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Brodd Chapter 3 NotesHinduism

Hinduism

Harmony and Tolerance characterize Hinduism

Harmony—blending of many different practices and beliefs—no one definitive form of Hinduism, BUT all seek salvation through liberationTolerance—generally accepting of other religions

Nearly 4,000 year old Rig Veda is Hinduisms oldest sacred text—“God is one but men call him by many names.” “Even as a tree has a single trunk, but many branches and leaves, so is there one true and perfect Religion, but it becomes many as it passes through the human medium.”

Despite its claim of tolerance there have and are instances of religious violence against other religions

Human Destiny: From Worldly Realms to the Divine Beyond

As an Eastern religion, we must be aware that Hinduism is very different from Western perspectives

Liberation: Returning to the Sacred Source

Salvation through liberation from the constraints of the human condition is the ultimate goal of all Hindus no matter which path they take, and there is a myriad of such paths.

This goal is not attained in one nor in several lifetimes—Hindus believe in reincarnation = rebirth in new life-forms

Liberation = moksha = Sanskrit word meaning “release” = release from this ordinary, finite, limited existence into the infinite ocean of the divine = characterized by infinite being, infinite awareness, and infinite bliss = it is completely beyond the experience of this world, so it is in the end indescribable

At the end of reincarnations, the Hindu attains moksha and is united forever with the divine having returned to the sacred source

The Divine: One Ultimate Reality, Many “Masks”

All reality is at its essence only one thing—there is no reality of things that exist independently of one another—Hindus worship many gods and goddesses as the various “masks” of God

Monism: All is Brahman

Monism = all reality is ultimately one—believed by most but not all Hindus—here God is not creator and independent of the rest of reality, rather all reality is one essence

Brahman = the common essence of all reality in Hinduism = infinite and eternal = ground of all existence and source of the universe = impersonal without characteristics that can be seen, heard, or even thought about intelligibly = only described as “neti, neti” = “not this, not that” = whatever the senses or the mind can conceptualize is NOT Brahman = pure spirit that underlies all reality--= though not obvious, Brahman may be discovered by the contemplation of things

Upanishads = ancient philosophical texts that form the basis for Hindu doctrines

Brahman, that is ultimate reality according to the Upanishads, can be understood through inward contemplation of the self—the ultimate reality within is named Atman = the eternal Self

Brahman is understood through the contemplation of the universe, while Atman is understood through contemplation of the self, BUT ultimately Brahman IS Atman since all reality is one

Polytheism: 330 Million Gods and Goddesses

The Divine therefore is only one essence, BUT Hindus ascribe to many gods and goddesses (traditionally 330,000,000)

Hinduism regards its many gods and goddesses as extensions of one ultimate reality, many names for one ocean, many “masks” for one God

Divine reality—Brahman or Atman—is beyond our senses and thought, so humans need accessible points to contact the divine—ultimate reality must be revealed if it is to affect the individual—the many deities of Hinduism are contact points, and each contact point or deity has its own personal characteristics

Hindus freely worship whichever gods or goddesses they like, whichever gives the individual a contact with the divine

Many Worlds, Many Lifetimes: Hindu Cosmology

Cosmology = the nature of the universe

Why is there a universe? If everything is in essence one in the divine Brahman, why does it appear that other things exist?—such issues are mysteries in Hinduism—Brahman is a mystery and the creative energy that flows from it is also a mystery

The universe—the ordinary, finite, limited realm of existence has somehow mysteriously come to be

For now, the universe is our home and must be dealt with, BUT our goal is to seek salvation through liberation from the bonds of the world

Cycles of Creation

In the West, time is linear stretching from the beginning to the present and into the future—this is NOT the case for Hinduism

Hinduism charts time and creation in ongoing cycles

The universe undergoes long periods of creation and destruction that repeats itself endlessly—the end of the present cycle is drawing near, but still has millions of years remaining—as a cycle ends the destructive forces which are already at work will gain the upper hand and bring all of creation to a deep stillness and a long pause—then the entire universe will be re-created and Hinduism will evolve all over again

Reincarnation

As the universe is created and recreated repeatedly, so too is each individual—the individual continues to be reincarnated until it is released through moksha

samsara = wheel of rebirth = the reincarnation of the individual from one life form to another—accounts of what is reincarnated varies but minimally it is the atman = self = soul =divine spark within which is ultimately destined to be reunited with its source—one is unable to remember one’s past lives

reincarnation occurs with various life forms, humans, animals, and in some texts, even plants of this earth and other similar worlds—gods and goddesses in many Hindu heavens and demons in many hells are also reincarnated

there is also a realm of semidivine “titans” just below heaven and a realm of ghosts just above the hells

all realms of samsara including those of the gods do not last since they are not Brahman

Law and Order: Divine Principles in the World

The divine is connected to the world through karma and dharma—these link samsara and the divine source—karma and dharma provide a basis for a moral life and provide spiritual significance to earthly life

Karma

Karma functions with samsara—karma determines the nature of each reincarnation—Karma = action or deed—moral law of cause and effect = every action produces an outcome that is justified by the actions worthiness = “as you sow, so shall you reap”—one’s karma record follows one from reincarnation to the next and determines the life form into which the atman will be born which could be a deity, a supernatural being, a human, or an animal—only humans have the power to affect the status of their karma—being a human is a privilege and a responsibility

karma provides justice—bad things happen to good people because of their evil deeds from their previous lives for which they deserve punishment—a very logical system of divine justice

Dharma

Dharma = the standard for determining the rightness or wrongness of actions = ethical duty based upon the divine order of reality = complete rule of life

Dharma = Hinduism’s closest equivalent to the West’s term for religion

Dharma is revealed in order through:1. divine revelation—sacred scriptures2. sacred tradition—passed from generation to generation3. the practices and example of those considered the wisest in society4. the conscience

Dharma limits one’s pursuits to fulfill one’s desires—it also shifts the focus from satisfying private cravings to caring for others—Dharma is like the Christian concept of unconditional love and the Buddhist concept of infinite compassion

Hindu Society: Mapping the Individual’s Identity

One’s dharma (ethical duty) is determined by one’s: gender caste stage of life

Within this social order one may choose from four legitimate goals

dharma of women = obedience to men—first father, then husband, and finally sons—it is also providing for the welfare of the family—women are believed to have more integrity then men because men tend to be less dependable and more frivolous—BUT women’s domestic roles have limited their education and career opportunities

Doing One’s Job: The Caste System

Caste System = traditional division of society into four distinct classes:1. Brahmin = priests2. Kshatriya (kshuht’ree-yuh)= warriors and administrators3. Vaishya (vish’yuh) = producers such as farmers, merchants, and artisans4. Shudra (shoo’druh) = servants and laborers = varna = color = darker skinned original

inhabitants distinct from fairer skinned Aryans = migrants to India from the north who came to India during the centuries of Hinduism’s origins (about 2000 BC)

5. Outcasts = Untouchables = those who are outside of society all together = Mahatma Gandhi helped to provide some legal rights to these individuals whom he named “God’s Children”

Aryans worked to prevent the two racial groups from intermingling

The four classes in the caste system were divided and subdivided until more than 3000 categories emerged—for men the system determines possible occupations, for women it determines whom they can marry

The caste system is based upon heredity—one is born into a caste for life which is determined by one’s karma

From the Upanishads: “Accordingly, those who are of pleasant conduct here—the prospect is, indeed, that they will enter a pleasant womb, either the womb of a [Brahmin], or the womb of a [kshatriya], or the womb of a [Vaishya]. But those who are of stinking conduct here—the prospect is, indeed, that they will enter a stinking womb, either the womb of a dog, or the womb of a swine, or the womb of an [outcast].

Karma, therefore, justifies the caste system and by living in conformity to one’s dharma places one closer to salvation/liberationKarma determines caste and caste determines one’s proper dharma

Acting One’s Age: Four Stages of Life

After an initiation rite near the time of puberty a Hindu boy enters the first stage of life, that of student = intense study of the Vedas and other sacred literature—this stage continues until one marries

Hindu marriages are traditionally arranged by the parents and the couple commonly do not see one another until the time of the wedding—some changes are occurring, especially in urban areas

second stage is that of householder = worldly tasks of pursuing a career and raising a family—women participate in this stage with their husbands

third stage is that of the forest dweller = begins with the birth of the first grandchild = a may choose to ask his wife to accompany him in this stage = the man may retreat from worldly bonds to engage in a spiritual quest

fourth stage is that of the sannyasin (sun-yah’ sin) = wandering ascetic = a return to society but remaining detached from the normal attractions and distractions of social life—women who have followed their husbands into the third stage may also follow him into the fourth stage—if this happens the husband and wife life detached from one another

http://c8.alamy.com/comp/CT7NP7/hindu-ascetic-belonging-to-the-sannyasin-sect-his-body-is-covered-CT7NP7.jpg

Seeking One’s Desire: Four Goals of Life

Sensual Pleasure

Kama = pleasure = sensual love—is a legitimate aim of life but it must be within the limits of dharma—some sacred literature is devoted to the enhancement of sensual love

Material Success

When kama no longer fulfills one completely, one will move to the next desire or goal

Artha = material success, social power, and prestige

When artha ceases to fulfill one, one will move to the next desire or goal

Harmony with Dharma

rather than being a duty which one does begrudgingly, dharma is now done because it is desired—one discovers a deep joy of living in harmony with dharma—the realization that it is more blessed to give than to receive

When one realizes that one is still trapped by the pains of samsara, one will seek the next goal

The Bliss of Moksha

Moksha = seeking infinite being, awareness, and bliss

Three Paths to Liberation

There are three great paths to moksha—the paths are structured around human tendencies to be active, to gain knowledge, and to experience emotional attachment—the paths are not exclusive and most will follow more than one

For the Active: Karma Marga, “The Path of Works”

Karma Marga/Yoga = The Path of Works = for those engaged in earning a living, raising a family, or who naturally participate in physical activities—for those living in accordance with dharmahousehold rituals, public ceremonies, social requirements, conforming to dietary laws and marriage restrictions, ongoing concern for the world—advocated for by Mahatma Gandhi—the goal is to do the right action without needing to claim the credit for it—do the right thing, because it is the right thing to do

For the Philosophical: Jnana Marga, “The Path of Knowledge”

Jnana Marga/Yoga = The Path of Knowledge = shortest and steepest path of liberation/moksha for those capable of philosophical reflection, to learning and meditation—particularly oriented to those of the Brahmin class attaining knowledge over ignorance—knowledge of the true nature of reality = extraordinary insight beyond simple knowledge of the subject matter—this lived knowledge, it is to be that which is known, it is to experience the true nature of reality—experiential dimension of Hinduism—brings one to a full awareness of truth which transforms the knower, and leads to liberation/moksha

Three Schools of Philosophy

Three schools of thought define the various specifics regarding the true nature of reality—the three schools are Vedanta, Sankhya, and Yoga—all through seek to attain knowledge over the ignorance that binds us to samsara

Vedanta = faithful to the monism of Hinduism—espoused in the late 8th and early 9th century by Shankara—most popular path of knowledge by those who choose this path—There is only Brahman—maya is cosmic illusion brought about by the divine creative power—in ignorance people are tricked into thinking of their individual selves a being real just as the world of a dream seems to be real to the dreamer

This sense of individuality prevents one from seeing the truth—a drop of ocean spray is really nothing more than the ocean, once it returns to the ocean, it may not be found or removed again—the goal therefore of Vedanta is liberation from samsara into the Brahman

This is an arduous path

Sankhya = contrary to monism, this philosophy holds reality to be two distinct categories: matter and an infinite number of eternal selves = for reasons beyond explanation selves get entwined with matter and are bound to the world of samsara—a follower of Sankhya strives to free the eternal Self from the bondage of the personality—this philosophy is important to Jainism and Buddhism and underlie the approach of Yoga

Yoga – the term has various meanings: 1) any sort of spiritual practice as in the case of the three paths to liberation, 2) a philosophical school that emphasizes physical and psychological practices—the self is connected to the other parts of our human makeup—the yogi or practitioner of Yoga frees the eternal self from bondage by stripping away the many levels of personhood in which that self is wrapped—like Sankhya, Yoga sees the division of reality into eternal selves and eternal matter

The most famous form of Yoga sets forth 8 steps to understanding the human condition: see p. 86-87 of Brodd’s text—the last step is samadhi

In samadhi = trancelike state in which self-consciousness is lost, and the mind is absorbed into the ultimate reality/Brahman—the knower becomes what is known—samadhi is transformative and leads the practitioner to final liberation—transcending the human condition eventually leads to salvation—samadhi must be experienced, it cannot be adequately described

For the Emotional: Bhakti Marga, “The Path of Devotion”

Bhakti Marga/Yoga = The Path of Devotion = loving reverence for one’s chosen god or goddess—for those whom emotional attachment comes most naturally—spiritual energy is directed

outward in worship of the deity of one’s choice—the gods and goddesses favor these devotees and answer their prayers—it moves adherents closer to liberation—worship is directed outward and removes selfish tendencies—worship reduces the individuality that binds the self to samsara

Gods and Goddesses

Stories of Hinduism’s deities form the mythic dimension of the religion—some deities are from the beginning while others are newly acknowledged

Most popular deities include Vishnu, Shiva, Kali, and the avatars Krishna and Rama

Brahma = Creator—rarely worshiped any more

http://eyeoftheveda.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Brahma-Ji.jpg

Vishnu = Preserver—four arms and symbols of power and goodness = supreme protector and moral perfection

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/236x/e4/b5/5a/e4b55ac050baba35c87244d9e6999a8a.jpg

Shiva = Destroyer—popular god—destruction brought about by Shiva makes new creation possible

http://vignette4.wikia.nocookie.net/dharma/images/f/f6/Shiva_2.jpg/revision/latest?cb=20140801201329

Kali = Shiva’s wife = also associated with the cycle of destruction—black and wears a necklace of skulls—bloodthirsty and violent destroyer of enemies—BUT gives steadfast care and affection to devotees and provides for their needs—Ramakrishna was one of her millions of devotees

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Kali_by_Raja_Ravi_Varma.jpg

Avatars

Avatar = incarnation, or living embodiment, of a deity, commonly of Vishnu, who is sent to earth to accomplish a divine purpose—the avatar is related with the deity

Krishna = an avatar of Vishnu—prominent role in the epic poem Mahabharata of which the Bhagavad-Gita is a small section—Krishna also is a somewhat mischievous and amorous cowherd often accompanied by bands of female cowherds—Hindu art often depicts these scenes that symbolize the loving adoration of souls (the female cowherds) for god (Krishna)—Krishna’s favorite consort is Radha—their relationship is a symbol of perfect love

https://img.posterlounge.co.uk/images/wbig/poster-kuhhirte-krishna-468020.jpg

https://harekrishnarevolution.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/londonkirtan.jpg

Rama = another avatar of Vishnu—hero of the Ramayana = ancient epic poem—he is so highly respected that many Hindus revere him as the supreme deity

https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/1a/73/e5/1a73e51a30b94ab7b761cc4d14362638.jpg

The Bhagavad-Gita

The Bhagavad-Gita = part of an epic poem = closely associated with bhakti marga—acknowledges the fruitfulness of the path of works and the path of knowledge, BUT tends to favor the path of devotion

Aspects of Daily Devotion

Among devotions include prayer and visits to temples and shrines as well as household and community rituals, pilgrimages to holy places, and veneration of the sacred cows = ritual dimension of Hinduism and the objects that are a focus of them are a part of the material dimension

Household and village rituals = households maintain shrines to honor chosen deities, these shrines contain images or symbols of the deities—domestic worship includes the tending of a sacred fire, ritual bathing, and daily devotional rites before these shrines—like Christians the images of the gods and goddesses are not idol worship but rather representations of the deities they represent

village worship occurs on regular occasions often at local temples where a priest will conduct ceremonies—there are also annual village celebrations in honor of certain gods, some of these celebrations may last for days

Holy places = pilgrimages to holy sites are also a common form of devotion—the site may be a temple or the site of a great festival—at times the site may be a natural entity such as a river—rivers are regarded as sacred, the most famous being the Ganges—

The Ganges falls from the feet of Vishnu onto the head of Shiva and out from his hair—the waters of river may purify all sins—many partake of ritual baths along the shores of the river, and the ashes of the dead a poured into it

https://shipbright.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/praying-in-the-ganges.jpg

Cow veneration = the cow represents life—it provides for Hindus in many ways and yet it also suffers with them—cows are venerated like deities—on regular occasions they are decorated

with flowers and their heads are anointed with oil—in the past the killing of a cow was a capital offense

http://i2.cdn.cnn.com/cnnnext/dam/assets/120419014951-hindu-sacred-cow-horizontal-large-gallery.jpg

http://i.dailymail.co.uk/i/pix/2013/11/05/article-2487677-00128A4700000258-479_634x452.jpg

Hinduism in the Modern World

The modern world poses a challenge to Hinduism—India, home to most of the world’s Hindus, is the world’s largest democracy and considers itself a secular state and is quickly becoming an economic success—these may be unsettling and contentious to many Hindus

Those Whom Hindus Revere: Religious Leaders

There are many religious figures in Hinduism who give spiritual nourishment to the tradition—Brahmins continue ancient rituals, gurus – enlightened teachers, teach the Upanishads, and sannyasins reflect spiritual transcendence and serenity

Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948)

Mohandas Gandhi = Mahatma = Great Souled—both a social/political reformer and a religious reformer—advocate of nonviolence and civil disobedience that led the Indian independence

from British rule—killed by a Hindu extremist in 1948—as a religious figure his insights help Hindus to accept all wisdom, no matter its source, as lighting the way to the divine

The Sacred among the Secular: Contemporary Issues

Traditional Hinduism meeting modern, secular India results in several pressing issues for the religion and the country

The Caste System

With Gandhi’s insistence discrimination against the outcastes is illegal in modern India and has been since 1948—some upper caste Indians meet the promotion of economic and social rights for the outcastes with harsh resistance—attitudes based upon common and long standing traditions are very difficult to change

Women in Hindu Society

Hindu culture has been patriarchal by tradition and women’s roles have been limited to household tasks and obedience to men—in modern society these long held traditions are being questioned, and especially in urban areas are changing—in rural areas, however, and other locales the tradition remains very strong

One major change that occurs now only rarely is the practice of sati = a widow would be burned alive upon the funeral pyre of her husband—such practices were often questioned throughout the history of Hinduism, but not until 1829 was the practice officially forbidden

The raising of boys is preferred to the raising of girls—studies have demonstrated for example that among malnourished children, 2/3 of them were girls

Hindus and Muslims

Hindus and Muslims have had contact with one another since the 8th century and have lived together for centuries, mostly peacefully, but sometimes with violence—the two religions have had very little impact upon one another, BUT Islam has influenced art and science in India—recent decades have proven to be uneasy between the two groups and violence has erupted—1947, forced by the Muslim community, India was partitioned into India and the divided nation of Pakistan—the eastern part of Pakistan is now Bangladesh—this gave Muslims their own homeland in the area—after the partition violence broke out and many were killed—Gandhi was murdered in the aftermath of this violence

In 1992 in the city of Ayodhya a Muslim mosque stood on the site of what was believed to have been the birthplace of the avatar, Rama—after months of tension nearly 300,000 Hindus stormed the mosque and destroyed it

The tensions between Hindus continue and is further complicated by India and Pakistan both having nuclear capabilities

Hinduism Outside of South Asia

Most Hindus still live in India and Nepal where they constitute more than 80% of the population—BUT the modern world has seen sizable communities of Hindus appear throughout the world especially in cities

Sects and philosophical societies based upon Hindu teachings have been adopted by non-Indians—these began in the 1960s—e.g. the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (Hare Krishnas) and the Transcendental Movement (TM) became popular in the West especially among young people

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EnPH8mu6gCI

The Ever Changing Currents of Hinduism

Hinduism is caught in a blend of ancient traditions and modern living where things often stay the same in rural areas but are quickly changing in modern urban cities