" Does the use of ICT improve the understanding of History teaching?"

Markaki Irini

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Student Name MarkakiIrini

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“Does the use of ICT improve the understanding of“Does the use of ICT improve the understanding ofHistory teaching?”History teaching?”

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Design of project – research question or hypothesis, bibliography.

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Title of the research:

“Does the use of ICT improve the understanding of“Does the use of ICT improve the understanding of

History teaching?”History teaching?”

This dissertation is submitted in part fulfilment of the MA in

Education.

Athens 2010

Abstract


Markaki Irini

This research aims to investigate whether theuse of Information and Communication Technology(ICT) in classroom can actually improve theunderstanding of History teaching in comparisonwith the traditional teaching-centered way. Datawill be collected by using a questionnaire afterteaching students by using both methods. Therespondents will be students of two public primaryschools of Heraklion Crete. I personally conductedthe whole research and the results will becollected and statistically analyzed by me inperson, in order to reach some useful conclusionsregarding the two different methods of teaching.

This research will also provide furtherinformation about which teaching method can improvestudents’ understanding. The findings of thisresearch will help primary school educators testwhether a lesson which is taught with the use ofICT can actually enhance learning. If the examresults of teaching with ICT are high, then thatmeans that the ICT teaching method is effective. Ifthey are low, it means that this teaching method isnot that effective. The research question thatunderlies this study is if the use of ICT improvesthe understanding of History teaching. Furthermore,this research will provide further informationabout how a History lesson can be organized withICT tools.

Key-words: Information and CommunicationTechnology, Technological learning theories,History teaching.


Markaki Irini

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is a pleasure to thank those who made this

Research project possible. I am heartily thankful to my

Supervisors, Dr. Anthony Thorpe and Dr. Anastasia -

Athanasoula Reppa, whose supervision and support from

the preliminary to the concluding stage of the research,

enabled me to correct possible mistakes and to consider

points and facts that I had to take into consideration

during the research process. I would also like to make a

special reference to Dr. Phil. Skittides because of his

valuable help and guidance in the Methodology section. I


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am really grateful to the headmasters and to the History

teachers of the two primary schools in where I conducted

the research and I want to greatly thank them for their

co-operation and assistance. Lastly, I would like to

thank Professor Evi Makri - Botsari for her support and

encouragement during the research process.

Markaki Irini.

CONTENTSCONTENTS

Abstract...................................................

..........................................................

..........6

Acknowledgements........................................

........................................................

.....7


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Chapter One:

Introduction..............................................

........................................10

Chapter Two: Literature Review

2.1. The importance of using ICT in Primary

Education......................................13

2.2. Technological Learning

theories.................................................

.....................16

2.3. History didactic through the use of new

Technologies....................................18

2.4. The digital future of History

teaching.................................................

.............21

2.5. The incorporation of educational technology in History

teaching.................24

Chapter Three: Research Methodology

3.1. Theoretical

background..............................................

......................................28

3.2. Research

question.................................................

............................................29


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3.3. Research

approach................................................

............................................30

3.4. The research type of

design...................................................

...........................34

3.5. The research

category.................................................

......................................36

3.6. Practical

background..............................................

..........................................37

3.7.

Sample..................................................

........................................................

.....42

3.8. Research

procedure................................................

...........................................44

3.9.1. Statistical

treatment................................................

......................................47


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3.9.2. Ethical

Considerations............................................

.......................................48

Chapter Four: Data Presentation

4.1. Data

Collection................................................

..................................................52

4.2. Presentation of

Data....................................................

.....................................54

4.3. Data Protection

Act.....................................................

......................................58

Chapter Five: Data

Analysis................................................

...................................59

Conclusion...............................................

........................................................

........65

Appendices...............................................

........................................................

........68


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Reference

List.....................................................

.....................................................73

Chapter OneChapter One

IntroductionIntroduction

The subject of History changes and more

specifically, it needs to be changed. History has to

change considerably due to the new Cultural Revolution

and the technological revolution in information andPage 12 of 120 Markaki Irini

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society. According to Ayers, “History turns into Hyper-textual

History” (Ayers, 1999:54). There is a need to make History

teaching more interesting. Information and Communication

Technologies have been swiftly incorporated in the

teaching process. This change actually signals new

fields in study and research and creates various

possibilities for applications in the teaching practice.

“Technology can indeed turn into a tool of the research process at the

pupil’s disposal and a means of supporting the construction of knowledge

itself” (Aggelakos, et al., 2004 page?). This kind of approach

promotes the pupil’s interest in learning, allows the

prominence of the special problems of the cognitive

object as well as the seeking for a meaning in

experience. “It offers opportunities for the trainees to control the

learning processes and to supply them with corrective intention as well as

to promote a creative group way of thinking” (Makrakis, 2000 p?).

It is now generally understood that there is a need for

both traditional methods and new methods and that

computer networks can generally enhance opportunities

for active learning.

Nowadays, the use of information technology is

extremely valuable as it involves students’

familiarization with technology and historical knowledge

at the same time. “The pedagogical basis of e-learning is the process of

learning, which is more important than teaching” (Tappio, 2008:45).

Administrators’ conviction is that infusing information

technology into a course will improve learning outcomes.Page 13 of 120 Markaki Irini

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“In the case of History, in particular, computer technology can serve a

composite historical way of thinking based on its potential” (Aggelakos, et

al., 2004:58). In the traditional way of teaching, the

historical knowledge is promoted as a way of understanding

the total of the final knowledge products. “The questions that

constitute its basic starting point and the process in between, up to the

expression of the historical composition through narration, are omitted”

(Aggelakos, et al., 2004:59). History can be taught through

narration, but it is hard for students to memorize

details. “The appearance of Information and Communication

Technologies (ICT) in the field of education radically changes the way in which

people receive and process information” (Kouneli, 2004:32). ICT

tools help students memorize information.

As far as History teaching is concerned, ICT

appearance is “a major challenge, as historians and History teachers are

forced to think in a new way about the ‘traditional means’ used so far in order

to approach the past and update their working practice” (Poster,

2004:25). New opportunities are offered to teachers

through the use of new means of technology. Besides, a new

kind of “historical consciousness is formed under the burden of the general

transformation of the ‘traditional’ world into a ‘digital’ one, term which defines

the compound total of the developing phenomena, such as the abolition of the

notion of distance through the Internet, the annihilation of material reality

due to virtual reality, even the alteration of the existing theories on the end of

mankind and the evolution of a new post-human species as a result of the

developments in cybernetics, robotics, artificial intelligence and


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consciousness” (Poster, 2004:26). [A long quote which needs

analysis]

Traditional history teaching changes as it enters the

digital era. “The notion of truth or the epistemology of History has to

change, if historians wish to continue narrating about the past in an attractive

way for all people” (Poster, 2004:26). ICT has proved to catch

children’s interest and attention. The digital environment

and the “automatized depiction offered by new technologies lead to radical

changes in the way history is passed on, fact which forces the reconstruction

of the historical studies and the new revolution in History teaching through

the utilization of the unexploited computer potential to present knowledge

and ideas visually” (Stanley, 2002:23). The narrative has

mainly been used so far as a basic tool for History

transmission. Yet, the text by itself has “innate limitations

(the use of words, the notions and their inner relations, the linear or

continuous organization) and defines the way in which historians think and

‘get’ their ideas across” (Kouneli, 2004:38). The digital

environment and virtual reality add a third dimension to

communication and create a new language and perspective.

It is really interesting to investigate if modern

technologies actually help in the improvement of

educational act in the subject of History. “This improvement

is based among others on the multi-format of the depictions that will students

acquire on various cognitive areas. The prerequisite for the creation of

multiple depictions is the use of historic sources of various forms. The

computer and its electronic network, besides being a tool for processing


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information, becomes today a means of education, information, briefing and

reciprocating hybrid form communication” (Rapti, & Raptis, 2001

p?). Computers have become a means of transmitting

information. They promote an innovative way in which

learning and skills are developed. “During the act of teaching, it

refutes the traditional current situation and helps a new pedagogical

perception to develop, according to which new active ways of learning and the

development of new viewpoints and skills are facilitated” (Archontidis, &

Zibidis, 2000 p?).

In Greek reality, according to the Unified

Framework of Program Studies, the Pedagogical Institute

established in the year 2000, “there is no planning of providing

primary schools with computer equipment” (Kokkinos, 2007:66).

Yet, many primary schools, state and public ones

(usually following the initiative of the teachers, the

headmasters, the parents associations and local

government) are equipped with computers. The need for

planning for the introduction of Information Technology

in the teaching process beginning in the first grade of

primary education has already become ripe and is

regarded as important due to the continuous social

demand for children to be computer literate in New

Technologies even in primary school. There is also

another viewpoint suggesting that “regarding the subject of

History, modern technology is adopted in the framework of learning

activities with the aim of reproducing the accumulation of historic

information and therefore, learning becomes once again a passive processPage 16 of 120 Markaki Irini

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of memorizing” (Kokkinos, 2007:66). This can be understood

as a matter of fact, because History as a subject is

based on memorizing.


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Chapter TwoChapter Two

Literature ReviewLiterature Review

2.1. The importance of using ICT in Primary Education

Computers have become, besides being a useful tool

for the process of information, “the means for education, sending

and receiving information and communication” (Rapti, 2001:48). The

term New Technologies which is found in current scientific

literature also appears as Information and Communication

Technologies (ICT) “may be interpreted in numerous ways so that

emphasis is put on both its informative and communicational aspects”

(Archontidis, & Zibidis, 2000:32). The development of

Information and Communication Technologies also

contributed to the “construction of new myths: from the myth of the

‘machine’ in the industrial era, we proceeded to the myth of the ‘information

highway’, of the infinite data bases and of virtual reality” (Kouneli,

2004:44). The rapid changes in History teaching must be

seriously considered. Research arise the theoretical and

methodological problems of using ICT in History teaching.

“In modern times, reality takes various readings as changes can be exploited

in different ways and the use of new technologies in education cannot be

ignored, because we regard the research of the theoretical and the

methodological problems as important emerging from the introduction of

new technologies in History” (Kouneli, 2004:45).


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ICT plays an important role in the teaching process.

Therefore, multinational organizations such as the

Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development

(OECD, 2000) and the European Commission (2001), have

“identified an important role for ICT in education. They agree to prepare

students for lifelong learning in the information society of the 21st century”

(OECD, 2000). Reports issued by UNESCO and the World Bank

(1998), advocate that the use of these technologies is to

“promote international socioeconomic progress and educational change, both

inside and outside the classroom” (Kozma, & Voogt, 2003:2).

Perhaps most notably, the Networked Interactive Media in

Schools (NIMIS) project, funded by the European Union,

found that computers in the classroom encouraged

motivation and learning in children, but only when

technology was properly implemented and supported (Kozma,

& Voogt, 2003).

Interestingly, the greatest progress was made not

only by classrooms with access to computers, but by those

“classrooms with both access and high-quality peer and teacher relationships;

in other words, computers can enhance education in classroom when they are

properly integrated into a successful classroom” (Lin, & Atkin,

2007:68). Every educational policy regarding the

organisation and the updating of the field of History

teaching presupposes that the competent authorities take

into serious consideration the particularity of the

scientific and pedagogical role of the teacher who is

called to teach the subject of History. It is obvious thatPage 19 of 120 Markaki Irini

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a functional and responsible practice of this role “forms

the necessary mental togetherness that activates the learning process by

organizing the stages of intense and non linear transformation of the pupil

into a logical, historically literate, independent being with the ability to take

initiative” (Kokkinos, 2004:68).

The French historian and specialist in issues of

History didactics, Henri Moniot, recognizes the

particularity in the educational process of historical

knowledge transmission and critical historical thought

formation, regards professional expertise and continuous

in-service teacher training as prerequisites for the

accomplishment of the educational act. In his opinion, the

professional expertise of the History teacher has to be

based on a multidimensional briefing on issues of

epistemology, methodology and historiography; that means

on issues regarding the organization and social

reproduction of the History science and culture (Moniot,

2002). The same viewpoint is held by Chris Husbands

(2004), a British who supports that the teachers’

scientific specialization in the nature of History is what

is required from them in order to contribute to the

development of understanding the study object on the part

of the students. The determinant characteristic of the

role of the History teachers is according to Husbands

(2004), “the way they develop their speech, the way they set the historical

issue to be taught and the way in which they relate this issue to the pupils’ way

of thinking” (Husbands, 2004:21).Page 20 of 120 Markaki Irini

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In the framework of modern scientific worry, which

rejects the barren, old fashioned pedagogy and

empiricism of past approaches and insists on the

internal cohesion of the historical science through the

methods of its modern reproduction, it is taken for

granted that for the accomplishment of the didactic act

it is not enough for the teacher to be accustomed to the

cognitive content of the History science partially, but

has to consider at the same time the way in which the

subject according to Kokkinos (2004), becomes more

powerful (referring to History epistemology) and more

transmittable, referring to History didactics (Kokkinos,

2004:72). The History teacher, according to Kouneli

(2004), should not confront new technologies with awe or

regard them as a threat, but as a new ‘mental tool’ to

serve the teaching act, as a field for action and as an

enchanting challenge. By comprehending the potential of

such a tool and by considering all its positive and

negative aspects, the teacher will have to decide the

width and the way in which this tool will be used as no

technological achievement is by itself a threat or a

panacea (Kouneli, 2004:47). “The application of ICT in education,

does not mean that it is an application only for ‘didactic’ reasons, because

Didactic should include not only some data research, but also a research on

the specific cognitive subject if we want to reach to a scientific conclusion

that could be later presented in the school book” (Psycharis,

2009:43).


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The Eurydice Network is a global network that

provides information on and analyses of European

education systems and policies. It consists of 35

national units, based in all 31 countries participating

in the Europe’s Lifelong Learning programme and is

coordinated and managed by the European Education,

Audiovisual and Culture Executive Agency in Brussels,

which drafts its publications and databases. It also

includes the programme of studies (curriculum) that is

followed in the European Countries. In Greece, the

curriculum for primary school education is based on 7

basic principles: a) the offer of a general education,

b) the promotion of pupil’s interests and cultivation of

their skills, c) the assurance of equal learning

opportunities for all students, d) the reinforcement of

the cultural and linguistic identity within the

framework of a multicultural society, e) the preparation

of pupils to use new information and communication

technologies, f) the promotion of physical, mental and

social health and g) the awareness of the necessity to

protect the natural environment and adopt socially

responsible patterns of behaviour (Eurydice, 2000). [The

relevance of this and the following lengthy lists is not

clear. The point could have been made more concisely to

make the material relevant]

With the goal of providing a well-rounded and

integrated education, the Ministry of Education isPage 22 of 120 Markaki Irini

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promoting measures and policies at all education levels,

including that of primary education, that rest on the

following pillars: a) human-centered education, b)

environmental education, c) multilingualism and Greek

language, d) education, culture and sports and e)

digital convergence (Eurydice, 2000). Within this

framework, the primary school is called upon to

undertake a multifunctional role, implementing

innovative policies and programmes that upgrade the

educational process. In all grades of primary school are

taught Modern Greek Language, Mathematics, Physical

Education and Information and Communication Technology

(this last subject has been incorporated and taught

through other subjects). Apart from these subjects from

grade C to grade F are taught Religious Education,

History and First Foreign Language.

2.2. Technological Learning theories

The various educational applications of the

computers are based directly or indirectly on learning

and psycho pedagogical theories (Winn, 1993). By

examining each theory separately, we may say that

Behaviorism is the philosophy found mainly behind the

software of drill and practice and generally behind the

kind of software that values individual student workPage 23 of 120 Markaki Irini

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most. In that kind of software, the logic of positive

reinforcement is widely used (through sound and

pictures) and a linear course is usually followed which

is divided in parallel stages of graded difficulty.

Students may work at their own pace which is regarded as

positive; co-operative learning is not promoted, though.

In the advantages of that kind of software we may add

the ‘legalisation’ of the mistakes students make, the

direct assessment of the action, their individual

character of achieving a small or gradual success that

reinforce the feeling of self esteem in the case of the

less advanced students. “A serious disadvantage of that approach is

that students feel addicted to their dependence on an external source of

encouragement (that is the computer) and on an external control of their

actions with some minor re-supply and potential for self-assessment”

(Winn, 1993:24).

In recent years, Cognitive theories incorporated

in the scientific example of constructivism (cognitive

and socio cultural) are the ones widely accepted as the

background of the development of educational software.

“Simulation and model programmes, programmes of microcosm ‘creation’,

programmes of problem solving, open learning environments (which allow

either the teacher to interfere and adapt them or, more importantly, the

student to interfere so as to check the course of the learning process) and

programmes that provide multiple meaning reproductions are offered as

tools that help critical thinking and initiative, encourage co-operative forms

of learning and finally, as they are consistent to their theoreticalPage 24 of 120 Markaki Irini

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foundations, they support the gradual structure of knowledge at an

individual or group level” (Archontidis, & Zibidis, 2000:25). A

teacher, operating as a source of encouragement and help

in the students’ efforts, takes care to construct the

suitable environment, to co-ordinate and help activity

organisation.

Socio-cultural theories is the credence they pay to

social interaction and to the role the social and

cultural environment plays for the organization of

knowledge as this is expressed through symbolic systems.

These theories can be found behind co-operative learning

environments and open tools both to the way a student

may use them as well as to the influence their content

has according to the reality forms they offer. “The student

is no longer a passive recipient of information; the student participates in

the learning process and becomes active; software is created in such a way

that the student recognizes in many ways the stimuli provided, is motivated,

becomes involved in the process while the learning content is analyzed and

combined so that some new information emerges” (Winn, 1993).

Vygotsky’s theory in particular, with the notions of

imminent development zones and of the encouragement

framework is basically found in software used in gradual

and divided cognitive support so that many students

develop from the stage of the ‘simple explorer of random

knowledge’ to higher levels through the help of more

specialized people.


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Constructivist theories support the view that

“knowledge is attained by the students themselves and is not given ‘free’

through teaching” (Jonassen, 1999:35). The theoretical

model on which it is based is the constructivist

learning one, constructivism. Virtual reality, with its

phenomena simulation and the model making of problems,

provides inside an interactive and open environment one

of the most modern ways of materialising it. Papert

(1991), in his works on the creation of knowledge and

through the natural interaction with objects in the real

world theoretically supports this approach (Papert,

1991). “The active participation on the part of the students, their

encouragement to use tools and to think about the actions they are about

to perform (active or manipulative environment), the co-operation among

them (collaborative environment), the ability to use abstract notions in

specific environments (contextual environment) and, mainly, the

incorporation of new ideas in already existing cognitive models aiming to

construct meanings (constructive environment) constitute basic principles in

the learning model of constructivism” (Jonassen, 1999:35).

According to Vertsetis (2002), “History in this phase is one of the

most difficult subjects for the pupils as they are asked to mentally travel in

time and imagine facts and circumstances of which they never had any

experience” (Vertsetis, 2002:32). It is generally accepted

that “children up to the age of ten can not move inside time dimensions

and cannot comprehend the difference between an imaginary incident and

a real incident” (Nakou, 2000:13).


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2.3. History didactic through the use of new Technologies

What is needed here is greater attention on the

part of the teachers; the subject being taught is [the/a

?] History of facts and it is not proper to be

confronted with easily comprehended little stories.

During that age period and later on, we must try to

interpret with sensitivity all the historical notions

and circumstances so that the abstract character of the

historical narrative which makes History not a

particularly easy cognitive object at least for younger

people becomes easily comprehended. This sensitisation

is effected through maps, photographs, figures,

statistic tables and others. “The efforts for improving school

education of History are based on the use of Internet practices during these

last years which utilise a lot of research data about the ways in which

students belonging to different age groups understand the past through

teaching” (Wineburg 2001:28). One of these didactic

practices is the use of educational technology in the

subject of History. “The relation between the didactic character of

History and the modern technologies as natural allies of History was

established very early” (Nichol, et al., 1987:12). The

incorporation of computer tools in the educational

practice of the subject of History “clarified the interrelation

process of teaching and active learning” (Kokkinos, 2007:82).


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The didactic approach in the subject of History,

according to the study programs “has to aim at blending the

cognitive content with gradual and continuously organized formation of

mental skills and viewpoints, and at detecting historic problems by using a

wide range of exercises based on the varied and multidimensional primary

and secondary historic material” (Kokkinos, 2007:84). The

utilisation of modern technologies in the subject of

History creates various possibilities on the active

participation of students and therefore, it refutes the

traditional forms of teaching which are based on the

constructivistic strategies of knowledge transfer.

Detecting, collecting and organising the historical

material, communicating and spreading digital content

are important tokens of the contribution of modern

technologies to historic education. The teaching

material reinforces the dependent on the content

knowledge while in parallel, teaching puts emphasis on

knowledge structure. “These didactic approaches which are

supported by new technology tools, underline the development of skills

aiming at detecting, processing, analyzing and composing historical

material and in this way, they contribute to History comprehension”

(Bransford, et al. 2000:16), while they “construct a new

pedagogical framework on the teaching of History” (Brooks, et al.,

1993:34).

Therefore, modern technologies can help the

educator get away from the restrictions of using

educational material up to a point and “take the responsibility


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for some composite work, which will include the following actions: a) the

study and research of the use of the sources in the framework of History

teaching with the aim of integrating historical meaning in the teaching act,

b) the selection of historical evidence, c) the processing of composite forms

of instructive readings through various educational activities”

(Kokkinos, 2007:85). The positive results derive from

modern educational methods of development regarding

historical thinking and knowledge appears together with

the development of historical interpretation skills. “An

equally important observation related to the use of the sources concerns the

relevant preparation and drill of the teachers; the use of the sources in the

subject of History, according to the methodological principles of didactic

History, does not take place randomly, but is connected to the study of

alternative historic graphical texts and the production of speech on the part

of the pupils” (Kokkinos, 2007:90). On the other hand, the

assessment of the learning result is not based on the

distinction of right and wrong answers provided by the

pupils in a closed environment, but on the “processes of

detection, analysis, classification and composition of historical information”

(Kokkinos, 2007:88). The specific processes are adopted

so that the pupils are led to pose questions on

historical issues, make assumptions and reach

conclusions. “Computers are an obvious resource to use with more

‘able’ or gifted students” (Sparrowhawk, 2004:121).

Furthermore, the use of ICT can help teachers

because it enables them to “store and record information about

how students develop understanding of new material” (Kozma, &


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Voogt, 2003:54). Children and young people live in a

world “where ICT plays an important role in their everyday lives and in

the society they live in” (Loveless, 2003:x). ICT is claimed to

contribute in student’s learning and of course, this

claim does not assert that “if we place a child in front of a

computer, it will automatically start learning more effectively”

(Loveless, 2003:6). Education could not only be improved

by technology, but it will be improved by “teachers who

develop creative methods and strategies for using the technology in their

classrooms” (Beaudin, & Grigg, 2001:43). If a teacher

plans to use ICT in the classroom, he first needs to

consider the pupil’s ICT capability. “He should recognize that

not all the pupils have sufficient skills and identify what he is expecting in

terms of routines, techniques, processes, concepts and higher order skills”

(Kennewell, et al. 2000:153). Education technology

provides “alternative approaches to sustaining student interest,

developing student knowledge and skill and provides supplementary

materials that teachers can use to extend student learning” (Russell,

2006:58).

2.4. The digital future of History teaching

After the year of 1990, digital media began to emerge

within history classrooms (Mills, 2008) and at the click

of a mouse amounts of historical information became

available to the students. Using Information and

Communication Τechnologies in classroom (ICT) can be a


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good strategy that students actually seem to enjoy.

According to Koliades (2006), computers in classroom can

“promote and enhance learning; History teaching can be more interesting if it

is combined with the use of new means of technology” (Koliades,

2006:47). Teachers have to be innovative and continuously

try out new approaches suggested by research or

observation, in order to discover the most effective means

of using technology to “help assess student learning” (Quinones et

al., 2000:92). It is noticeable that there is a huge

variety of new technologies that provide a “wide repertoire of

representational and communicational modes available and offer different

potentials for learning” (Jewitt, 2006:2). Most schools though,

do not have the equipment to support this way of learning.

“All of the schools need adequate computer technology. This rationale focuses

more on learning how to effectively use technology than on how the use of

technology will improve teaching and learning in basic subjects” (Hallinan,

2006:558).

Technology provides opportunities for teachers to

make their lessons “pleasant and fun for children and it should be

viewed as another effective tool in the suite of teaching strategies” (Tomei,

2003:117). Innovations in technology present a far wider

horizon than we have previously experienced, offer new

challenges and open up possibilities for different

teaching methods. Technological developments “will force

historians to adopt new methods in teaching History” (Tappio, 2008:43).

It is now generally understood that there is a need for

both traditional and new methods of teaching to enhancePage 31 of 120 Markaki Irini

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the opportunities for active learning. The electronic

sources “pose a number of new epistemological and methodological,

questions to historiography and historical education” (Repousi,

2004:21). Historical education can be taught with the new

means of technology. In the digital world of the

“intermediary, due to the machine, presence, distance and presentation of

things, reality and its depiction are radically transformed as well as their in

between relation” (Repousi, 2004:25).

Historical facts can be transmitted to children

through the use of ICT. The electronic source constitutes

“a new form of depiction as it deals with the depiction of reality on a new

basis; in this sense, its utilization both in the research and the teaching

environments exceeds the traditional forms of critical source reading,

question submitting and checking” (Repousi, 2004:26). Historical

understanding becomes digitalized. “The transition from the source

regime to the post source regime of the digitalized world sets and deals

dynamically once again with the issue of the historic tense which remains an

issue of primary importance to historical understanding” (Repousi,

2004:28). Ever since their digitalisation, historical

sources changed their form. Besides static, they also

became subjective in their timely data formation and in

the development of the technological practices. There are

essentially two time zones. The first one is the initial

time zone, the time and the framework of the development

of the source. The character of this time zone is static.

The second one is the electronic time zone and its

character is changeable. The gap between the first and thePage 32 of 120 Markaki Irini

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second one gives the fact multiple time readings (Repousi,

2004:31). A second methodological issue regarding the

didactic transfer of the electronic sources refers to the

information bang inside the digital environment and has to

do with its organisation (Repousi, 2004:31). This

methodological issue is important, because the information

that comes from the digital source must be valid and

reliable.

Learning environments must be well structured and

well constructed. “There are some principles of cognitive flexibility

theory that are considered to be particularly favourable for a learning

environment, which is not well structured as the one which is based on

hypertext” (Truyen, & Rogiers, 2001:23). Hypertext is “a

non linear means of knowledge and favours a diagonal reading, which is

regarded as suitable to approach notions in their specific time according to

the case” (Repousi, 2004:32). Hypertext also “facilitates source

relating and can support more cohesively argument models as it reveals at

will a multilevel network of historical sources and produces alternative

learning activities; It is a multi-directed reading which can adapt each time

to different and alternative reading targets” (Repousi, 2004:33).

While the linear text is adapted with the right method

to the historical question posed, the hypertext requires

alternative and more composite questions as well as the

ability on the part of the reader to form them in order

to achieve the target.


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In the total of the methodological issues set by

the electronic sources, the importance of multimedia and

interactivity is also stressed. “Multimedia allows the

formalistic and morphological transgression of the historical sources, as it

unites in the same source many kinds of sources, the written text, the

sound, the figure, the map” (Repousi, 2004:36). This important

advantage the electronic source has, that is the

potential to accumulate on a unified basis all the forms

human traces have in time, is at the same time a

condition which appears to be natural; it is

manufactured, though and leads to directed readings. The

multimedia, favoured here as an ability that allows the

user to “control and intervene in the electronic source and on the other

hand, that allows the machine to create new ideas and activities, widens the

tooling, checking and source transgression procedures with all positive and

negative effects that widening may have on historical thinking” (Haydn,

2000:25).

The electronic environment forms in essence the

same paths of visiting the past through the choice of

the sources and their in between relations. If in the

conventional learning environment, the transformation of

the source and the combining of the sources in one as

well as the transition from one form into the other are

the results of a selection that can be doubted, in the

electronic environment a doubt of that kind presupposes

high electronic literacy. The electronic sources are

mainly designed for education and they are powerfulPage 34 of 120 Markaki Irini

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functional transformations that narrate their own story.

Kathleen Craver (1999), referring to the primary

historical sources of the Internet, suggests a variety

of educational approaches that constitute alternative

forms of narration and are based on the Information and

Communication Technologies (Craver, 1999). “The thematic

approach, for example, appears to be compatible with the possibility to

open a historical path that exceeds the electronic medium” (Craver,

1999:45).

As part of the socialization of young people and

at the same time, as a means of creating a new

environment in historical research, ICT and the

historical sources they convey constitute an

increasingly dynamic environment for historical

education. “The reliability check that follows the rules of internal and

external source review, with the necessary applications for the specific kind

of sources, the designer and the post-designer, the targets and purposes of

both, the design time and the time of its electronic transformation or of its

renewals, the references and the degree of readability it carries constitute in

this specific case fields of critical reading” (Conseil de l’ Europe,

2002 p?).

During the use of the electronic sources in the

subject of History the designers of educational

activities and software have to take into consideration

important methodological issues (Kokkinos, 2007). “Those

issues are the following: a) the issue of historic time: the historical sources


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are not stagnant, they become active and subject to the development of

technological practices; therefore, the three fold interpretational pattern of

source reading (placement of the evidence in its historical framework,

comprehension of the role the evidence plays in the formation of historical

memory and knowledge, placement of the evidence in the specific didactic

framework) is modified so as to incorporate the multiple time span of the

electronic environment. b) The issue of organization of the historical

information: the structure of the historical information changes; there are

for example infinite possibilities of amassing a wealth of information and

organizing it. c) The issue of multimedia; the morphological and formalistic

transgression of the historical sources is reinforced. d) The issue of

interaction; the user retains the ability to control the machine and the

machine itself, on the other hand, can create new ideas and activities; those

activities entail the mechanization of the control and the transgression of

the sources” (Kokkinos, 2007:80). [This quote needs

analysis]

2.5. The incorporation of educational technology in History teaching

Information and Communication Technologies have

been swiftly incorporated in the teaching process. This

change actually “signals new fields in study and research and creates

various possibilities for applications in the teaching practice. History has

not remained intact from these changes” (Aggelakos, & Kokkinos,

2004:38). One of the most important benefits that stems

from the introduction of Technologies in the schoolPage 36 of 120 Markaki Irini

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class is the potential they offer for the reversal or

abolition of traditionally established forms of

teaching. Those traditional forms of teaching are based

on behavioural strategies of knowledge transmission.

“Yet, as it has been discovered, technology often ends up supporting the

same traditional forms of teaching. Technology, that is, is used as a means

of improvement of the learning result with quantitative terms or as a

substitute for the teacher” (Kinigos, 1995:23). In these cases,

technology is adopted to reproduce the accumulation of

information and learning ends up becoming a passive

process of memorization.

The introduction of modern technologies in the

class presupposes an environment change from its

traditional form and the creation of new learning

environments. “The change refers to the role of the pupil, who turns

from a passive recipient into an active factor in the learning process itself,

and the role of the teacher, who turns from a unique conductor and source

of information into the organizer of the learning activities”

(Solomonidou, 2001:22). Technology can indeed turn into

a “tool of the research process at the pupil’s disposal and a means of

supporting the construction of knowledge itself” (Aggelakos, &

Kokkinos, 2004:40). That kind of approach promotes the

pupil’s interest in learning, allows the prominence of

the special problems of the cognitive object as well as

the seeking for a meaning in experience. “It offers

opportunities for the trainees to control the learning processes and to re-

supply them with corrective intention as well as to promote a creative groupPage 37 of 120 Markaki Irini

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way of thinking” (Makrakis, 2000:32). In the case of

History, in particular, computer technology can serve a

composite historical way of thinking based on its

potential (Aggelakos, & Kokkinos, 2004:41).

Without limiting historical knowledge to a simple

accumulation of information about the past and its

learning to a “superficial memorization of the facts, it allows the

replenishing of a well-balanced historical way of thinking and the kind of

knowledge beyond the declarative facts; In traditional teaching, the

historical knowledge is promoted as a way of understanding the total of the

final knowledge products and the questions that constitute its basic starting

point and the process in between up to the expression of the historical

composition through narration are omitted. Procedural knowledge is more

sophisticated” (Aggelakos, & Kokkinos, 2004:43). In the

case of History, the cognitive processes that are

activated during the promotion of historical thinking

are “favoured and improved through procedural knowledge”

(Aggelakos, Kokkinos, 2004:45). As procedural

historical knowledge we regard: the matching of notions,

the composition of reasoning and arguments, the

processes of conceptualization, the formation of causal

relations, the transgression from one depiction to

another and the transformation of knowledge from one

form of information into another.

According to Poster (2004), the changes took place

in History because “new technologies have three interconnected and,


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at the same time, different forms: change in the way the research of the

past is conducted, change in the way History is written and change in the

way History is taught” (Poster, 2004:20). More specifically,

new technologies affect the organisation of the sources

the historian uses in order to study the subject, favour

the multiplication of the sources and the swift access

to them, their complementary character as well as their

contravening one, and finally, favour the reinforcement

of comparison, in depth analysis and refinement of

interpretation with the help of the previously mentioned

new abilities. Therefore, new technologies affect

considerably the way the past is investigated and

History is written. This influence is recorded on any

level the historic-graphical act takes place: the

theoretical background, the methodology, the

interpretation, the comparison and the narration.

According to Anthogalidou, more specifically and with no

intention of exhaustion, new technologies can help the

History teacher to a) Create what cannot be expressed in

words (to remember the emblematic phrase of

Wittgenstein), b) Transform what has already been

expressed with words so as to provide a multi-vocal form

and a more open dimension, c) Approach comparison. The

access to the international scientific data but mainly

the access to the picture contributes considerably to

the development of a comparative dimension and d) save

time (Anthogalidou, 2001:24).


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On the other hand, there are some disadvantages.

The following are some of them regarding the historical

research act: a) while a more intense interdisciplinary

action is obvious, communities are formed that become

even more isolated and belong to ‘subcategories’. This

fact makes the communication among people with different

interests and the way of thinking more difficult, b) The

stealing practice of intellectual property has become

wider, c) There is always the risk of resting in the use

of the electronic sources leaving other skills

unexploited (such as the use of the archives and the

libraries) and d) Crucial issues of ‘qualitative check’

arise (Anthogalidou 2001:25). Opponents of using ICT in

History teaching claim that the lesson can be taught

equally well with the traditional teaching centered way.

Thomas Russell (2001) in his book with the title: “The No

Significant Difference Phenomenon” supports the view that

teaching with ICT “provides no significant difference from the

traditional teaching-centered approach, regarding students’ performance,

understanding, their expectations for learning and their perception of what

they had learned at the end of the course” (Russel, 2001:2). My

research question has emerged from the above literature

review due to the fact that ICT is claimed to contribute

in student’s learning and because there are many

proponents who claim that ICT has the potential to

support the current curriculum, enhance the experience

and understanding of the curriculum and even to extend


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thinking and learning in new ways. I want to testify if

these claims are actually true.


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Chapter ThreeChapter Three

Research MethodologyResearch Methodology

3.1. Theoretical background

The previous Chapter attempted a critical review of

the issues that are related to History teaching with new

means of Technology and it was the basis for the design

of the research. The emphasis was put on the approaches

that increase students’ active participation regarding

learning through entertainment in combination to the

understanding of History teaching. This Chapter

describes in detail the deployed methodological way that

is followed to answer the research question of this

study, both in theoretical and empirical terms.

Furthermore, the theoretical framework of this research,

the research type of design, the research category of

activity, the practical framework, the sampling method,

the research technique and tools adopted, as well as the

procedure within the research was carried out, plus a

justification of the reasons of selecting the particular

methodology are issues that will be also discussed in

this chapter.

As far as the theoretical approach is concerned, a

positivist approach rather than a constructivist one wasPage 42 of 120 Markaki Irini

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adopted. I used the positivist paradigm, because my

research is based on theory and literature. The

explanation of this choice is mainly based on the fact

that it was planned from the beginning to investigate

whether or not learning theories of using Information

and Communication Technologies (ICT) in classroom

applies to the defined research question. I intended to

prove that the use of ICT in a specified group of

students brings positive results in the learning

process. The strengths of using a Positivist paradigm in

a research are that it is scientific, empirical and

experimental research. It begins with a theory, develops

a hypothesis and urges for further tests. The weaknesses

is that it is based on theory, which may or may not be

wrong, it ignores broader issues, it is convergent, the

focus is too narrow and it is impossible for someone to

control all the variables.

According to Cohen, et al. (2008), “Quantitative data

analysis is a powerful research form, emanating in part from the positivist

tradition. It is often associated with large-scale research, but can also serve

smaller scale investigations, with case studies, action research, co relational

research and experiments” (Cohen, et al., 2008:501).

Furthermore, another disadvantage of positivism paradigm

is that “it is unsuccessful in school classrooms, since the interrelations

of human behaviour are extremely complex to explain, as they do not follow

the rule of normality that exist in nature” (Cohen, et al., 2008:502).

[But what is positivism?]Page 43 of 120 Markaki Irini

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3.2. Research question

The research question that underlies this study is

if [whether?] the use of ICT improves the understanding

of History teaching. Furthermore, this research will

provide further information about how a History lesson

can be organized with ICT tools. This study attempted to

investigate if the reinforcement of the teaching process

and more specifically, of the teaching of the subject of

History, through the use of appropriate software, brings

positive changes to the way students deal with the

subject and understand History as a whole. This research

question emerged from the literature review in which it

was claimed by most researchers that the use of new

technology actually improves understanding of History

teaching.

To ensure that the hypothesis is good, “there two

criteria according to Kerlinger that should be tested; the relationship

between the two variables (teaching approach and students’

understanding) and the fact that this hypothesis has an effect on controlling

the formulated relationship that could be measured, verify that the

hypothesis could work” (Cohen, et al., 2008:404). Research is

used in order to help us answer to our research

questions. One definition of what research is could be

that it is “a systematic inquiry that is characterized


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by sets of principles and guidelines for procedures

which is subject to evaluation in terms of validity,

reliability and representativeness” (Hitchcock, &

Hughes, 1995:12).

I chose quantitative method because it was more

appropriate for this study. By quantifying data, I will

be able to reach some useful conclusions with the use of

Statistical analysis, regarding percentage, validity,

reliability and missing variables. Qualitative method

was also used because it was helpful for interpreting

things or findings. According to Mason (2002),

qualitative research is considered to be “grounded in a

philosophical position which is broadly ‘interpretivist’. It is based upon

methods of data generation, which are both flexible and sensitive to the

social context in which the data are produced. It is also based upon

methods of analysis explanation and argument building, which involve

understandings of complexity, detail and context” (Mason, 2002:3).

The basic reason that interviews were avoided in

this research was that I wanted to measure students’

understanding in History, which would be really

difficult to figure out via interviews, because it would

be impossible to interview children in such a small age

and actually get answers that show comprehension rate.

From an ethical viewpoint that would not be correct

because the children are too small to be interviewed

without permission from their parents. Interviews fromPage 45 of 120 Markaki Irini

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the two teachers would not be helpful in this study,

because I wanted to measure children’s understanding and

not that of the teachers’. A pilot study could be done

before the experiment, but it was not conducted due to

limited time.

3.3. Research approach

In social sciences, quantitative research refers to

the systematic empirical investigation of quantitative

properties and phenomena and their relationships.

Quantitative research mainly uses numbers and

Statistical methods. It usually tends to be based on

numerical measurements and percentages. It abstracts

from “particular instances to seek general description or to test casual

hypotheses” (Thomas, 2003:2). I chose to use Mixed

Research Methodology, both quantitative and qualitative

research method. The benefits of using mixed research

methodology are first of all that “it puts ‘flesh on the bones”

(Galton & Delmont, 1993:2), it can inform research

methods with new perspectives and it can combine the

positives. Mixed methodology is good only when the

research design is decided well in advance and the

roles-uses of all parts are clear at the start, which is

what I tried to do from the beginning of the research.


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Good research must also have a purpose and it must be

pre-defined.

The mixing results gained from quantitative

approach were combined with the results gained from

qualitative approach. The advantages of using

quantitative method in this research were that the

questionnaires given were anonymous and that there was a

definition from the beginning of the research. The

objective of quantitative research is to develop and

employ mathematical models, theories or hypotheses

pertaining to phenomena. The process of measurement is

central to quantitative research because it provides the

fundamental connection between empirical observation and

mathematical expression of quantitative relationships.

The strengths of using quantitative methods are that

there is a link between theory and research, it is pre-

decided, ignores other events and represents one small

part, it is efficient, clear and ethical, it is used to

test hypothesis and finally, the instruments of

measuring are designed to limit the variables.

Quantitative research “assumes the possibility of replication;

if the same methods are used with the same sample then the results should

be the same” (Cohen, et al., 2008:148). Quantitative research

has typically been more directed at theory verification,

while qualitative research has typically been more

concerned with theory generation. While that correlation

is historically valid, there is no necessary connection


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between purpose and approach. That is, “quantitative research

can be used for theory generation, as well as for verification, and

qualitative research “can be used for theory verification, as well as for

generation, as pointed out by various writers” (Hammersley,

1992:23).

On the other hand, there are some weaknesses of

using Quantitative methods. The findings may not be

reliable or valid because it is impossible to control

all variables. “Typically, quantitative methods require a degree of

control and manipulation of phenomena; this distorts the natural

occurrence of phenomena” (Cohen, et al., 2008:148).

Furthermore, the focus is too narrow. It is de-

humanizing the social sciences and the systems which

apply to the natural world can not be applied to the

social world. The analysis of data can lead to wrong

conclusions because the researcher can see things

subjectively, so it is possible that the whole research

is biased. The findings may not be reliable or valid

because it is impossible to control all variables.

Finally, participants can possibly complete the

questionnaires given without having any knowledge of the

subject or topics they are addressing.

Qualitative research leads to the exploration of

phenomena, processes and attitudes that have not been

predicted before or expected and that is why I used this

method in this specific study. According to Mason

(2002), through qualitative analysis “we can explore a wide


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array of dimensions of the social world, including the texture and weave of

everyday life, the understandings, experiences and imaginings of our

research participants, the ways that social processes, institutions,

discourses or relationships work, and the significance of the meanings they

generate” (Mason, 2002:24).

On the other hand, the weaknesses of using this

approach is that “the involvement of the researcher may transform

the characteristics of the social process which is being under study and that

the survey depends mainly on the personal perceptions of the researcher

and his communicative skills, which might lead into biased conclusions”

(Iosifidis, 2003:19). The responses can be “falsified and the

data can be ‘adjusted’ so that to match with the findings of quantitative

data. Qualitative analysis transforms data into findings” (Patton,

2002:432). Qualitative researchers usually prefer to

analyze words and images rather than numbers. They

prefer more to observe rather than making experiments.

They like unstructured rather than structured

investigations. Sometimes the analysis of qualitative

data is “only briefly covered through ‘coding’ and the generation of

theory from data” (Bryman, 1994:3).

The two approaches of course, were kept apart.

Their results were combined in order to reach a valid

and reliable conclusion. Although I used different kind

of approaches, I compared my results with the findings

of both research methods. I used the Explanatory type

because first, I gave priority to the quantitative data,

and then to the qualitative. In my research, I used


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questionnaires and the observation method in order to

check the behaviour of the participants and write down

their reactions while completing the questionnaires. By

using this kind of method I could explain possible

surprising results or confirm the existing ones. The

advantage was that this process was easy to be followed

and explained. The main weakness of this method is that

of the possible bias. Observation is a method in which a

researcher “observes the activities and interactions of a group of people

and notices everything that is actually going on” (DeWalt & Dewalt,

2002:1).

According to Bernard (2006), each scientific

discipline has developed a set of techniques for

gathering and handling data, but there is a single

scientific method. The method is based on three

assumptions. The first one is that the reality is ‘out

there to be discovered, the second one is that direct

observation is the way to discover it and the third one

is that material explanations for observable phenomena

are always sufficient and metaphysical explanations are

never needed (Bernard, 2006:5). The weakness of using

this method is that “personal characteristics of the researcher may

influence the level of participation; Direct observation can be done with ‘the

naked eye’” (Bernard, 2006:5). The process involved linked

between theory and research, tested the hypothesis, the

instruments of measurement and the research population.


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The systematic process which was followed through had to

be evaluated with appropriate methods and tools.

My research should be reliable, valid and also

subject to the scientific community. Reliability refers

to consistency in measurement. In common terms, the

reliability of a test is the extent to which subsequent

administrations would give similar results. A test which

is not reliable will give different results every time

it is taken. A research tool is reliable only when the

results remain “stable every time the exact same process is repeated”

(Kyriazi, 2002:88). Validity is the complement to

reliability and refers to the “extent to which what we measure

reflects when we expected to measure” (Anderson, 1998:13). Both

“qualitative and quantitative approaches have their strengths and

weaknesses, advantages and disadvantages” (Kumar, 2005:13).

As a result, the selection of the appropriate

research method depends on the philosophy and research

questions that best suit each situation. The emphasis

should be given on the research methodology and me as a

researcher, should revise and evolve the way I think in

order to ensure the usefulness of research on a long

term basis. An in-depth knowledge of the methods and the

research tools is essential to justify the validity and

reliability of measures, variables and procedures and it

helps to use experience as guidance to promote

educational research and practice for benefit of primary

school education.


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3.4. The research type of design

There are some basic principles regarding research

design that it is necessary to be applied before

starting a research. These can be summarised as the

formulation of research questions that are functional,

the selection of the appropriate methodology, the

selection of the tools that fit the research aims, the

selection of the sample, the reliability and validity of

the instruments that will be used, the related ethical

considerations, the selection of the data analysis

method and the decision about the data presentation and

interpretation. These are the issues that will be

discussed in order to describe the methodology design of

the research and clarify the reasons for the selected

root for investigating the impact of the attempted

intervention in History teaching.

In educational research, the common type of

research design is surveys. Surveys of schools usually

try to “determine parameters such as students’ knowledge of a course

and the popularity of some teaching methods, because of the advantages of

accuracy, as it uses numbers or flexibility and generalization of the

findings” (Thomas, 2003:43), as it is a real situation and

not artificial like experimental research (Muijs, 2004).

However, to overcome the problem that quantitative

surveys are not able to “describe the qualitative features that make


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for the uniqueness of each member of the collectivity, the observation

method was used in order to gather qualitative data: participants’

reactions, willingness or, dislike” (Thomas, 2003:44). The fact

that observation method includes evidence of the

experiment will also provide the quantitative data that

support the theoretical indications about the

effectiveness of alternative approaches in History

teaching.

In scientific research, an experiment is a method

of investigating causal relationships among variables.

The experimental method was used as the research tool

for the production of the results and specifically, the

in situ experiment. The adopted type of research

followed the productive process. Beginning, therefore,

from a generalized theory, (that the use of computers

encourages learning), the “research attempts to prove to what

extent this principle can apply in a specific environment under specific

conditions” (Skittides, 2006:25). It is about a path from

the general to the specific. The present study followed,

more specifically, the empirical research, which

according to Hart (Hart, 1998), is “based on the methodology

of the scientific process and is the research which, according to Skittides, is

based on the observation or the experiment with a view to serving the aims

and the objectives of the researcher” (Skittides, 2006:26). This

is an empirical study based on the results originating

from experimentation in the field of primary education.

Barratt, referred in Cohen, et al. (2008), states that thePage 53 of 120 Markaki Irini

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best way to ensure the reliability of the knowledge is

to prove it through experience. The term empirical

therefore describes that “a theory or a research question could be

verified by supporting observation with proven data that show a strong

possibility of confirmation” (Cohen, et al., 2008:406).

As far as my research is concerned, it was based

on experiment and therefore, I adopted an empirical

approach. According to Hart (1998), “the experiment is a

hypothesis whose validity is checked” (Hart, 1998:21). It is about

the total number of actions and observations that derive

from the need for the inspection of the relation between

the cause and the effect phenomena (Skittides, 2006). To

check the validity of the expressed theory, the

experiment was used as a research tool. Reliability and

validity in quantitative research is “essentially a synonym for

dependability, consistency and replicability over time, over instruments and

over groups of respondents” (Cohen, et al., 2008:146). Internal

validity seeks to demonstrate that the explanation of a

particular event, issue or set of data which a piece of

research provides can actually be sustained by the data.

In some degree this concerns accuracy, which can be

applied to quantitative and qualitative research. The

findings must “describe accurately the phenomena being researched”

(Cohen, et al., 2008:135). External validity refers to the

“degree to which the results can be generalized to the wider population,

cases or situations” (Cohen, et al., 2008:136).


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Cohen, et al, (2008) regard the facts that

empirical research, although they present regular

occurrence, are inspected systematically and are found

under a control based on their actions in the deductive

or productive model. “Its main characteristics are the utilization of

the researcher’s experience, on which the research and the self-correction

ability are actually based” (Cohen et al., 2008:180). According to

Hart, the process is “considered to be a priori (a priori: prior to

experience) able, based on experience or observation, to prove or disprove

a specific suggestion or theory, since the reasons that cause it are traced”

(Hart, 1998:24). Finally, it is a deductive research and

not an inductive one, because it predicts a causal

relationship from theory. According to Skittides and

Koiliari (2006), “the deductive approach is a top down approach

which is based on a theory and allows the researcher to formulate a

hypothesis and then examine if this hypothesis is confirmed by the data

analysis” (Skittides & Koiliari, 2006:24).

As far as History education is concerned, there is

a lack of systematic research [who says so?] that is

able to guarantee an effective didactic approach, hence,

the selected approach method of designing the research

(deductive) seems to be the most appropriate to answer

the research question and fulfil the gap of knowledge.

Furthermore, the width of the research is prohibitive to

generalizing and extracting a new theory and for this

supplemental reason, the inductive approach is rejected.

The research type of design was quantitative because itPage 55 of 120 Markaki Irini

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was the appropriate method for this investigation and

also, the results will be analyzed and interpreted

statistically. According to Bell (1987), the

quantitative method is based on the collection of data

and the study of the relation among them. “The measurement

is conducted with scientific methods which produce quantitative data and

lead to generalized conclusions” (Bell, 1987:26).

3.5. The research category

The category of the research activity is cross-

sectional, because it investigated difference in a set

of phenomena at one time in a small number of settings.

“Cross-sectional data come from a study in which all observations for each

participant are collected at approximately the same point in time”

(Bryman, 2003:229). Cross-sectional surveys are usually

used to gather information on a population at a single

point in time. In order to point out the existing

differences, it will be also my intention in the future

to “allow the inspection of the particular phenomenon at a different time

period, with different student groups and in opposing conditions”

(Skittides, 2006:27). However, it was not possible to

examine the phenomenon for many months or years in order

to observe all the possible changes in every aspect of

teaching and learning History and find out the

longitudinal effects of the alternative teachingPage 56 of 120 Markaki Irini

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approach that is tried through this research. According

to Skittides and Koiliari (2006), through cross-

sectional research, it is possible to examine at the

same time many subjects or samples of the population

that is important, because the sample under

investigation comes from different schools and areas in

order to be more representative. The main advantage that

determined the use of this type of research is that, as

cross-sectional research is not extended in length of

time, it avoids all the possible risks that are related

to longitudinal research (Skittides, & Koiliari, 2006).

According to Cohen, et al. (2008), when checking the

internal validity and reliability of the experiment, the

above problem is not important when the intervention is

not extended in time. Moreover, the instruments that are

used to measure the understanding and the performance

are not made by the researcher, but are standardized

tests (History progress tests), especially designed for

primary school students. The short amount of time during

which the experiment is conducted reduces the loss of a

part of the sample and retains the impartial sample that

was chosen at the beginning.

3.6. Practical background


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I conducted the experiment in a specific place and

at a specified time period using two different student

groups of two different primary schools in Crete Island.

For the need of this study, observation method and a

questionnaire was used. The questionnaire was

distributed by me in person to the third grade of two

primary school students. Its sample consisted of two

public primary schools, and two different groups of

students participated. As a research tool, I selected to

use group administered questionnaires. The advantages of

distributing group-administered questionnaires are that

the order that the participants answer the questions is

confirmed from the beginning. It is also confirmed that

all participants can look at the questionnaire and their

responses any time they want. Finally, anonymity and

confidentiality can be guaranteed. The disadvantages are

that there is a chance of influence among the

participants (the order in which they fill in the

questionnaire) and that there is also a chance that one

respondent can copy the responses from another

participant. This will cause trouble in data collection,

because the researcher will take for granted that the

respondent knew or understood the question.

It is more preferable to use closed questions in a

questionnaire design, because they do not take much time

for the participants to respond them and it is easy to

decode the answers. On the other hand, there is a risk ofPage 58 of 120 Markaki Irini

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bias of the participants due to limited choices they

have and there is provided no full explanation of the

responses they choose. I used this research tool because

it was appropriate for conducting my research and it

would help me to measure if the students comprehended in

a higher or lower degree what was taught in classroom by

using both teaching ways. The advantages of using a

questionnaire are that it is economical (it saves time

and money), it is easier to be arranged than interviews,

it obtains standardized answers, it is easier to answer

because it is pre-coded, it limits effects on the

researcher’s responses.

The disadvantages are that the researcher may get a

low response rate or incomplete returns. Furthermore,

the questions might be misunderstood. Finally, the

responses can be falsified or biased in order to reach a

specific conclusion. Questionnaires are useful

especially when the researcher is interested in

exploring both facts and opinions. Facts do not demand a

critical judgement as they are related to

straightforward information about sex and age. “It is not

possible to correct anything on the questionnaire after they have been

printed and distributed to the students and therefore, it is important to

make them right before printing and from this point, arises the importance

of careful questionnaire planning” (Descombe, 2007:44).


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There is not a strict rule considering the length

of the questionnaire. As Denscombe (2007) mentioned, the

number of the questions “depends on the topic, the complexity of

the questions, the participant’s characteristics and the available time for the

completion” (Denscombe, 2007:25). The questionnaire was

administered at the end of both courses and it contained

only a small number of questions in order to ensure that

the whole procedure would last for one teaching hour.

The questionnaire type I used was the structured

questionnaire type because I wanted to make it easier to

categorize data at the end of the research. The

questions were worded clearly in order to avoid

misinterpretation by the participants. The proposed

responses of the closed questions covered as much as

possible of all the possible answers. I had a smooth

transition from one question to the other. The wording

of the questions did not predispose the answer, because

that would be a stereotype to the participant and it

would imply the answers that me as a researcher would

expect to hear. The wording was pretty simple and this

was also confirmed by the fact that none of the children

raised a hand to ask for details of a question or

mention that did not understand the meaning of a

question.

I did not ask questions that required the

participant to be in a specific situation or have any

particular knowledge. My questions were not long inPage 60 of 120 Markaki Irini

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order not to confuse the reader and the meaning and

finally, I did not use questions that asked participants

to refer deep in the mind. I preferred not to ask

questions about personal issues, because respondents may

feel uncomfortable and could not respond to them at all.

Hypothetical questions would lead to hypothetical

responses and would not prove to be useful during the

analysis, therefore, they were avoided. I also avoided

using questions of prestige because the answers could

have some degree of prejudice and falsehood the

participant to raise a bit of himself through the

response. The questions where kept short and they were

all coming from the teacher’s book and from the

educational software that students watched during the

experiment. The questions I used were closed questions,

with pre-categorised answers. I tried to keep the

questionnaire interesting from the beginning till the

end and make it fun. The questions were ethical, I did

not include leading questions, I did not ask double

questions, it was worded to suit the population, it had

a nice font and size and it was polite.

Structured questionnaires enable the researcher to

quantify pre-categorised answers and these answers to

the questions can be counted and expressed numerically.

I also used observation as a technique and an

observation sheet, in order to keep notes during the

research process. “During the experimental procedure, it is possiblePage 61 of 120 Markaki Irini

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that faults appear; for that reason, regular repetitions must take place as

well as a comparison of the results with the ones of the controlled

experiment” (Skittides, 2006:48). The questionnaire

included questions about sex, (age was not asked since I

knew from the beginning that were all nine year olds).

The questionnaire included 5 questions with

multiple choice answers, because that would be easy for

small children to understand. If I used a Likert-type

scale I would confuse them with the choice 1 for

Strongly Agree, 2 for Agree etc. Multiple choice answers

is a form of assessment in which respondents are asked

to select the best possible answer out of the choices

from a list. The multiple choice format is most

frequently used in educational testing, that is the

reason why I selected this type of questions. The

questions were taken from the school book and they were

based on the teacher’s lesson plan at that day. The

educational software that students watched had exactly

the same information with the lesson plan. That was the

reason why I chose to use this specific educational

software.

Both groups of students were taught the exact same

lesson and they gathered the exact same information. The

only difference was the use of computers in the

experimental group. The questionnaire had questions of

easy and medium difficulty and there was only one


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relatively difficult question, the third one. This

question was considered to be difficult because in the

traditional teaching way, the short story that the

teacher referred to, students needed to be good

listeners and to remember a single detail. In the group

of students who attended the traditional way of

teaching, 3 of them did not respond correct to the

question, while in the group of the students who watched

it with the use of educational software, all of them

responded correctly to this question. The questions of

the test were based on the school book and on the

material that the educational software included. I first

read the school book and then watched the educational

software. I wrote down the common parts that the book

and the software had and then created the questions.

The educational software I used in the research is

called “Ksefteris and the 12 Olympian gods” (Edition

2.1.). It is the exciting adventure of Ksefteris, a

young boy, in the palaces of the twelve gods. The

students with the help of this imaginary hero start a

virtual journey on the Olympus Mountain, where they

discover the myths about the twelve gods. There is also

a Nymph, Drosanthi that asks for Ksefteris’ help in

order to collect information about the missing book of

the 12 gods. Ksefteris is willing to help her and he

follows her up on the mountain. There, he is given the

chance to meet each god individually, enter theirPage 63 of 120 Markaki Irini

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palace, explore them, examine all the objects he finds

in his way and listen to the stories that are related to

each god’s life. After the end of each visit, Ksefteris

along with the students answer the questions that are

posed by the god. This educational software is an

advanced multimedia product that combines learning with

entertainment successfully, in an interactive

environment rich in stimuli.

Through the adventures, the student identifies with

Ksefteris, the hero who experiences the adventures, and

as a result he feels as if he was a co-traveler and

helper in the task of collecting information. The

students are not passive observers while they are

watching all the events go by. They participate in the

adventure, interact with the environment, answer the

questions and give answers to the problems, helping in

this way Ksefteris to conquer the partial secrets and,

finally, achieve the discover of the secret. Through the

play, students not only entertain themselves but also

enrich their knowledge, explore and learn how to collect

evidence, classify it and reveal the existing relations

between the characters and the facts. By answering each

god’s questions, students learn to focus their attention

on specific information, respect isolated evidence,

distinguish the minor details that are found in the

questions and answer the multiple choice questions posed

by each god by providing the right answer.Page 64 of 120 Markaki Irini

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Through the dialogues and as the story unravels,

the students improve their reading skills and enrich

their vocabulary with all the new terms they come

across. The development of practical thinking is very

important and it is achieved through this educational

software, because it creates students the tendency to

provide solutions to various problems by combining the

cause and the effect. Through this fairytale, the

student approaches knowledge not in a simply narrative

way, but direct. It is a descriptive and pleasant

environment, as information is not just given, but it

emerges through the vivid dialogues, in a language that

is dynamic and true. This software actually gives a

cause for research.

Through the environment of the educational title,

the empirical approach of knowledge is reinforced as the

student is not just a passive recipient of information,

but he is required to participate in the way the story

evolves by interacting with the environment and

therefore, consolidating in a pleasant and effective way

all the acquired knowledge. Finally, the software

becomes the means of students’ assessment in the

specific cognitive object with advanced (as it is

obvious) potential. This software fitted into the

paradigm and the methodology that I have chosen, because

I intended to prove that through the use of educational

software (ICT) in classroom, learning can be enhanced.Page 65 of 120 Markaki Irini

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As a result, we can say that the software “Ksefteris and

the 12 Olympian gods” is based on the triptych: 1)

Consolidation, 2) Research, Knowledge, Comprehension and

3) Assessment. A crucial part is played by the teacher

who acts as the conductor-transmitter of information,

knowledge organizer and he/she is the one who encourages

and co-ordinates the group of the students.

3.6. Sample

The purpose of sampling is to use a relatively

small number of cases to find out about a much larger

number. A survey design provides a quantitative or

numeric description of trends, attitudes or opinions of

a population by studying a sample of that population.

From sample results, the researcher generalizes or makes

claims about the population. “The group you wish to study is

termed the ‘population’ and the group you actually involve in your research

is the ‘sample’; When you have collected results from the sample, you will

want to generalize or apply) your results to the population. Since the

population is the group to whom the results can be generalized it should

always be defined in advance as the target of your research” (Gorard,

2001:10).

Small samples can “lead to the loss of potentially valuable

results and are equivalent to a loss of power in the test used for analysis”


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(Stevens, 1992:53). In an experiment, investigators may

also identify a sample and generalize to a population.

“However, the basic intent of an experiment is to test the impact of an

intervention on an outcome, controlling all other factors that might

influence that outcome” (Cohen, 2008:501). Surveys might have

completed forms not returned back, “some questions not

answered, some answered unintelligibly and maybe transcription errors”

(Gorard, 2001:13). For further analysis of the data

collected, the quantitative method was selected so that

useful conclusions are drawn.

In this research, a sample of 47 students of the

third class of two primary schools in Greece was used,

that would provide a general idea about the situation.

Out of 47 students, only 1 student did not participate

because he was absent that day. The percentage of 0, 05%

was the loss in the sample during the research process

because of absence. More analytically, in the first

school, there was a group of 25 students where 24 out of

25 participated (one boy was absent). The sample

comprised of 10 boys and 14 girls.

They were all nine years olds attending lessons in

a public school of Heraklion Crete. The participants

came from a middle economic Greek background. There were

no immigrants or students from other countries in it.

The cognitive background of the students responded to

various levels (there were excellent students, pupils of


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average ability and pupils of inadequate ability). All

students were previously informed (not only by me

verbally before we start the research procedure, but

also from their History teacher the previous day) of all

the process and permission was also requested by them as

well as their anonymous agreement (beyond the permission

given by the competent authorities). After distributing

them the questionnaires, I personally collected them and

greatly thanked them for their cooperation and

assistance.

I repeated the exact same procedure to the other

school and I noticed that the students of the second

school were really excited when they heard that we are

going to watch something, while in the other school

there was not such kind of a positive reaction. In the

second school, there was a group of 22 students. They

all participated in the research. The sample comprised

of 10 boys and 12 girls. They were all nine year olds

attending lessons in a public school of Heraklion Crete.

The group of the participants came from middle economic

Greek background. There were no immigrants in it too.

The cognitive background of the students responded to

various levels (there were excellent students, pupils of

average ability and pupils of inadequate ability). All

the students were previously informed for this research

procedure exactly as the students of the first school

were. After distributing them the questionnaires, IPage 68 of 120 Markaki Irini

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personally collected them and greatly thanked them for

their cooperation and assistance. The research results I

gathered were statistically analysed by me in person

with the aim of allowing some useful conclusions to

emerge.

3.7. Research procedure

[There is some repetition below of what you have already

written]

The research was conducted in April of 2010. Before

the research process began, I personally contacted via

telephone at first, the two primary schools that I chose

randomly to participate in the process. Selected schools

were two public schools. They were both really kind and

gave me immediately the permission to conduct my

research. I personally expected them to be really strict

on this issue and this was a very pleasant surprise to

me. I also visited headmasters in their offices in

person, so that they know that it is a really important

research to me and ensured them that this research

process will be used only for scientific purpose. At the

end, I also thanked them a lot for their cooperation and

assistance. Then, I also discussed the research process

with the History teachers, who were both very willing to

help.


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The names of the schools will not be mentioned

because I guaranteed anonymity before the research

began. The first group was that of the third grade of a

primary school in Heraklion Crete and the other group is

that of the third grade of another primary school of the

same city. These students attended two History lessons

in total. In the first school, the teacher-centred

teaching model was followed and there was no use of any

auxiliary electronic teaching aids (even maps would be

considered as a visual tool), while in the second

school, educational software was used, which was the

basic knowledge transmitter. After both History lessons,

a questionnaire took place in order to detect whether or

not the use of the educational software affected the

comprehension of History subject. The experiment took

place in two different public primary schools. I divided

my sample in two groups, the controlled group and the

experimental group. “Using a control group in research, allows the

researcher to detect any effects on the experiment itself” (Babbie,

2009:233).

The first school constituted the controlled group.

This group attended History teaching in the traditional

teaching-centered way. The second school constituted the

experimental group. This group attended the same subject

of the History lesson that was taught in the first group

with the traditional method, but it was accompanied with

the suitable educational software. The controlled groupPage 70 of 120 Markaki Irini

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was a group constitutes of 25 students. The experimental

group was constituted of 22 students. Both experiments

were conducted on the same day, the 26th of April 2010.

Students of the first school group were taught the unit

“The Quest of the Golden Fleece”. The teacher–centered

teaching approach was followed and the lesson planning

was exclusively based on the personality of the teacher.

At the end of the lesson, all students responded to a

questionnaire in order to help me detect the degree to

which the students had comprehended the material taught.

At the second school group, the teaching of History

lesson was accompanied by the suitable educational

software. Students watched the section “The Quest of the

Golden Fleece”.

The didactic character of the lesson taught was

defined to a considerable degree by the potential of the

software and the willingness of the participants who

were being taught. After the end of the lesson, the

students responded to the same questionnaire in order to

detect the degree to which technology affected the way

they perceived and comprehended the historical facts. At

the first stage of the experiment, the students of the

first school were taught the unit “the Quest of the

Golden Fleece” without the use of electronic means or

any other teaching aid. This fact should be taken into

consideration given that the nature of the specific

subject requires a wider scope of interpretation andPage 71 of 120 Markaki Irini

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analysis as it refers to an expedition. The use of a

map, for example, would be both advisable and possible,

but it was avoided so that the perceptive ability and

judgment of the students were not helped in any way by

external factors.

The teaching process closely followed the teacher-

centered teaching model. The primary main knowledge

carrier was the teacher who, through oral speech,

managed to reconstruct verbally and figuratively the

object under study for the sake of the students’ way of

thinking. The teacher was really good and descriptive

and she used a lot of moves during teaching. Students

had that sense of familiarity with her and there was

obvious a feeling of great respect to her. The students

were carefully watching what their teacher said (except

to students who were sitting at the end who were talking

to each other in the beginning, but they stopped after a

while because the teacher gained their attention).

At the second stage of the experiment, the students

of the second school were taught the unit “the Quest of

the Golden Fleece” with the auxiliary help of the

educational software “Ksefteris and the 12 Olympian

gods” (2nd Edition). The students were really excited and

noisy when they heard that they are going to watch

something. When the CD-ROM started playing, they were

all sitting quiet and watching it carefully. (See


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Appendix III). The presence of the teacher played an

important role in the research process, because the

teacher operated as a co-ordinator and not as a primary

knowledge carrier and indispensable factor to the

learning process.

The role of the teacher was played to a significant

degree by the educational software which provided

students with the potential to act individually, to

critically approach the cognitive object and to combine

and analyse it in its particular sections. The presence

of the teacher also retained the same character because

the teacher operated as a co-ordinator and not as a

primary knowledge carrier and indispensable factor to

the learning process. During lesson, the group

cooperative teaching model was activated, as learning

was exclusively directed by the students themselves and

was channelled to them through the electronic means. I

noticed that motion pictures, the vivid colours, the

impressive graphics and the presentation of the units in

the form of comics attracted and gained their interest a

lot. During the preview, the students participated in

the whole learning process by saying out loud the

‘correct’ answers to the hero and they sometimes stood

up from their chairs shouting the answer (See Appendix

III).


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3.9.1. Statistical treatment

In this study, I used SPSS (Statistical Package for

Social Sciences) to analyze, present and interpret the

data collected by the questionnaires. I conducted a

descriptive statistical analysis according to gender.

The study is summarized in pie charts and histograms of

the sample by using frequencies in order to find out the

competence percentages. Means, medians and mode that are

measures of central tendency and measures of variability

such as standard deviations, range and correlations will

also be used where applicable (Robson, 2002).

Reliability is a crucial part in the research process

because “we need to know how reliable is our instrument for data

collection” (Cohen, et al., 2008:506).

According to Linn and Gronlund (2000), “to ensure the

reliability of the test, we should measure the standard error of the

measurement to estimate the variation that can be found in a test score”

(Linn, & Gronlund, 2000:54). The smaller the standard

error, the more accurate the measurement is. For the

investigation of the factors that affect students’

understanding and performance, I will estimate, by the

method of least squares, the statistical importance of

the variables the model consists of. “Multiple regression

enables us to predict and weigh the relationship between two or more

explanatory, independent variables and an explained dependent variable”


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(Cohen, et al., 2008:479). The dependent variables are

understanding and performance and I examined the factors

which influence them and how the different teaching

approach is related to the prediction model.

3.9.2. Ethical Considerations

It is argued that clear guidelines for ethical

behaviour regarding the questionnaire are needed and

would actually serve to increase the effectiveness of

the methodology used. The participants of this research

were active subjects and collaborators in the research

process. I safeguarded the interests and rights of those

who were involved in the research, upheld the highest

possible standards of research practices including in

research design, collection and storage of research

material, analysis, interpretation and writing. I also

considered the impact of the research and its use for

those involved in the study.

In 1990, the American Psychological Association

augmented a set of ‘Ethical standards for research with

children, issued by the Society for Research in Child

Development (SRCD, 1990). These emphasize that

children’s rights “have priority over the interests of the investigator

and stress the importance of informing children about features of the


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research that might affect their willingness to participate. They also stress

that procedures may harm children physically or psychologically are

unacceptable” (Stanley & Sieber, 1992:18). In my

investigation I followed six out of these principles,

which were related to my research. First of all, I did

not use a research procedure that could harm the child

physically or psychologically. Secondly, I informed

children of all features of the research procedure that

might affect his/her willingness to participate.

Thirdly, I respected each child's freedom to choose to

participate in the research or withdraw from it.

Fourthly, the anonymity of the information was preserved

and no information was used other than that for which

permission was obtained. I kept in confidence all the

information obtained about research participants.

Finally, I was mindful of the social, political and

human implications of my research and I was especially

careful in the presentation of findings from the

research. I also did not misconduct or falsify data,

plagiarism, misrepresent or follow other practices that

seriously deviate from those that are commonly accepted

within the scientific community for proposing,

conducting, analyzing, or reporting research (SRCD,

2007).

Robson, (1993) raises ten practices that should be

avoided when doing social research. The first one was

not to involve people in the research process withoutPage 76 of 120 Markaki Irini

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their knowledge or consent (Robson, 1993:33). I

personally took the necessary steps to ensure that all

participants in the research were aware and understood

the process in which they were engaged, including how

this process will be used, how and to whom it will be

reported, mentioning verbally that they can ask any

questions that they can have while completing the

questionnaire. As a researcher, this would also help me

as a researcher to detect whether there were questions

that could be misunderstood or difficult for them to

understand. For the most part, individual ‘right to privacy’

is usually contrasted with public “right to know” (Pring,

1984). The second was not to coerce them to participate

(Robson, 1993:33). I mentioned at the beginning of the

research that the participants had the right to withdraw

from the research for any or no reason, at any time,

since this study is voluntary.

The third was not to withhold information about the

true nature of the research (Robson, 1993:33). I

detached in Appendices all the notes that I kept when

doing observation and also the questionnaire that I used

in the research, and the original material (the

completed questionnaires) will be included in the

printed form of the Dissertation. The fourth was not to

deceive participants in other ways, which is something

that is not to be discussed because it was taken for

granted (Robson, 1993). The fifth was not to inducePage 77 of 120 Markaki Irini

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participants commit acts that diminish their self-esteem

(Robson, 1993). There were no questions throughout the

test that could possibly make respondents feel under-

estimated. The sixth was not to violate the rights of

self-determination (Robson, 1993:33). This issue was

also taken for granted. The seventh was not to expose

participants to physical or mental stress. This has been

defined in the Ethical Guidelines for the Institutional

Review Committee for Research with Human Subjects, as

that which extends to all information relating to a

person’s physical and mental condition, personal

circumstances and social relationships which is not

already in the public domain. It also gives to the

individual or collectivity the freedom to decide for

themselves when and where, in what circumstances and to

what extent their personal attitudes, opinions, habits,

eccentricities, doubts and fears are to be communicated

to or withheld from others (Social Sciences and

Humanities Research Council of Canada, 1981). The eighth

was not to invade their privacy (Robson, 1993:33). There

were no personal questions that could cause this effect.

The ninth was not to withhold benefits from some

participants. There was not such a case and therefore,

all participants were treated the same way and they all

had the same rights with the others. The last one was

that the researcher had to treat participants fairly or

with consideration or with respect (Robson, 1993:33).Page 78 of 120 Markaki Irini

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The researcher should “put emphasis on the importance of

participation” (Lodico, Spaudling & Voetgle, 2006:47).

Cohen, et al. (2008), emphasize on the importance of

ensuring the co-operation of the individuals that will

help to conduct the research. “Research should cause no harm or

distress to the students and this is what was pre-decided at the research

design process” (Cohen, et al. 2008:515). It is important to

mention at this point that the participants were all

minors and that the personal data of each student

remained confidential so that their protection was

safeguarded to the maximum degree. I guaranteed the

headmasters that the names of the schools will not be

mentioned anywhere in the Dissertation research paper,

for anonymity reasons. The confidential and anonymous

treatment of participants’ data was the most important

issue that I personally guaranteed. I also guaranteed

verbally that the data will be stored in a secure

location and that they will be only used by me.

According to Cohen, et al. (2008), “adequate interpretation and

representation of data must be addressed since the researcher is a member

of a research community and this brings ethical responsibilities” (Cohen,

et al., 2008:413). As a researcher, I had also to ensure

that the data collected were kept surely by me in person

and that “the form of any publication, would lead to a breach of the

agreed confidentiality and anonymity” (Furlong, 2004:9).

By using questionnaires, I also attempted to

increase the validity of students’ responses, due to thePage 79 of 120 Markaki Irini

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fact that I guaranteed the anonymity of respondents

which I saw that encouraged them to answer the questions

truthfully knowing that they will not be identified. I

also guaranteed that the research results will be used

only for academic purposes. I upheld the highest

possible standards of research practice including in

research design, collection of data, analysis,

interpretation and writing. The literature was used

appropriately, acknowledged and referenced. The research

must be reliable, valid and also subject to the

scientific community. In this study, the questionnaire

that will be distributed to the students has to enable

the researcher to “overcome the obstacles of ‘guilty knowledge’ and

‘dirty hands’” (Cohen, et al., 2008:516). The basic ethical

principles that were taken into consideration are that

no harm was done to the participants of this research

and that anonymity was upheld. [What is this cartoon

for?]


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Chapter FourChapter Four

DataData PresentationPresentation

4.1. Data Collection


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The research question that underlies this study is

if the use of ICT improves the understanding of History

teaching. The research question was whether students, who

attended the lesson with the use of ICT, would achieve

higher scores than the others who attended the lesson

with the traditional way, was actually confirmed by the

findings of the research. More specifically, both group

students responded to five questions that referred to a

History subject. The subject title was “The Quest of

Golden Fleece” which referred to the Argonaut Battle.

All five questions were answered by the students who

watched the lesson with the use of ICT. Two of the

students who watched the lesson with the traditional

teaching-centered way could not respond to the third

question, which was considered to be a difficult one,

because it required a single detail that students could

memorize only if they were watching the lesson pretty

carefully. It was proved by the findings that all

students who attended the lesson with the use of ICT

could answer this question.

The questionnaire was structured with pre-

categorized answers. All information given to the

students were planned to be the same. The teacher gave

the exact same information to his group of students and

it was planned that the educational software gave the

exact same information to the other group of students.

The questionnaire was administered after each lessonPage 82 of 120 Markaki Irini

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taught with a challenging note, which was politely

asking the students to answer the questions. I tried to

keep the questionnaire pleasant and simple, because

children were at a small age. I was really surprised by

their willingness to complete my questionnaire and that

I had no returns. I only got one questionnaire back

because a boy was absent from the class that day. The

participants’ reaction in both schools is worth

mentioning here. The announcement that a questionnaire

would take place caused some initial stir as the

following assessment of the students based on that made

them feel stressful and worried. They were soon able to

overcome that feeling because it was made clear to them

that the test was not about assessing them, but the

effectiveness of the teaching process. The fact that the

names of the students should not be written on the

questionnaire contributed positively to the creation of

a relaxed environment as the research was being

conducted.

The questionnaire first asked for their Gender. The

first question showed an image which depicted the

Argonaut Battle (See Appendix II). The question was what

was depicted on this image. The correct answer was the

third one. Both groups of students responded correctly

to this question. The second question asked how did

Jason name his ship and why. The correct answer was the

second one. Again, both groups of students respondedPage 83 of 120 Markaki Irini

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correctly to the question. The third question was

considered to be the difficult one, because it was a

descriptive question. Students of the first group (the

controlled group) were 24 and only 22 answered correctly

to the question. Students of the second group (the

experimental group) were 22 and they all answered

correctly to this question. The fourth question asked

what Pelias promised Jason when he asked him to bring

back the Golden Fleece. The correct answer was the third

one. This was a slighter difficult question in which

students of both groups responded correctly. The last

question asked what feats Aetes assigned on Jason. The

correct answer was the second one. This question was of

a medium difficulty (See Appendix II). Again, both

student groups responded correctly.

The response rate was higher in students who

attended the lesson with the use of ICT, which actually

confirms that students’ understanding can be improved

with the use of ICT. The findings will be presented in

the next sub-heading. I personally collected the data

(questionnaires), counted them and kept them in a safe

place. ICT questionnaires were kept in a different file

than the traditional teaching method questionnaires in

order to avoid confusion. I counted them to check that

they corresponded to the number of the participants and

gave each questionnaire a specific number. Before I

start the data analysis, I categorized them according toPage 84 of 120 Markaki Irini

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gender and type (ICT or traditional) and then checked

the correct answers.

4.2. Presentation of Data

[It might be better to analyse the data first and end

with the overall conclusion] [In English a . is used for

the decimal point e.g. 3.5% not 3,5]

The mixing results gained from quantitative

approach were combined with the results gained from

qualitative approach. Data results confirmed that the

use of ICT in classroom can actually enhance learning.

More analytically, students of the first school who

attended the lesson with the traditional way of teaching

were 24 in total. The Valid Percent regarding the Gender

of the participants was 58, 3% Female and 41, 7% Male.

The Cumulative Percent was 58, 3%, the same as the Valid

Percent of female which shows that the participation

regarding the Gender included more females. The Standard

Deviation was 7, 071. The Mean is 12, 50. We see that

most of the data points are close to the Mean of the

data set, so the Standard Deviation is small. These are

confirmed by the histogram which shows the students’

participation rate according to Gender:


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Students of the second school who attended a lesson

with the use of computers were 22 in total. The Valid

Percent regarding the Gender of the participants was 54,

5% Female and 45, 5% Male. The Cumulative Percent was

54, 5%, the same as the Valid Percent of female which

shows that the participation regarding the Gender

included more females. The Standard Deviation was 6, 49.

The Mean is 12, 5. Most of the data points are close to

the Mean of the data set, so the Standard Deviation is

small. This pie chart shows the student’s participation

rate according to Gender:


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Students of the first school who attended the

lesson with the traditional way of teaching were 14

girls and 11 boys in total. One boy was absent so the

boys that completed the questionnaires were 10. I had a

questionnaire returned. The results show that there were

3 girls who responded wrong to the 3rd ‘difficult’

question and 1 boy who answered wrong. There were 4

wrong answers in total. The Valid Percent regarding the

girls who responded wrong was 21, 4%. The Valid Percent

regarding the boys who responded wrong was 8, 3 %. The

rest of the students responded right to all the

questions. The Valid Percent regarding the girls who


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responded right was 78, 6%. The Cumulative Percent was

78, 6%, the same as the Valid Percent of the girls who

responded right which is smaller than that of the boys.

The participation according to Gender shows that

there were more girls who responded wrong to the

question than the boys. The Valid Percent regarding the

boys who responded right to the questions was 83, 3 %.

The Cumulative percent was 91, 7% which is higher than

that of the girls. The participation according to Gender

shows that there were more boys who responded right to

the question than the girls:


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Students of the second school who attended a lesson

with the use of computers were 22 in total. The Valid

Percent regarding the Gender of the participants was 54,

5% Female and 45, 5% Male. The Cumulative Percent was

54, 5%, the same as the Valid Percent of female which

shows that the participation regarding the Gender

included more females. The Standard Deviation was 6, 49.

The Mean is 12, 5. Most of the data points are close to

the Mean of the data set, so the Standard Deviation is

small. Students of the second school were 12 girls and

10 boys in total.

The results show that there was only 1 boy 3 who

responded wrong to the 3rd ‘difficult’ question. There

was 1 wrong answer in total. The Valid Percent and the

Cumulative Percent regarding the girls who responded

right was 100 %. The Valid Percent regarding the boys

who responded right was 99, 5 %. The Cumulative Percent

regarding the boys who responded right to the questions

was 99, 5%. The Valid Percent and the Cumulative Percent

regarding the boys who responded wrong to the questions

were 0. 05 %. The participation according to Gender

shows that all girls responded correctly to the

questions, but not all of the boys. “Elementary-school-

age boys are more likely than girls to be held back a

grade” (Mead, 2006). This is also confirmed by the pie

chart which shows students’ right and wrong answers in

total:Page 89 of 120 Markaki Irini

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4.3. Data Protection Act

The Act (1984) covers the retention and use of

personal data on a computer or similar automatic system,

and makes it an offence to store or process personal

data except in strict accordance with the terms upon

which those data have been registered with the Data

Protection Register. (Niblett, 1984:3). The University

is a registered data user and students are specifically

advised that:


http://www.google.com/search?hl=el&tbs=bks:1&tbo=p&q=+inauthor:%22Bryan+Niblett%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=5

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i) The University does not authorise any

of its employees or agents to hold or

process by electronic means any personal

data on its behalf except as stated in

the University's registration made

pursuant to the Data Protection Act.

ii) Students must not hold or process by

electronic means any personal data for

use in connection with their academic

studies or research without the express

authority of their tutor or supervisor.

iii) Tutors and supervisors who give

permission to their students to hold or

process personal data by electronic means

are themselves responsible for ensuring

that the activity complies with the

University's registration and the Data

Protection Principles (Niblett, 1984:3).



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Chapter FiveChapter Five

Data AnalysisData Analysis

This research aimed to investigate whether the use of

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in

classroom can actually improve the understanding of

History teaching in comparison with the traditional

teaching-centered way. Children and young people live in a

world “where ICT plays an important role in their everyday lives and in the

society they live in” (Loveless, 2003:x). According to the

literature review, the use of ICT in Primary Education is

important because it enables teachers to “store and record

information about how students develop understanding of new material”

(Kozma, & Voogt, 2003:54). ICT plays an important role in

the teaching process. Therefore, multinational

organizations such as the Organisation for Economic Co-

operation and Development (OECD, 2000) and the European

Commission (2001), have “identified an important role for ICT in

education. They agree to prepare students for lifelong learning in the

information society of the 21st century” (OECD, 2000).

Reports issued by UNESCO and the World Bank (1998),

also advocate that the use of these technologies “promotes

international socioeconomic progress and educational change, both inside

and outside the classroom” (Kozma, & Voogt, 2003:2). Perhaps

most notably, the Networked Interactive Media in Schools

(NIMIS) project, funded by the European Union, found thatPage 92 of 120 Markaki Irini

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computers in the classroom “encouraged motivation and learning in

children, but only when technology was properly implemented and supported”

(Kozma, & Voogt, 2003). This thesis was actually proved by

the findings of the research. According to the

technological theories of learning of the literature

review, learning can actually be enhanced through the use

of ICT in classroom. According to Archontidis and Zibidis

(2000), cognitive theories incorporated in the scientific

example of constructivism are the ones widely accepted as

the background of the development of educational software.

Simulation and model programmes, programmes of microcosm

‘creation’, programmes of problem solving, open learning

environments and programmes that provide multiple meaning

reproductions are offered as tools that help critical

thinking and initiative, encourage co-operative forms of

learning and finally, as they are consistent to their

theoretical foundations, they support the gradual

structure of knowledge at an individual or group level.

The teacher is operating as a source of encouragement and

helps students’ efforts. He also takes care in order to

construct the suitable environment, co-ordinate and

organise the activities.

Socio-cultural theories can be found behind co-

operative learning environments and open tools both to

the way a student may use them as well as to the

influence their content has according to the reality

forms they offer. The student is no longer a passivePage 93 of 120 Markaki Irini

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recipient of information; the student participates in

the learning process and becomes active. Vygotsky’s

theory in particular, with the notions of imminent

development zones and of the encouragement framework is

basically found in software used in gradual and divided

cognitive support so that many students develop from the

stage of the ‘simple explorer of random knowledge’ to

higher levels through the help of more specialized

people. Constructivist theories support the view that

“knowledge is attained by the students themselves and is not given ‘free’

through teaching” (Jonassen, 1999:35). Utilisation of

modern technologies in the subject of History creates

various possibilities on the active participation of

students and therefore, it refutes the traditional forms

of teaching which are based on the constructivistic

strategies of knowledge transfer.

Technology provides opportunities for teachers to

make their lessons “pleasant and fun for children and it should be

viewed as another effective tool in the suite of teaching strategies” (Tomei,

2003:117). It was proved through the research that

innovations in technology present a far wider horizon,

offer new challenges in education and open up

possibilities for different teaching methods.

Technological developments “will force historians to adopt new

methods in teaching History” (Tappio, 2008:43). It is now

generally understood that there is a need for both


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traditional and new methods of teaching to enhance the

opportunities for active learning.

One of the most important benefits that stems from

the introduction of Technologies in the school class is

the potential they offer for the reversal or abolition

of traditionally established forms of teaching. Those

traditional forms of teaching are based on behavioural

strategies of knowledge transmission. “Yet, as it has been

discovered, technology often ends up supporting the same traditional forms

of teaching. Technology, that is, is used as a means of improvement of the

learning result with quantitative terms or as a substitute for the teacher”

(Kinigos, 1995:23).

ICT provides opportunities for the teaching of

historical enquiry, including the generation and testing

of historical hypotheses and problems, as opposed to

only learning historical facts. ICT and multimedia “fit well

with the multi-source nature of history – they can give a ‘total picture’ and

can allow students to integrate evidence into their work” (Hennessey, et

al., 2003:21). The use of ICT promotes collaboration

between students and “can contribute to the development of historical

thinking” (Brown, & Purvis, 2001:34). ICT helps to “alleviate

the constraints of writing and allows students to concentrate on the specific

topic or discussion; this encourages reflection, analysis and understanding”

(Hennessey, et al., 2003:22).

In my research, all the above statements were

confirmed. By observing the data, I discovered that the


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computer helped the perception degree of the cognitive

object and the following performance of the students

considerably. The score difference in the tests reached

the rate of 25%, which makes the different perception

degree and lesson comprehension degree of the students’

apparent. The statistical results of teaching with ICT

were high, which means that teaching with the use of ICT

is an effective method. The findings of the research

proved that a lesson which is taught with the use of ICT

can actually enhance learning. Data were be collected by

using a questionnaire after teaching students by using

both methods. I personally conducted the whole research

and the results were collected and statistically

analyzed by me in person, in order to reach some useful

conclusions regarding these two different teaching

methods.

This research also provided further information

about which teaching method can enhance students’

understanding. Data analysis shows that there is a

significant difference between the two teaching

approaches. It was expected that there would be a

significant difference between these two different

teaching methods, because similar investigations showed

that there is a significant difference while teaching

with the use of ICT. My results relate to what we

already know about the use of ICT in schools. This is

also confirmed and proved by my investigation and fromPage 96 of 120 Markaki Irini

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the questionnaire ratings. The average score of students

of the first school, the one without the use of

computers, was 2, 25 out of 5. The average score of

students of the second school, the one with the use and

help of computers, the average score of students was: 4,

25 out of 5. As we can see, there is a significant

difference between the two filled questionnaires. The

score difference between them is pretty high.

This research proved that students who attended

both courses had a significant difference regarding the

comprehension and understanding of History teaching. The

findings by comparing the scores of traditional and ICT

questionnaires lend support to the technological

theories of learning. The difference was found when

checking the correct answers of the questionnaires.

Students who watched the lesson with the use of ICT,

scored higher than the students who attended the lesson

with the traditional teaching way. Same results were

found in a research that was done in Britain (Haydn,

2001). This shows that the use of ICT can enhance

learning in other countries too, although there could be

existing different socio-political standards.


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Chapter SixChapter Six

ConclusionConclusion

My research tended to prove that the use of

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in

classroom can actually improve the understanding of

History teaching in comparison with the traditional

teaching-centered way. This was confirmed from the above

findings. I personally think that my research was

successful in terms of the Research procedure,

literature, data collection, analysis and I also took

all the necessary steps in order to ensure the ethical

issues. Students responded to the questionnaire without

facing any problems with the questions, which made me

feel pleased. It would be useful though, if a pilot

study was done before the experiment, but it could not


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be conducted due to limited time. [What were the

findings- give the overall data again]

As an educational professional, I found out that

the use of new means of technology in teaching can catch

children’s attention and it makes them pretty excited

when they know that they are about to watch something.

They feel enthusiasm about it and they become more vivid

and active participants. The structured questionnaire I

used was a really helpful research tool. I did not use

interviews because the students were really small to be

interviewed. An interview with the teacher could be

conducted, but due to the fact that the time was limited

and that I had already asked her to help me in the

research process with her teaching in classroom, I did

not schedule an interview with her. Furthermore, this

teacher was only using the traditional teaching

centered method, so I could not ask her any questions

about the use of ICT in classroom. I think that the best

teaching way is a combination of the traditional

teaching method with the use of computers.

ICT is considered to be a modern helpful tool which

can enhance learning. A lesson is mainly based on a

teacher’s personality and style. I have the sense that

if teaching style, personality and training of an

educator are generally considered to be good, learning

can also be effectively achieved without the use of any


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means of technology. In my opinion, the best learning

tool is the well-trained teacher. No matter how good the

educational software is, the teacher is the basic source

of knowledge. No software can replace the physical

presence of a teacher. Educational software is specially

designed in order to catch students’ attention and it is

proven that it enhances learning, but there is still a

need for the presence of the teacher. Students,

especially those who are in an early age, need to have

someone next to them to guide them, protect and take

care of them, which cannot be done through the use of a

computer.

Educational software can actually enhance learning

as it was proven through this research. “Students have

already welcomed ICT in History teaching, by seeing film of important

national events including speeches, animated simulations of marches and

wars or virtual visits to archaeological sites. A compact disc makes an

enjoyable way to study and learn, a way that is not so boring” (OECD,

2001:22). As an educational professional, I personally

think that the educational software should better be

used in combination with the traditional teaching-

centered way and not be the only source of teaching.

From my experience I also suggest that schools must

upgrade the existing computer software soon, because I

faced difficulty while processing the CD-ROM in the

beginning of the lesson. I think that computers that

schools use should either be brand new or be upgraded,Page 100 of 120 Markaki Irini

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because the teacher spends his/her teaching time in

order to prepare the computer before he/she starts

teaching. The Ministry of Education and Lifelong

learning should provide schools the appropriate and

sufficient equipment.

This research provides feedback for further

research. Large scale academic studies are needed in

order to investigate the uses of ICT in history,

including the extent to which ICT can contribute to the

development of higher order historical thinking and

skills of historical enquiry and the specific uses of

word-processing tools in history, and how these can

directly contribute to developing students’ skills in

analyzing historical sources. This research can be

repeated by other educators. Further enquiry would prove

to have positive results regarding the field of

education, as this is a research that causes no harm to

the students and it can also provide information on how

learning can be enhanced and organised with the use of

ICT tools.

In order to point out the existing differences, it

will be also my intention in the future to “allow the

inspection of the particular phenomenon at a different time period, with

different student groups and in opposing conditions” (Skittides,

2006:27). If I repeated the exact same research


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procedure in the future, I would choose a different

sample and I would include more schools of different

social and economical backgrounds, in order to check if

the use of ICT applies also in these categories. I would

also use a questionnaire after students watched the

educational software regarding a different lesson, not

History, in order to investigate if this is also

happening in Maths for example. I would also choose a

teacher which uses ICT tools in classroom very often and

interview him/her in order to find out what is his/her

opinion for the contribution of ICT in the learning

process. An interview with an experienced teacher would

provide me information that I did not have the

opportunity to find out through this research. A pilot

study should also be done before the experiment, because

it would provide information of possible errors of the

research.


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APPENDICESAPPENDICES

APPENDIX I

[This is the Original questionnaire that students completed after eachlesson]

-Αφού παρακολούθησες τη διδασκαλία για την αργοναυτική

εκστρατεία, σε παρακαλώ πολύ να προσπαθήσεις να ελέγξεις τις

γνώσεις σου, απαντώντας στις παρακάτω σύντομες ερωτήσεις:

Κύκλωσε:

Είσαι: Αγόρι Κορίτσι

1. Τι εικονίζεται στο χάρτη της εικόνας;

Κύκλωσε:

α) Η επιστροφή του Θησέα από την Κρήτη.

β) Το ταξίδι του Φρίξου και της Έλλης.


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γ) Η αργοναυτική εκστρατεία.

2. Πώς ονόμασε το καράβι του ο Ιάσονας και γιατί;

α) Το ονόμασε «Ιασονία» δίνοντάς του αυτό το όνομα

επειδή ήταν ίδιο με το όνομά του.

β) Το ονόμασε «Αργώ» από το όνομα του μηχανικού Άργου

που το κατασκεύασε.

3. Στον γυρισμό από την Κολχίδα, ο Ιάσονας πέρασε από την

Κρήτη. Εκεί συνάντησε τον Τάλω. Τι ήταν ο Τάλως ;

α) Ήταν ένας ασημένιος γίγαντας που έριχνε κεραυνούς στα

ξένα καράβια που πλησίαζαν στο νησί. Είχε μια φλέβα

αίματος που έκλεινε στη φτέρνα του με ένα χοντρό καρφί. Η

Μήδεια τον ξεγέλασε, του έβγαλε το καρφί και το αίμα του

χύθηκε έξω από το σώμα του κι ο Τάλως πέθανε.

β) Ήταν ένας χάλκινος γίγαντας, που είχε μια φλέβα

αίματος. Η φλέβα άρχιζε από το λαιμό και τελείωνε στον

αστράγαλό του κι έκλεινε με ένα χάλκινο καρφί. Η Μήδεια

τον ξεγέλασε, του έβγαλε το καρφί και το αίμα του χύθηκε

έξω από το σώμα του κι ο Τάλως πέθανε.

4. Ποια υπόσχεση έδωσε ο Πελίας στον Ιάσονα όταν του ανέθεσε

να φέρει το χρυσόμαλλο δέρας;

α) Υποσχέθηκε να του παραδώσει το θρόνο της Ιωλκού που

παράνομα ο Πελίας άρπαξε από τον Αίσονα, τον πατέρα του

Ιάσονα.

β) Του υποσχέθηκε άφθονα πλούτη.

γ) Του υποσχέθηκε το βασίλειο της Σπάρτης.


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5. Ποιους άθλους ανέθεσε στον Ιάσονα ο Αιήτης;

α) Να δέσει τρεις γίγαντες με χοντρές αλυσίδες και να

οργώσει ένα χωράφι, να σπείρει σιτάρι και να θερίσει τα

στάχυα σε μια μέρα.

β) Να δέσει δυο ταύρους με χάλκινα πόδια και καυτή

ανάσα, να οργώσει μ' αυτούς ένα χωράφι, να σπείρει δόντια

δράκου και να σκοτώσει τους οπλισμένους γίγαντες που θα

ξεφύτρωναν απ' τη γη.

Σε ευχαριστώ πολύ για το χρόνο σου και για τη συμμετοχή σου!

Καλημέρα!

APPENDIX II

[This is the questionnaire that students completed after each lessontranslated in English language]

After attending the Argonaut Battle Session, now please try

to challenge your knowledge on this subject by answering to

the following short questions:

Please circle:

Are you: Boy Girl

1. What is depicted on this image?


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Circle:

a) The return of Thesseus from Crete.

b) The journey of Frixos and Ellis.

c) The Argonaut Battle.

2. How did Jason name his ship and why?

a) He named it “Jason” by giving it his own name.

b) He named it “Argo” after the name of the engineer who

constructed it.

3. On the way back from Colchis, Jason dropped in Crete.

There he met “Talos”. What was Talos?

a) He was a silver giant who cast lightning on foreign

ships that were approaching the island. He had a blood vein

that ended on his heel with a thick nail. Medea tricked him,

pulled the nail out, the blood poured out from his body and

Talos died.

b) He was a bronze giant, who had a blood vein. The vein

started from his neck and ended to his ankle, where it was

kept closed with a copper nail. Medea tricked him, pulled the

nail out, the blood poured out from his body and Talos died.Page 106 of 120 Markaki Irini

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4. What did Pelias promise Jason when he asked him to bring

back the Golden Fleece?

a) He promised to give him back the throne of Iolkos, that

Pelias seized illegally by Aeson, the father of Jason.

b) He promised abundant rich.

c) He promised him the Kingdom of Sparta.

5. What feats did Aetes assign on Jason?

a) To tie up three giants with heavy chains, till a field,

sow grain and reap the spikes in a single day.

b) To tie up two bulls with bronze feet and hot breath, till

with them a field, sow dragon's teeth and kill the armed

giants that would sprout from the ground of earth.

Thank you very much for your time and your participation!

Have a nice day!


Markaki Irini

APPENDIX III

Observation Sheet NotesObservation Sheet Notes

11stst School: School: ( (Controlled Group)Controlled Group)

-- All students participated, except 1 who was absent (a boy).All students participated, except 1 who was absent (a boy).

-- Students seem to respect and love their teacher.Students seem to respect and love their teacher.

-- Students all listen to her pretty carefullyStudents all listen to her pretty carefully

-- She is very descriptive and she uses a lot of moves while speaking. She is very descriptive and she uses a lot of moves while speaking.


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-- They agreed to complete the questionnaire.They agreed to complete the questionnaire.

-- Students were happy to hear that they will not write their name on it Students were happy to hear that they will not write their name on it and a little relieved knowing that they will not be evaluated by it.and a little relieved knowing that they will not be evaluated by it.

22ndnd School: (Experimental Group) School: (Experimental Group)

-- All students participated.All students participated.

-- Students got really excited when they heard that they are going to Students got really excited when they heard that they are going to watch something.watch something.

-- They are all noisy and talking to each other.They are all noisy and talking to each other.

-- The preview of the CD-ROM has started and they all watch it pretty The preview of the CD-ROM has started and they all watch it pretty carefully.carefully.

-- There are two boys sitting at the back that are talking to each other.There are two boys sitting at the back that are talking to each other.

-- The CD-ROM caught everyone’s attention and they all participate in The CD-ROM caught everyone’s attention and they all participate in the learning process.the learning process.

-- They shout out loud the correct answers. One boy stood up shouting They shout out loud the correct answers. One boy stood up shouting the answer.the answer.

-- They are willing to complete the questionnaire and they are also They are willing to complete the questionnaire and they are also relieved knowing that they will not be evaluated by this relieved knowing that they will not be evaluated by this questionnaire.questionnaire.

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