหกรรม" หมายถงขอก  าหนดทางวชาการท  

สานักงานมาตรฐานผลตภณัฑอตสาหกรรม(สมอ.)ไดก  าหนดข นเพ อเปนแนวทางแก ผ ผลตใน

การผลตสนคาใหมคณภาพในระดบัท เหมาะสมก  ับการใชงานมากท สดโดยจัดทาออกมาเปน

เอกสารและจัดพมพเปนเล ม

ภายในมอก.แต ละเล มประกอบดวยเน อหาท เก    ยวของก  ับการผลตผลตภณัฑนั นๆ เช น

เกณฑทางเทคนค คณสมบัตท สาคญั ประสทธภาพของการนาไปใชงาน คณภาพของวัตถท นามา

ผลต และวธการทดสอบเปนตน

มอก. มประโยชนต อผเก    ยวของในหลายดานดวยก  ัน ดังน  

ประโยชนต อผผลต

1. ช วยเพ มประสทธภาพในการผลต

2. ลดรายจ าย ลดเคร องจักร ลดขั นตอนการทางานซ าซอน

3. ช วยใหไดสนคาท มคณภาพสม าเสมอ

4. ทาใหสนคามคณภาพดข น และมราคาถกลง

5. เพ มโอกาสทางการคา ในการจัดซ อจัดจางของหน วยงานราชการท มการก  าหนดใหสนคานั นๆ

ตองไดรับมอก.

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ประโยชนผ บรโภค

1. ช วยในการตดัสนใจเลอกซ อสนคา และ

2. สรางความปลอดภัยในการนาไปใช 

3. ในกรณท ชารด ก  สามารถหาอะไหล ไดง าย เพราะสนคามมาตรฐานเดยวก  ัน ใชทดแทนก  ันได 

4. วธการบารงรักษาใกลเคยงก  ัน ไม ตองหัดใชสนคาใหม ทกครั งท ซ อ

5. ไดสนคาคณภาพดข นในราคาท เปนธรรมคมค าก  ับการใชงาน

ประโยชนต อเศรษฐก   จส วนรวมหรอประโยชนร วมก  ัน

1. ช วยเปนส อกลางเปนบรรทัดฐานทางการคา ท าใหผผลตและผบรโภคมความ เขาใจท ตรงก  ัน

2. ก อใหเก   ดความยตธรรมในการซ อขาย3. ประหยดัการใชทรัพยากรของชาต ทาใหมการใชทรัพยากรอย างเก   ดประโยชนสงสด

4. สรางโอกาสทางการแข งขันใหก  ับผประกอบการไทย

5. ปองก  ันสนคาคณภาพต าเขามาจาหน ายในประเทศ

6. สรางความเขมแขงใหก  ับอตสาหกรรมและเศรษฐก   จ 

หมายเลขมาตราฐานคณภาพ (มอก.) คอหมายเลขท ก  าหนดข นเพ อระบล าดับท ของการ

ออกมาตราฐานและปท  สมอ. ประกาศเปนมาตราฐาน ซ งจะระบอย บนตัวสนคา ตัวอย างเช น

เคร องหมายมาตราฐานท แสดงสนคาไดรับมาตราฐานอะไร เช น มอก.(TIS) 56-2533 คอ

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ผลตภณัฑน าตาลทราย ซ งหากผลตภณัฑไดรับการรับรองคณภาพตามมาตราฐานอสาหกรรม

(มอก.) ก  จะสามารถแสดงเคร องหมาย มอก. บนผลตภณัฑนั นได 

ถัดจากตวัอกัษรจะเปนตัวเลขซ งมอย ดวยก  ัน 4 ตัว มความหมายดงัน  

ตัวเลขตัวแรก หมายถง กล มประเภทของเหลก เช น 

0 เร องท ัว ๆ ไป การทดสอบและกฎต าง ๆ 

1 วธวเคราะห 

2 วตัถดบ เหลบดบ ธาตประสม 

3 เหลกคารบอน 

4 เหลกกลาประสม 

ตัวเลขตัวท  2 จะเปนตัวแยกประเภทของวัสดในกล มนั น เช น ถาเปนในกรณเหลก จะมดังน  

1 เหลกกลาประสมนเก   ลและโครเมยม 

2 เหลกกลาประสมอลมเนยมแลโครเมยม 

3 เหลกไรสนม 

4 เหลกเคร องมอ 

8 เหลกสปรง 

9 เหลกกลาทนการก  ัดกร อนและความรอน 

ตัวเลขท เหลอ 2 หลักสดทายจะเปนตวัแยกชนดของส วนผสมท มอย ในวัสดนั น เช น ถา

เปนเหลกตัวเลข 2 หลักสดทายจะเปนตวัแยกชนดเหลกตาม 

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ส วนผสมธาตท มอย ในเหลกชนดนั น ๆ เช น 

01 เหลกเคร องมอ คารบอน 

03 เหลกไฮสปด 

04 เหลกเคร องมอประสม 

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Metallic elements

vocabulary  แปล 

metals

lithium lithium

sodium sodium

 potassium potassium

rubidium rubidium

caesium caesium

francium francium

metals

 beryllium beryllium

magnesium magnesium

calcium calcium

strontium strontium

 barium barium

radium radium

Iron

steel steel

iron Iron

Wrought iron Wrought iron

Cast iron Cast iron

hydrogen hydrogen

Oxidizer Oxidizer

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Reducer Reducer

tensile strength tensile strength

atomic weight atomic weight

iron meteorites iron meteorites

iron oxide iron oxide

 phosphorus phosphorus

melting point melting point

Carbon steel Carbon steel

Aluminium

Washington Monument Washington Monument

aluminium alloys aluminium alloys

yield strength yield strength

stiffness stiffness

aluminium foils aluminium foils

Aluminium oxide Aluminium oxide

fatigue limt fatigue limt

melting point

visible light melting point

visible light 

Copper

substances substances

cytochrome cytochrome

hemoglobin hemoglobin

Chalcolithic Chalcolithic

copper backed currency copper backed currency

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alkaline electrolyte alkaline electrolyte

coefficient of friction coefficient of friction

Tin

 polymetallic polymetallic

Arsenical bronze Arsenical bronze

 prospectors prospectors

semiconductor semiconductor

superconductor superconductor

metastable isomers metastable isomers

carbothermic reduction carbothermic reduction

electromagnet electromagnet

furnace furnace

reverberatory  reverberatory 

Nonmetal

Submetallic Submetallic

Lustrous Lustrous

Electronegativity Electronegativity 

ionisation energy ionisation energy

acidicoxides acidicoxides

Polymer

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molecule molecule

 polystyrene polystyrene

viscoelasticity  viscoelasticity 

relative molecular mas  relative molecular mas 

 biophysics biophysics

Plastic

vulcanization vulcanization 

Imperial Chemical Industries Imperial Chemical Industries

Styrofoam Styrofoam

nylon stockings nylon stockings

colloidal suspension colloidal suspension

Kevlar

condensation reaction condensation reaction

liquid-crystalline liquid-crystalline

terephthaloyl chloride terephthaloyl chloride

thermal conductivity  thermal conductivity 

synthesized synthesized

Carbon-fiber

carbon nanotubes carbon nanotubes

composite materials composite materials

elastic modulus elastic modulus

compression mold compression mold

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fiber-reinforced polymer fiber-reinforced polymer

Optical fiber

fiber-optic communications fiber-optic communications

electromagnetic interference electromagnetic interference

fiber lasers fiber lasers

multi-mode fibers multi-mode fibers

single-mode fibers single-mode fibers

Asbestos 

absorption absorption

tensile strength tensile strength

affordability affordability

fabric fabric

solely solely

Fiberglass 

tensile strengths tensile strengths

Pultrusion Pultrusion

Thermoplastic Thermoplastic

Durability Durability

Lightweight Lightweight

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Piping

fiberglass fiberglass

Steel pipe Steel pipe

Copper pipe Copper pipe

Soft copper Soft copper

Flare connections Flare connections