Evidence – “ supporting material known or discovered, but not created by the advocate.” (Wilbanks, Church) The minor premise of the classical logical.

Evidence – “ supporting material known or discovered, but not created by the advocate.” (Wilbanks, Church)

The minor premise of the classical logical model

The grounds or data of the Toulmin model

Facts: descriptions of events, objects, persons, or places which are empirically verifiable (Wilbanks and Church)

Empirically verifiable means they could be confirmed through observation.

Observation could be through looking, measuring or using scientific instruments to observe something.

This also means it is repeatable in experimentation.

Statistics: A particular kind of factual evidence, which consists of quantified descriptions of events, objects, persons, places or other phenomena. (Wilbanks and Church)

How much, how big, how many, how often, etc…

Can indicate relationships, trends and changes.

Good statistics are based on more than guessing

Good statistics are based on clear, reasonable definitions.

Good statistics are based on clear, reasonable measures.

Good statistics are based on good samples.

Examples: descriptions of individual events, objects, persons, or places (Wilbanks and Church)

Hypothetical examples should not be used as evidence to support a claim

Literal examples should be used instead: events that really happened, and can be in the form of brief stories.

Testimony: authoritative opinion evidence that interprets or judges events, objects, persons, or places (Wilbanks and Church)

Expert testimony is best – coming from someone who is an expert in the field

Can be in quotations or paraphrased Interpretive testimony: evidence that describes,

analyzes or explains and object, event, person or place (Wilbanks and Church)

Judgment testimony: presents a determination of the value of the event, person, object or place

Higher quality evidence makes a stronger argument

Primary evidence vs. Secondary Evidence Primary evidence: comes from the source

closest to its actual happening, and a source with first hand information

Secondary evidence: comes from a source at least one step away from the actual happening, with secondhand information

A newspaper who reports on a research finding is a secondary source

Expert evidence comes from a source who is experienced and knowledgeable in a subject

Lay evidence comes from a source who is neither experienced nor knowledgeable in the area of discussion

Casual evidence is evidence that naturally occurs without anyone trying to create it as evidence. Ex. Fossils, geography

Created evidence is something purposely recorded for future use.

Ex. Photos, medical records, grades

This type of evidence depends on the circumstances for judgment.

Source Credibility: examines whether the source of the information has background, knowledge, expertise, and opportunity to be relied on.

Source evidence can be a person or an organization

Source can be primary or secondary Source can be expert or lay Also needed for credibility is trustworthiness

Whether the source of evidence has any self-interests that could distort perception or reports.

Does the bias affect the value of the evidence you get from the source?

Does the source profit or personally gain from others accepting a particular viewpoint?

Is there a cultural bias?

Considers whether the evidence came from an appropriate time period for the conclusion.

In most cases, recent information is better than old information.

Newer evidence is able to build on older evidence, extending and improving it.

It can also correct mistakes of older evidence. Older evidence is good if it is a primary

source, ex. Historical documents

There are no overt or subtle contradictions in the source of evidence.

In other words, the source doesn’t say one thing in one place, and something else in another.

Examples: inconsistencies (flip-floppers) in political campaigns

Does the evidence provide enough information for a critical thinker to accept?

The more complete the evidence the stronger the argument.

Example: scientist explains how data was gathered, how experiment was done in detail

Completeness includes citing where the information came from in detail and the qualifications of the source

Also referred to as external consistency Corroboration asks whether other qualified

sources agree with this source of evidence. Such consensus among qualified people

provides a reason to have more faith in what the source says.

Example: Movie advertisers quote praise from several critics.

Level 1: assertion - The arguer says that some evidence is true without any verification.

Level 2: Judicial notice / common knowledge – when all parties agree to a fact, so there is no need to provide testimony to support it.

Level 3: Lay opinion – reasoned opinion by those people outside an area of expertise

Level 4: Expert opinion / Consensus of Lay opinion – the reasoned opinion of someone about a subject within their field of expertise.

Level 5: Empirical study / consensus of Expert opinion

Empirical study: well designed observational research. Such as a scientific experiment, a survey, or some other observable data.

Consensus of Expert opinion: the agreement of people who are experts in their field

Level 6: Consensus of studies – When there is agreement amongst several well designed research studies.

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