As the United States approached the mid-19 th century, a great sense of nationalism inspired many to want to add to the US territory. Many believed it was the countrys destiny to expand and possess territory all the way to the Pacific Ocean. This was referred to a Manifest Destiny. By the 1830s, the nation had grown beyond its original territory along the Atlantic Coast to include the Louisiana Purchase and Florida. The US jointly occupied the Oregon Territory with Britain. The lands that make up the present-day Southwest of the US belonged to Mexico. In 1821, Mexico gained independence from Spain, and gained control of Texas. This area had a large number of US settlers. Santa Anna assumed power in Mexico and tightened his control over Texas. Texans under Sam Houston launched a rebellion. The area declared their independence and Santa Anna responded with force. The Texans took their stand at the Alamo. Every Texan who fought at the Alamo perished in the battle or was executed after capture. After a series of battles, the Texans defeated Santa Anna and took him hostage. In exchange for his release, the leader promised to recognize the Republic of Texas and withdraw his forces back below the Rio Grande. Wanting to become part of the US, Texas asked to be annexed. Congress passed the resolution admitting Texas to the Union as a slave state in 1845. Britain and the US jointly occupied the Oregon Territory. However, President Polk argued that the US had rightful claim to the territory up to the 5440N. Thus arose the slogan, Fifty-Four Forty or fight! The British was ready to give up Oregon because the territory was no longer profitable. The US accepted a treaty declaring the 49 th parallel as the official boundary, and in 1846, Oregon became a US territory. Mexico considered the US annexation of Texas to be an act of aggression. Zachary Taylor led his troops to the Texas border. John Slidell was sent to Mexico to settle disputes over the US-Mexico border and negotiate for a purchase of California and New Mexico. However, the Mexican leader refused to meet with Slidell and Polk ordered Taylor to move into the disputed area. US victories eventually lead to the treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo. This treaty required Mexico to surrender the New Mexico and California territories to the US in exchange for financial compensation. The boundary dispute continued, President Pierce sent James Gadsden to settle the problem and purchase land for a southern transcontinental railroad. The Gadsden Purchase gave the US parts of present-day New Mexico and Arizona in exchange for $10 million. The acquisition of these territories all but completed the continental expansion envisioned by those who believed in Manifest Destiny. In 1848, gold was discovered just north of Sacramento, California. Gold seekers came from all over the world, known as the California Gold Rush of These new arrivals became known as the forty-niners, this caused a massive growth in population. Congress admitted California as a free state on September 9, 1850. The Mexican American War served as the jumping off point in MAJOR sectional conflicts between the North and South. When the U.S. won Texas as a result of the war, the question of whether it (or any new state for that matter) would be a slave state or a free state. This decision could turn the balance of power in Congress from one side or the other. So, political compromises were made in order to keep the balance in Congress. The most well-known is the Compromise of When Californians discovered gold in 1849, the population boomed overnight and soon they applied for statehood. To keep the balance in Congress, California entered as a free state, but New Mexico and Utah (Gadsden Purchase) would be determined by popular sovereignty. Settlers had different motivations for venturing west. (Push/Pull Factors) Example: Religious Faith Many Christian missionaries ventured into new areas in hopes of spreading the message of Jesus to Native Americans. Mormons: moved west to escape religious persecution after their founder, Joseph Smith, was murdered in Illinois. Under Brigham Young, the Mormons journeyed west and settled in present-day Utah. Another Example: Gold Gold Rush of 1849 attracted thousands to California and led to statehood for the territory. In 1859, a large number of people rushed to western Nevada after the discovery of the Comstock Lode. Richest discovery of precious ores in history. Gold ultimately became one of the major reasons for conflict between white settlers and Native Americans. Another Example: Land Settlers saw available land as a chance to claim their own property and make their fortunes. As cotton became more and more profitable, many southerners pushed west to grow cotton. Spreading the institution of slavery and increasing the debate about slavery in the new territories. The west had a strong sense of independence and wanted to govern themselves locally and did not want the intrusion from a strong national government. Economic differences between the states: By 1800, slavery was a major part of the nations economy. 1793: Eli Whitneys cotton gin made cotton the most profitable crop in the South, and resulted in the region becoming known as the cotton kingdom. As plantations produced more cotton, more slaves were needed. In the North, it was another of Whitneys inventions, interchangeable parts, which helped shape the economy. As the idea spread it will result in increased use of factories for production. Sectionalism and tension over slavery continued to grow as the South relied on its plantation system for agriculture, while the North relied on its factory system for manufacturing. In the North, slavery was abolished in the first half of the 1800s, so businessmen resented the fact they were paying for workers while plantation owners in the South had the benefit of slave labor. People in the North began to see slavery as a moral issue and called for its abolition. Southerners responded that conditions in which poor immigrants and factory workers lived were just as bad, if not worse, than slaves on the plantations. Political differences sparked by sectionalism. There were major differences between the regions politically. Southerners and Western settlers wanted the federal government to restrict itself to powers specifically stated in the Constitution and all else be left to the states. Southerners did not trust Northern politicians who believed they were out to end slavery. Westerners resented eastern politicians and business leaders, whom they felt favored big business over small landowners. Northerners tended to support a strong central government that could enact policies that favored national commerce. Southerners opposed tariffs because they raised the price on manufactured imports and invited other countries to impose tariffs of their own. This hurt the Souths ability to sell cotton and other agricultural products overseas. Northerners, supported tariffs because they made imports more expensive and their won products more attractive to consumers. Because the Souths economy depended heavily on agriculture and large plantations, they fought to uphold slavery and see it expanded into new territory. In the North, people opposed slavery based on moral grounds, and others on an economic and political nature. As more people moved to the west, the cry for democracy increased. Democracy: when eligible citizens have an equal say in their government. Constitution established the national government as a republic. Only the elite ruling class tended to win elections. Only white men who owned property could vote. Most westerners were small landowners. Some didnt own enough property to qualify to vote. They wanted more democracy and a greater voice in who served in public office. Western and poor Americans found their leader in Andrew Jackson. Common man Jacksons brand of politics and the changes he inspired came to be called Jacksonian democracy. Believed strongly in western expansion and rights of white frontier settlers and resented eastern elites. Favored universal suffrage-all white men should be free to vote, not just property owners. Some states dropped the property requirements which enabled simpler men like Jackson to win public office. (Did not extend to women, blacks, or Native Americans) There were several issues that led to the break of the U.S., two of which were states rights and slavery. The debate escalated over the role of the federal government as the nation grew. Some favored a stronger federal government that could unify the nation economically and provide infrastructure. Wanted the federal government to pass laws that states would have to follow. Southern leaders opposed this. Feared a federal government with the power to impose legislation on the states. They thought any power not specifically delegated to the federal government by the Constitution was a power that only state governments could claim. So to protect slavery and southern economic interests, southern leaders advocated states rights: rights of state governments to establish their own laws where the Constitution does not specifically empower the national government. This tension (states rights and federal power) was exemplified in the South Carolina Nullification Crisis in South Carolina protested high tariffs on British goods. Senator John C. Calhoun wrote Exposition and Protest, in which he argued for states rights and asserted that any state could refuse to enforce laws it saw as unconstitutional. 1832-South Carolina threatened to invoke this right and secede if the offensive tariffs were not repealed. President Andrew Johnson was prepared to force South Carolinas compliance. Henry Clay (Great Compromiser) proposed a compromise that both sides could accept. California would be a free state. Slavery would be decided by popular sovereignty in western states. Slave trade in Washington D.C. ends, but not slavery It will undo the Missouri Compromise. Included a Fugitive Slave Act, allowed officials to arrest any person accused of being a runaway slave, denied fugitives the right to a jury trial, and required all citizens to help capture runaway slaves. Written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, condemning slavery. Put a human face to slavery Sold 300,000 in its 1 st year. Lincoln greeted Stowe by saying So you are the little women who wrote the book that made this great war. 1854-Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act Allowed the previously free and unorganized territories of Kansas and Nebraska to choose whether or not to permit slavery. Repealed the Missouri Compromise and reignited the slavery issue. Became known as bleeding Kansas, as armed clashes between pro-slavery forces and abolitionist settlers became common. In Washington, Charles Sumner, a senator from Massachusetts who opposed slavery, strongly denounced the act and the senators who wrote it in a speech that spanned two days. Few days later Sumner was approached on the Senate floor by a South Carolina congressman Preston Brooks. Brooks was insulted by Sumners words both because he was from the south and because he was related to one of the authors. Brooks beat Sumner with a heavy cane, almost killing him, causing him to miss 3 years in the Senate. In Kansas, John Brown and his sons conducted a midnight raid on a proslavery settlement near Pottawatomie Creek. Brutally murdered five proslavery settlers. He conducted violence, because he thought it was the best way to end slavery. Oct. 1859, Brown and a small band of followers seized the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry Virginia (now West Virginia). He hoped to inspire and arm local slaves for an uprising that would end slavery. U.S. troops under Col. Robert E. Lee retook the arsenal, wounding Brown and killing or capturing most of his me. He went on trial for treason and murder. He was found guilty and sentenced to hanging. Became a heroic martyr for the cause. Increased Northerners opposition to slavery. Inflamed Southern anger and suspicion and many thought it showed the South would have to shed blood to protect its way of life. Dred Scott was a slave from Missouri, who sued for his freedom based on the fact that between , he lived with his master in the free state of Illinois while still remaining a slave. The Supreme Court ruled he had no right to sue because, as a slave, he was not a citizen. Declared that a slave owner could not be deprived of HIS property without due process of law. Also said that Congress did not have the power to ban slavery in any territory and that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional, because it violated the Fifth Amendment to declare slaves free of their owners without due process of law, even if that slave entered a free state. Key white figures: William Lloyd Garrison founded an anti-slavery newspaper called the The Liberator. Sarah and Angelina Grimke was part of a slaveholding family who became abolitionist and gave passionate anti-slavery speeches. African American abolitionists: Frederick Douglas- escaped slavery and educated himself and became a prominent speaker for the abolition of slavery. (Helped plan John Browns raid) Harriet Tubman- escaped slave, who secretly returned to the South 19 times in order to lead others to freedom by way of the Underground Railroad. (Network of people who helped slaves escaped to the North or Canada) Called the Black Moses Slavery became the main political issue in Congress in national elections. Coalition of northern Democrats who opposed slavery, Whigs, and Free Soilers (party opposing slavery in new territories) came together and formed the Republican Party. They opposed the extension of slavery into new U.S. territories. By the presidential election of 1860, the country was at the boiling point regarding slavery. The Democratic Party split along sectional lines over the issue. Northern Democrats supported popular sovereignty and nominated Stephen Douglas. Southern Democrats wanted federal protection of slavery in all territories, nominated VP John Breckinridge of Kentucky. Republicans chose Abraham Lincoln. South felt threatened by his candidacy, because he opposed slavery's expansion. Felt he might dismantle slavery in the South. Lincoln wins the election. South Carolina responded by seceding from the Union on Dec. 20, By Feb. 1861, six other had seceded: Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, and Texas. Elected Jefferson Davis as President of the new Confederate States of America. Lincoln learns a day after his inauguration, that Union soldiers at Fort Sumter (off the coast of South Carolina) had one month of supplies remaining. He sent ships with food but no soldiers or munition. On April 12, 1861, Confederate soldiers opened fire on the fort, forcing Union troops to surrender. Lincoln calls for 75,000 volunteers. The Border States had to decide to support the Union or the Confederacy. Kentucky, Missouri, and Maryland-Union Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee-Confederacy Capital moved from Montgomery, Alabama to Richmond, Virginia. Northern Advantages: Railway lines-supplies and troops can be transported to more locations at a faster pace. Factories to produce guns, ammunitions, and supplies. Established government and standing military force (fight and administer the war). 2/3 of the nations population-supply troops, but also needed labor force to keep the northern economy and production of war supplies going. Southern Advantages: Initially better military commanders. General Robert E. Lee, was offered command of Union forces, but declined because he couldnt fight against his homeland of Virginia. Fighting a war of attrition (defensive war to wear down the enemy) Motivation-defending their homeland, their way of life, and right to govern themselves. The First Battle of Bull Run-July 21, 1861 Also known as the First Manassas First confrontation between the 2 armies and was a humiliating defeat for the Union forces. Only 30 miles from Washington D.C., Confederates could have invaded the capital, but failed to pursue the retreating Union army. Lincoln adopted the Anaconda Plan- surrounding the Confederacy and cutting off all supply lines. Restricted trade, transport, and communication by seizing control of the Mississippi River cutting the Confederacy in half. Instituted coastal blockades. Smugglers called blockade runners tried to get through the blockades and supply the south with goods. There were new innovations in naval technology. Confederates created an ironclad. Unions wood ships were no match, so they built an ironclad. March 9, 1862, two ironclads met in battle off the coast of Virginia, the Confederate ship withdrew, and neither suffered much damage. This was the only battle. First time submarines were used as American weapons of war. Union made the first, but it never engaged in battle. Confederate sub CSS Hunley, became the first North American submarine to successfully sink an enemy ship, however it sank too. Second Battle of Bull Run On land, the war was fought on two primary fronts, or theaters: eastern and western. Lee assumed command. His first major victory is at the Second Battle of Bull Run. Battle ended the Unions hope of invading Richmond and made Lee want to attempt an invasion of the North. Antietam: September 17, 1862 Union found Lees orders wrapped around cigars. So the Union met Lee forces at Antietam Creek in Maryland. This was the bloodiest single day of the war. Gettysburg: July 1-3, 1863 Lee was marching to seize a shipment of shoes Without Stonewall Jackson, Lees troops were less aggressive and failed to win valuable high ground early in the battle. Lee ordered 15,000 men under General George Pickett, to make a massive assault against Union forces stationed on Cemetery Ridge. This would be known as Picketts Charge. The Confederate forces marched through open farmland toward Union troops. They suffered 7,000 causalities in less than 30 minutes of fighting. Only about 5,000 made it across. Lee eventually withdrew his troops. Bloodiest battle of the entire war with around 51,000 killed or wounded. Ended the hope that the Confederates could successfully invade the North. Four months later Lincoln gave the Gettysburg Address, dedicating a cemetery on the site of the battlefield. Vicksburg: May 15-July 4, 1863 Vicksburg, Mississippi, was the last Confederate obstacle the Union faced before gaining total control of the Mississippi River. Grant laid siege to Vicksburg for 2 months. When they surrendered they had been reduced to eating horses, mules, dogs, and even rats. Shermans March: May-Dec Captured Atlanta in September 1864, and burnt the city. On his march to the sea he destroyed bridges, factories, and rail lines. Cut a 300 mile path of destruction across Georgia to Savannah. Turned then to the Carolinas wanting to trap Lees forces between himself and Grant. In the South rapid inflation drove up prices of food. Food shortage hurt southern morale. In the North, the economy was booming. Military Life: Both Union and Confederate soldiers endured hardships and few comforts. Southern soldiers had little. They often did not have shoes, slept without blankets, and had little food. The Union soldiers had hardtack and dried meat. Disease (smallpox, typhoid, and pneumonia) killed many soldiers. Doctors used drastic measures in treating the wounded, such as amputation. Women helped in the war effort, many were nurses. The most famous was Clara Barton Four slave states remained with the Union: Missouri, Kentucky, Delaware, and Maryland. If Maryland joined the Confederacy, Washington would be completely surrounded. Lincoln declared martial law, and suspended the writ of habeas corpus, and jailed strong Confederate supporters. Lincoln established a draft (conscription). Very unpopular especially among the poor because the wealthy could pay 300 or hire a substitute to serve in their place. Most notable opponents were the Copperheads. These were Union Democrats who criticized Lincoln and the war. Lincolns goal in the beginning of the war was to put the Union back together. After Antietam Lincoln wanted to punish the South, by ending slavery. Issued the Emancipation Proclamation. Freed the slaves in states in rebellion against the Union while maintaining slavery in the Border States. Encouraged free African Americans to serve in the Union Army. Served in all black regiments under white officers and faced racism and discrimination. Most notable 54 th Massachusetts (Glory) Grant was put in command of Union forces. Begin to crush the Confederate army with head-to-head confrontations. Lees army found itself surrounded in Virginia, and decided to surrender. April 9, Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Courthouse. Allowed Confederate forces to go home without being charged with treason. With the Union preserved, the nation entered into a period known as Reconstruction. Government attempted to rebuild (at times punish) the South. Lincoln did not want the South to suffer. However, on April 14, 1865, five days after the surrender at Appomattox, a Confederate sympathizer named John Wilkes Booth assassinated Lincoln at Fords Theatre. After Lincolns death, the presidency fell to Andrew Johnson. He was a Southerner and one-time slave owner, and he was sympathetic to the South. His plan for Reconstruction was called Presidential Reconstruction. Johnsons plan was the seen as too lenient and conflict arose between Johnson and the Radical Republicans. They favored a tougher stance with former Confederate states- Radical Reconstruction, Believed Johnson plan did not do enough because it failed to offer African Americans full citizenship rights. Felt Congress should oversee Reconstruction not the President. Felt the majority of each states voting population rather than 10% (amount proposed by Lincoln) should have to pledge allegiance to the US before the state could be readmitted to the Union. Republicans dominated the South and set up new constitutions that reflected the partys ideals. 13 th Amendment: ended slavery throughout the US. Civil Rights Act 1866: intent was to give citizenship rights to all freed slaves. 14 th Amendment: guaranteed that no person (regardless of race) would be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law. Granted blacks the status of citizenship. Meant the Bill of Rights applied to state governments as well as the federal government. Impeached for violating the Tenure of Office Act, which limited the presidents power to hire and fire government officials. Senate spared his presidency by 1 vote. Last piece of Reconstruction legislation. Guaranteed that no citizen may be denied the right to vote by the US or any state on account of race, color, or previous servitude. Great impact on the South by guaranteeing African Americans the right to vote in elections. 13 th Amendment freed the slaves. Now freedmen had to adjust to life after slavery. They had no land or money. Many turned to sharecropping. A family farmed a portion of the landowners land in return for housing and a share of the crop. Some became tenant farmers who paid rent to farm the land, owned the crops they grew, were less at the mercy of white landowners. Congress created the Freedmens Bureau Provided clothing, medical attention, meals, education, and even some land. Disbanded in 1869. Churches became the center for African American social and political life. Sought education and established black schools. Many Southern states passed Black Codes. Laws meant to keep African Americans subordinate to whites by restricting the rights of freed slaves. Examples: Couldnt meet after sunset Own weapons Rent property If convicted of vagrancy (not working) they could be whipped or sold for a years labor. Essentially continued slavery Some whites advocated violence against freed blacks. Most notable to use such tactics was the Ku Klux Klan. Secretive organization whose members dressed in white robes. Used violence; murder, and threats to intimidate blacks and those who favored giving African Americans equal rights. Practiced lynching and other acts of violence. Some goals and tactics have changed and their numbers have decreased, but still exists today. Democrat: Samuel Tilden Republican: Rutherford B. Hayes Tilden received 300,000 more popular votes than Hayes, but the election was contested. Compromise of Democrats agreed to Hayes being President, and Republicans agreed to end Reconstruction. Southern states received federal money, more power to govern themselves, and promised to withdraw federal troops. Brought an end to Reconstruction and began an era called the Solid South- means that southerners were distrustful of the Republican Party and solidly supported Democratic candidates. With the end of Reconstruction, African Americans lost whatever political position they gained. Southern states began passing Jim Crow laws that required blacks and whites to use separate public facilities. To avoid upholding the 15 th Amendment states required citizens to pass literacy test or pay poll taxes. To keep from hindering poor and illiterate whites, instituted grandfather clauses. Jim Crow laws established racial segregation in restaurants, hospitals, schools, and public transportation. De jure segregation is based on law. De facto segregation evolves due to economic or social factors (ex. Members of different races tend to live in different neighborhoods because one race tends to be more economically disadvantaged). Plessy v. Ferguson: Supreme Court ruled that segregation was lawful as long as separate facilities held to the standard of separate but equal.
