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LIVING AUTONOMOUSLY… BY ME !

ALTERNATIVE LIFESTYLES

Abstract

An alternative lifestyle is a way of living that is unusual, especially when you choose not to have the type of home and job that is considered normal in modern society. (Collins)Some alternative lifestyles are very known, such as Gay or Lesbian Communities (based on sexual orientation), Punk, Hippy or Gothic (visual identification, share of a same music style,…), Vegetarianism or Veganism (based on food), among others. More and more these lifestyles are accepted in the modern society, even if there are still marks of discrimination and sometimes hatred against the people involved.

Looking at the examples of different lifestyles, and my own experience, I noted three points:- Everyone can choose and build the way of living he wants to have- The words of “alternative lifestyle” are applied to a community sharing common ways- All these alternative lifestyles are opposite to one or some features of the “normal way”

The alternative lifestyles I want to know more about and be inspired by are more oriented in a sustainable development way. The three main characteristics of sustainable development are:

- Economics- Social - Environment

The alternative lifestyles I will study here are:- Complementary Currencies- Ecovillage- Fairtrade- Sustainable city- Sustainable consumption- Buddhist way of living – Ghandism

Goal : sustainable consumption

Complementary Currencies

http://www.dragageshk.com/

The main aim of complementary currencies is to develop the economy on a smaller size. Meaning that the complementary currency can only be used in a defined geographic field, or on the benefit of local enterprises, and sometimes associated with a lower price on local products. In most cases, the complementary currencies are traded for 1 to 1 with local money.Some cities in France have started to use these alternative currencies, with benefit. Inhabitants feel closer to the sellers, have the conviction of giving their money to the good persons and of enhancing local economy and feel less reluctant to spend more.

But what are the true benefits and risks of these currencies for local economy, populations and environment?

There are different kinds of currencies: LETS (local exchange trading system), Time currencies, Paper currencies, Nu-spaarpas (literally “NOW-incentive card”), … and these currencies may serve various objectives – economic, social, environmental and ethical – by encouraging different consumption and production patterns and fostering local trade, and by re-evaluating work, wealth and labour in a more equitable way. Alternative currencies have emerged in different contexts, in response to particular problems faced by specific communities.

Benefits : - Encourage people to participate in the social economy- Reward and encourage the genuine valuable work of social reproduction- Help the redefinition of what is considered valuable, what is wealth, what is work- Rebuild and strengthen social ties- Provide a framework for an extended network of support that can be missing- Enable people to exercise some degree of economic self-determination- Enable the gain of access to goods and services where conventional money is short supply- Money cannot leak away as it is geographically bounded

Limits : - Thought to be a solution to specific issues in specific communities- Has to be set with a deep knowledge of the context- Currently no alternative money deals with all the priorities for sustainable consumption

Five priorities have to be achieved in order to build an economic strategy for sustainable consumption : - Localisation : strengthening local economies- Reducing ecological footprints : recycling, changing consumption patterns, sharing facilities and

resources- Community building : sustainable communities are robust, resilient, inclusive and diverse- Collective action : acting collectively to influence decisions and address questions of institutional

consumption- Building new social institutions : alternative systems of provisions

As a conclusion, the success of a community currency is rooted in the adaptation in the particular context, in strong and maintained objectives. If none currency can achieve the criteria for success by itself, in an effective sustainable strategy a diverse range of alternative exchange mechanisms is required. A link has to be made with the ghandian doctrine with micro-group economic organisation.

Buddhist an Ghandi doctrines

Ghandi

Ghandi’s doctrine rose during the Green Revolution in India and deals with a strong refusal of the Wester civilisation way of living, based on three motives – the relentless pursuit of power, profit and pleasure – and a strong will for freedom for India.

The response to the issue of freedom for India is rooted in three principles. Swadharma, a set of own spiritual or sacred values that lead us to act in a true, genuine and unique way, and we need to follow these values. Swadeshi is a will for growth, self-determination and freedom, for the soul. Swaraj is a will for self-determination and self-rule for India, represented by the spinning wheel – emblem of indigenous craft and a symbol of people’s self-reliance and self-esteem.

The economic approach of Ghandi’s view is a micro-group organisation. The main advantages are the mutual care – for the members, their security and dignity –, the preference for equal spare in any increment of income, and the avoidance of an increment of income leading to an increase in inequality within the group. The comments that have to be made are the fact that this model of economic organisation requires a high and strong level of moral inside the group, and the fact that this model has to be thought in a more global way – linking the micro-village with the global-village in trade, commerce and peace-keeping efforts.

Buddha

Buddhism is a spiritual tradition that focuses on personal spiritual development and the attainment of a deep insight into the true nature of life. Adepts seek to reach, as Siddhartha Gautama –Buddha – went on a quest for Enlightenment, a state of nirvana. This path to enlightenment is found through practice and development of morality, meditation and wisdom.Buddhists believe nothing is fixed or permanent and that change is always possible, that life is both endless and subject to impermanence, suffering and uncertainty – these are the three signs of existence. Endless – individuals are reincarnated over and over again, experiencing suffering throughout many lives.Impermanence – no state, good or bad, lasts forever and our belief that things can last is a main source of suffering.Uncertain – when we examine our experience, no knower can be defined and no enduing essence of experience can be located.

Siddhartha was born in a royal family, 2500 years ago, in present-day Nepal, and lived a luxury life until he encountered for the first time an old man, a sick man and a corpse. This encounter led him to become a monk and to live in harsh poverty. Not this path neither the luxury life satisfied him so he decided to seek for a “middle way”, a life without luxury nor poverty. The Buddhist belief is that one day Siddhartha meditated deeply and reflected on his experience of life until he became enlightened, and became known as the Buddha or “awakened one”.

The Four Noble Truths contain the essence of the Buddha’s teachings.- The truth of suffering

Suffering comes in many ways, and the three obvious kings are old age, sickness and death. According to the Buddha, the problem of suffering goes much deeper and is settled in the fact that life is not ideal and that human beings are subjects to desire and craving. Even when we are not suffering from outward causes, we are unsatisfied. That is the truth of suffering.

- The truth of the origin of sufferingIn the second of the Noble Truth Buddha claims to have found the cause of all suffering, which is much more rooted – desire itself. Desire comes in three forms, or three fires – greed and desire, ignorance or delusion, hatred and destructive urges. Buddha said that the attachment to positive, negative and neutral sensations and thoughts is the cause of suffering.

- The truth of the cessation of sufferingBuddha is the living example that liberation is possible in a lifetime. One way to achieve the cessation of suffering is to estrange sense conditions form the truth. A Buddhist aims to know sense conditions clearly as they are without becoming enchanted or misled by them.Attaining nirvana means extinguishing the three forms of fire. It is a state of profound spiritual joy, without negative emotions and fears.

- The truth of the path to the cessation of sufferingIt is Buddha’s prescription for the end of suffering – a set of principles called the Eightfold Path, or the Middle Way. These stages are not to be taken in order but reinforce each other.

wisdomo Right understanding – accepting Buddhist teachingso Right intention – commitment to cultivate the right attitudes

Ethical conducto Right speech – speaking truthfully, avoiding slander, gossip and

abusive speecho Right action – behaving peacefully and harmoniouslyo Right livelihood – avoiding making a living in ways that cause

harm Meditation

o Right effort – cultivating positive state of mindo Right mindfulness – developing awareness of the body,

sensations, feelings and states of mindo Right concentration – developing the mental focus for this

awareness

From a Buddhist point of view the great tragedy of existence is that it is both endless and subject to impermanence, suffering and uncertainty.

Another specificity of Buddhism is its perception of karma, through a karmic law. It is closely linked with the notion of interdependence of all things in the world. The karmic laws presents the fact that our past actions affect us, positively or negatively, in the present, and our present actions will affect us in the future. When our actions are harmful, the environment risks to have a negative effect on us, and the opposite when we act positively.

Buddhists don’t need no creator to explain the origin of the universe. Buddhism teaches that everything depends on everything else – present events are caused by past events and are the cause of future events. Indian religions often see space and time as cyclical, in Buddhism this happens naturally without the intervention of gods.

But what lessons do we need to take from the Budhhists ? What can Buddhism bring us for sustainable development?

Maybe the most important principles in Buddhism that can be applied for an analysis of the roots of human action behind climate change are these Four Noble Truths and the omnipresent theme of interconnectedness

and interdependence of all things in existence. Despite their seeming independence, the condition and character of all entities are determined by that of all other entities in the universe through a complex web of cause and effect.The Four Noble Truths are a central pillar of the Buddhist world view and it is natural that they form a primary part of the Buddhist explanation of the roots of problematic human conditions. They reveal much about the source of driving forces related to aspirations for overall affluence and the nature of consumption. A pertinent observation from the Buddhist world view would be that dissatisfaction, despite the apparent “success” of consumer economies over the past 200 years, is largely not decreasing. The perplexing aspect to this process is that people do not seem to realize and learn that this attachment-seeking does not bring the desired results. Ignorance of the true nature of well-being persists despite repeated empirical experience that grasping for external happiness sources does not work in terms of sustainable satisfaction. From the Buddhist point of view, a major constraint on better-functioning economies yielding sustainable happiness is ignorance of the Second Noble Truth leading to behaviour that has negative consequences according with the pervasive and market co-dependence amongst all things. The lack of knowledge about the actual path to well-being leads to, in economic terms, a mismatch between actual observed preferences, and “true” preferences. True preferences represent life choices that genuinely enhance satisfaction. The prevailing belief within consumer societies is that the primary directives of life activity should be directed towards pleasure and usefulness obtained from the accumulation and control of the external world. In contrast, Buddhism predicts an eternal gap between object-attachment desires and wants and actual fulfilment or satisfaction received for biophysical reality. The other major Buddhist principle that helps explain the fundamental roots of the climate change pressures from human action is that of omnipresent interdependence and dependant origination. This is akin to a universal “ecology” and symbiosis, or a web of cause and effect relations between all universal phenomena. Intervention of original source that is “unskillful” or causes harm and violence, will emanate through the web of existence and return to negatively impact the source. In this sense, the “welfare” of all phenomena outside an individual directly affects their own welfare. Such a sensitive interdependence portends the inherent wisdom of the Buddhist advocacy of the Middle Way with its careful focus upon moderation and meeting true well-being needs minimal and non-violent intervention.

Buddhist Noble Truths and the notion of interdependence can guide one in order to understand the roots of human action. First, interdependence means that the condition of all entities is determined by that of all other entities in the universe. This interconnectedness can be pictured by a complex web of cause and effect – any action that causes harm will make its way through this web and impact negatively its source, on the contrary a kind action will return positively. This means that the welfare of all entities outside one individual affects its own welfare.Then, the Second Noble Truth stresses the fact that ignoring the true nature of well-being and the origin of suffering in desire – lack used by the consumerist society in order to set final values on pleasure and usefulness through accumulation and control on the world and to perpetuate itself – leads to increasing dissatisfaction without any awareness that this seek for consumption does not bring the expected results. There is a gap between “true” preferences and actual observed preferences. Knowing the mechanism of desire, leading to suffering, and the possible way towards true happiness can lead us to a world with more sustainable consumption.This very sensitive interdependence highlights the validity of Buddhist “Middle Way” and its focus upon moderation and meeting true needs with minimal and non-violent intervention.

Concision factor : 222/449 ~ 0,5

Buddhist Noble Truths and the notion of interdependence can guide one in order to understand the roots of human action.Interdependence can be pictured by a complex web of cause and effect, meaning that the welfare of all entities outside one entity affects its own welfare.Then, the ignorance of the Second Noble Truth leads to a mismatch between apparent consumption choices and true preferences, which results in increasing dissatisfaction.This very sensitive interdependence stresses the validity of the “Middle Way” – focus on moderation and meeting true needs with the less negative impact possible.

Concision factor : 94/222 ~ 0,4

In order to find true happiness and to cut down the endless desire spiral that has been set by the consumerist society, we must enhance our knowledge about psycho-physiological factors that root the mechanism of desire and understand the implications of our actions in the web of cause and effect in existence. Then, we must train ourselves in order to end our seeking for external pleasure and happiness. It is only by following a “middle way” that we will be able to find true peace and happiness and to live in symbiosis with Earth. -> see image on next page

In conclusion, Buddhism has a lot to give to the current world and management of this same world in order to achieve the goal for sustainable consumption. When Ghandi said that “the world had enough for everyone’s needs but not enough for one’s greed”, I see a match with Buddhism point of view. Western Society and its seek for consumption leads to unfilled desires and greed. Being aware of the reflections and principles of Buddhism may help in order to achieve sustainable development and consumption and to better live altogether on Earth.

Complementary currencies :

1er article – Gender and development

“[complementary currencies] may serve economic, social, environmental, and ethical objectives by encouraging different consumption and production patterns and fostering local trade, and by re-evaluating work, wealth, and labour in a more equitable fashion”.“community currencies encourage people to participate more in the social economy through voluntary activity, and reward and encourage the genuinely valuable work of social reproduction, regardless how it is regarded by the conventional economy. This represents a redefinition of what is considered valuable, what is wealth, and what is work”“community currencies can help to rebuild and strengthen [social ties], or provide a framework for an extended network of support which many people feel is missing in their lives”“community currencies can be set up as a shelter for the storm of global economic forces, and to enable people to exercise some degree of economic self-determination. In places where conventional money is short supply, community currencies can enable them to gain access to goods and services they could not afford to buy for cash” “community currencies are geographically-bounded within a specific area, so local currency cannot leak away”About LETS : “the government has seen LETS as a tool for job creation, whereas the objectives of organisers and members are more oriented towards informal provision and the community building”Time currencies “an hour of time put into helping someone on the scheme is rewarded by an hour’s credit, which can be spent by requesting an hour of someone else’s time in return, saved up for future use, or donated to someone whose need is greater than their earning ability”Paper currencies “the advantages of a note-based system are that trading can take place between any interested parties, is not restricted to those joining the organisation first, and can be much quicker and easier, without the inconvenience of notifying administrators after each transaction”

Conclusion : “alternative currencies have emerged in different contexts, in response to particular problems faced by specific communities” “new forms of money are emerging all over the world, and they each have lessons for wider adoption, but the importance of understanding the local social, political, and economic context cannot be overemphasised when considering transferability”

Deuxième article – Regional Studies

“sustainable consumption is understood to require fundamental changes in lifestyles, economic and social systems to seek increases in quality of life rather than material consumption. It therefore demands a deeper understanding of the systems of provision which mediate consumption patterns, in order to transform these elements of social infrastructure at a fundamental level.” Can the community currencies achieve the sustainable consumption goal?“the UK government announced its strategy for sustainable consumption and production – which it defines as ‘continuous economic and social progress that respects the limits of the Earth’s ecosystems, and meets the needs and aspirations of everyone for a better quality of life, now and for future generations to come’”“a new economics strategy for sustainable consumption would, therefore, embody the following five priorities :

- Localisation : strengthening local economies- Reducing ecological footprints : recycling, changing consumption patterns, sharing facilities and

resources- Community building : sustainable communities are robust, resilient, inclusive and diverse- Collective action : acting collectively to influence decisions and address questions of institutional

consumption- Building new social institutions : alternative systems of provisions”

Sustainable consumption indicator

LETS Time banks NU

Localisation + - +Reducing ecological footprint

° ° +

Community-building + + -Collective action - + °New social institutions + + +

NU : reward sustainable consumption

“the three types of community currency are found to be complementary to each other : between them they succeed at achieving all the criteria for success, and so it might be argued that an effective sustainable consumption strategy requires a diverse range of alternative exchange mechanisms, each designed to target different areas of the development agenda.”“[the community currency’s] individual success is dependent upon being adapted to the particular local situations, social contexts and objectives of the initiatives, and while generalized models are available, they should be fine-tuned to the location and objective they are targeted at”

Source : Ghandism after Ghandi by Anil Dutta Mishra; chapter 2 “ghandian approach to sustainable development”

There are three motives and elements impersonated by the Western civilisation : the relentless pursuit of power, profit and pleasure. “the relentless pursuit of power for attainment and maintenance of a nation-state; the tireless search for profit through free enterprise and market; and the hedonist indulgence in earthly pleasures represent the increasing secularisation of the European mind that was freed from all notions of moral restraint”

Ghandi’s response to the issue of freedom was grounded in the three principles of Swadharma, Swadeshi and Swaraj. These three principles represent a basic self-esteem and dignity of moral regeneration through performance of duty according to natural endowment and social obligation, economic self-reliance and full employment through the use of labour intensive application and utilisation of indigenous resources provided by nature; and political structure of self-management and grassroot popular participation.

Swadharma : underlying these one finds a set of values – spiritual or sacred – that Ghandiji derived from the spiritual legacy of India and religions of the world. Given these values, his view of society is one of spontaneous and voluntary or natural compliance with virtue that consists in social obligation and willing performance of duty, and above all the injunction to find fulfilment in one’s natural calling rather than in imitation of something different from morality or socially determined task.

Swadeshi : a will for spiritual growth. “ I do want growth, I do want self-determination. I do want freedom, but I want all these for the soul. I doubt if the steel age is an advance upon the flint age. I am indifferent. It is the evolution of the soul to which the intellect and all our faculties have to be devoted. A plea for the spinning wheel is a plea for recognizing the dignity of labour

Swaraj : a will for self-determination and self-rule for India. Self-reliance : and the Charkha or spinning wheel was the emblem of indigenous craft and a symbol of people’s self-reliance and self-esteem. “ without the Charkha and all that it implies there is no swaraj, and, therefore a wise economist will concentrate his attention upon the charkha alone knowing that the rest will follow. Let me diagnose the disease a little deeper. It is not the drain that matters so much as idleness which was at first enforced, and has now become a habit that matters. The drain may be stopped and poverty is merely a symptom, but idleness is the great cause, the root of all evil, and if that can be destroyed most of the evils can be remedied without further effort”He also delineated the modus operandi of the swadeshi in terms of limited wants and the capacity of the local surroundings and resources to meet the needs of the people. In his famous he laid down his dicturn “nature produces enough to meet the needs of all the people, but not enough to satisfy the greed of anyone”. A life of simplicity with self-respect was anytime better than a life of luxury for the few brought with loss of self-esteem and independence. The secret of freedom, thus, lay in the moral fibre of the people.

Buddhism : http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism

Buddhism is a spiritual tradition that focuses on personal spiritual development and the attainment of a deep insight into the true nature of life. Buddhists seek to reach a state of nirvana, following the path of the Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, who went on a quest for Enlightenment.There is no belief in a personal god. Buddhists believe that nothing is fixed or permanent and that change is always possible. The path to Enlightenment is through the practice and development of morality, meditation and wisdom.Buddhists believe that life is both endless and subject to impermanence, suffering and uncertainty. These states are called the tilakhana, or the three signs of existence. Existence is endless because individuals are reincarnated over and over again, experiencing suffering throughout many lives.It is impermanent because no state, good or bad, lasts forever. Our mistaken belief that things can last is a chief cause of suffering.Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, was born into a royal family in present-day Nepal over 2500 years ago. He lived a life of privilege and luxury until one day he left the royal enclosure and encountered for the first time, an old man, a sick man, and a corpse. Disturbed by this he became a monk before adopting the harsh poverty of Indian asceticism. Neither path satisfied him and he decided to pursue the ‘Middle Way’ - a life without luxury but also without poverty.Buddhists believe that one day, seated beneath the Bodhi tree (the tree of awakening), Siddhartha became deeply absorbed in meditation and reflected on his experience of life until he became enlightened.By finding the path to enlightenment, Siddhartha was led from the pain of suffering and rebirth towards the path of enlightenment and became known as the Buddha or 'awakened one'.The Four Noble Truths"I teach suffering, its origin, cessation and path. That's all I teach", declared the Buddha 2500 years ago.The Four Noble Truths contain the essence of the Buddha's teachings. It was these four principles that the Buddha came to understand during his meditation under the bodhi tree.

1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha)2. The truth of the origin of suffering (Samudāya)3. The truth of the cessation of suffering (Nirodha)4. The truth of the path to the cessation of suffering (Magga)The Buddha is often compared to a physician. In the first two Noble Truths he diagnosed the problem (suffering) and identified its cause. The third Noble Truth is the realisation that there is a cure.The fourth Noble Truth, in which the Buddha set out the Eightfold Path, is the prescription, the way to achieve a release from suffering.Suffering (Dukkha)Suffering comes in many forms. Three obvious kinds of suffering correspond to the first three sights the Buddha saw on his first journey outside his palace: old age, sickness and death.But according to the Buddha, the problem of suffering goes much deeper. Life is not ideal: it frequently fails to live up to our expectations.Human beings are subject to desires and cravings, but even when we are able to satisfy these desires, the satisfaction is only temporary. Pleasure does not last; or if it does, it becomes monotonous.Even when we are not suffering from outward causes like illness or bereavement, we are unfulfilled, unsatisfied. This is the truth of suffering.Some people who encounter this teaching may find it pessimistic. Buddhists find it neither optimistic nor pessimistic, but realistic. Fortunately the Buddha's teachings do not end with suffering; rather, they go on to tell us what we can do about it and how to end it.

Origin of suffering (Samudāya)Our day-to-day troubles may seem to have easily identifiable causes: thirst, pain from an injury, sadness from the loss of a loved one. In the second of his Noble Truths, though, the Buddha claimed to have found the cause of all suffering - and it is much more deeply rooted than our immediate worries.The Buddha taught that the root of all suffering is desire, tanhā. This comes in three forms, which he described as the Three Roots of Evil, or the Three Fires, or the Three Poisons.

The Three Fires of hate, greed and ignorance, shown in a circle, each reinforcing the others. Photo: Falk Kienas ©The three roots of evilThese are the three ultimate causes of suffering:

Greed and desire, represented in art by a rooster Ignorance or delusion, represented by a pig Hatred and destructive urges, represented by a snake

Language note: Tanhā is a term in Pali, the language of the Buddhist scriptures, that specifically means craving or misplaced desire. Buddhists recognise that there can be positive desires, such as desire for enlightenment and good wishes for others. A neutral term for such desires is chanda.The Fire SermonThe Buddha taught more about suffering in the Fire Sermon, delivered to a thousand bhikkus (Buddhist monks).Bhikkhus, all is burning. And what is the all that is burning?The eye is burning, forms are burning, eye-consciousness is burning, eye-contact is burning, also whatever is felt as pleasant or painful or neither-painful-nor-pleasant that arises with eye-contact for its indispensable condition, that too is burning. Burning with what? Burning with the fire of lust, with the fire of hate, with the fire of delusion. I say it is burning with birth, aging and death, with sorrows, with lamentations, with pains, with griefs, with despairs.The Fire Sermon (SN 35:28), translation by N ̄anamoli Thera. © 1981 Buddhist Publication Society, used with permissionThe Buddha went on to say the same of the other four senses, and the mind, showing that attachment to positive, negative and neutral sensations and thoughts is the cause of suffering.Cessation of suffering (Nirodha)The Buddha taught that the way to extinguish desire, which causes suffering, is to liberate oneself from attachment.This is the third Noble Truth - the possibility of liberation.The Buddha was a living example that this is possible in a human lifetime.Bhikkhus, when a noble follower who has heard (the truth) sees thus, he finds estrangement in the eye, finds estrangement in forms, finds estrangement in eye-consciousness, finds estrangement in eye-contact, and whatever is felt as pleasant or painful or neither-painful- nor-pleasant that arises with eye-contact for its indispensable condition, in that too he finds estrangement.The Fire Sermon (SN 35:28), translation by N ̄anamoli Thera. © 1981 Buddhist Publication Society, used with permission"Estrangement" here means disenchantment: a Buddhist aims to know sense conditions clearly as they are without becoming enchanted or misled by them.

Buddha. Photo: Paul Boulding ©NirvanaNirvana means extinguishing. Attaining nirvana - reaching enlightenment - means extinguishing the three fires of greed, delusion and hatred.Someone who reaches nirvana does not immediately disappear to a heavenly realm. Nirvana is better understood as a state of mind that humans can reach. It is a state of profound spiritual joy, without negative emotions and fears.Someone who has attained enlightenment is filled with compassion for all living things.When he finds estrangement, passion fades out. With the fading of passion, he is liberated. When liberated, there is knowledge that he is liberated. He understands: 'Birth is exhausted, the holy life has been lived out, what can be done is done, of this there is no more beyond.'The Fire Sermon (SN 35:28), translation by N ̄anamoli Thera. © 1981 Buddhist Publication Society, used with permissionAfter death an enlightened person is liberated from the cycle of rebirth, but Buddhism gives no definite answers as to what happens next.The Buddha discouraged his followers from asking too many questions about nirvana. He wanted them to concentrate on the task at hand, which was freeing themselves from the cycle of suffering. Asking questions is like quibbling with the doctor who is trying to save your life.

Path to the cessation of suffering (Magga)The final Noble Truth is the Buddha's prescription for the end of suffering. This is a set of principles called the Eightfold Path.The Eightfold Path is also called the Middle Way: it avoids both indulgence and severe asceticism, neither of which the Buddha had found helpful in his search for enlightenment.

The wheel of the Dharma, the symbol of the Eightfold Path ©The eight divisionsThe eight stages are not to be taken in order, but rather support and reinforce each other:

1. Right Understanding - Sammā ditthi Accepting Buddhist teachings. (The Buddha never intended his followers to believe his teachings blindly,

but to practise them and judge for themselves whether they were true.)2. Right Intention - Sammā san ̄kappa

A commitment to cultivate the right attitudes.3. Right Speech - Sammā vācā

Speaking truthfully, avoiding slander, gossip and abusive speech.4. Right Action - Sammā kammanta

Behaving peacefully and harmoniously; refraining from stealing, killing and overindulgence in sensual pleasure.

5. Right Livelihood - Sammā ājīva Avoiding making a living in ways that cause harm, such as exploiting people or killing animals, or trading

in intoxicants or weapons.6. Right Effort - Sammā vāyāma

Cultivating positive states of mind; freeing oneself from evil and unwholesome states and preventing them arising in future.

7. Right Mindfulness - Sammā sati Developing awareness of the body, sensations, feelings and states of mind.

8. Right Concentration - Sammā samādhi Developing the mental focus necessary for this awareness.

The eight stages can be grouped into Wisdom (right understanding and intention), Ethical Conduct (right speech, action and livelihood) and Meditation (right effort, mindfulness and concentration).The Buddha described the Eightfold Path as a means to enlightenment, like a raft for crossing a river. Once one has reached the opposite shore, one no longer needs the raft and can leave it behind.KarmaKarma is a concept encountered in several Eastern religions, although having different meanings.Teachings about karma explain that our past actions affect us, either positively or negatively, and that our present actions will affect us in the future.Buddhism uses an agricultural metaphor to explain how sowing good or bad deeds will result in good or bad fruit (phala; or vipāka, meaning 'ripening').

Tibetan Buddhists use prayer wheels to spread good karma©Solely through our actions?Early Buddhist writings (particularly SN 36.21: see related links for an annotated translation) suggest that not all that we experience is the result of past action; it may be due to natural events of one sort or another. This is one point on which early Buddhism appears to differ somewhat from later Tibetan teachings, which suggest that all the good and bad things that happen to us are the results of past actions.Whilst there might be doubt, or different opinions, about why we are experiencing some sort of misfortune, there is no doubt that we can resolve any suffering in the present moment through the Buddhist teachings of mindfulness and action based upon good motives.Beyond this lifeFor Buddhists, karma has implications beyond this life. Bad actions in a previous life can follow a person into their next life and cause bad effects (which Westerners are more likely to interpret as 'bad luck').Even an Enlightened One is not exempt from the effects of past karma. One story tells that the Buddha's cousin tried to kill him by dropping a boulder on him. Although the attempt failed, the Buddha's foot was injured. He explained that this was karmic retribution for trying to kill his step-brother in a previous life.On a larger scale, karma determines where a person will be reborn and their status in their next life. Good karma can result in being born in one of the heavenly realms. Bad karma can cause rebirth as an animal, or torment in a hell realm.

Buddhists try to cultivate good karma and avoid bad. However, the aim of Buddhism is to escape the cycle of rebirth altogether, not simply to acquire good karma and so to be born into a more pleasant state. These states, while preferable to human life, are impermanent: even gods eventually die.Self-determinedThe word karma means 'action', and this indicates something important about the concept of karma: it is determined by our own actions, in particular by the motives behind intentional actions.Skilful actions that lead to good karmic outcomes are based upon motives of generosity; compassion, kindness and sympathy, and clear mindfulness or wisdom. The opposite motives of greed, aversion (hatred) and delusion, when acted upon, lead to bad karmic results.Karma is not an external force, not a system of punishment or reward dealt out by a god. The concept is more accurately understood as a natural law similar to gravity.Buddhists believe we are in control of our ultimate fates. The problem is that most of us are ignorant of this, which causes suffering. The purpose of Buddhism is to take conscious control of our behaviour.

When prayer wheels are turned, the prayers written on them are sent out into the universeMoral habitsThe Buddha taught about karmic 'conditioning', which is a process by which a person's nature is shaped by their moral actions.Every action we take molds our characters for the future. Both positive and negative traits can become magnified over time as we fall into habits. All of these cause us to acquire karma.This shows why Buddhists place such importance on being mindful of every action they take.Getting rid of karmic conditioningActing on karmic habits increases their strength. Buddhists gradually weaken any negative thoughts and impulses that they experience, through allowing them to arise and depart naturally without acting on them.In this way karmic habits can be broken.Rebirth and disabilityThis view of the world can raise a particularly charged question. Do Buddhists believe that disabled people are suffering for misdeeds in a past life?The subject is more complicated than it appears, says the Venerable Robina Courtin, a Tibetan Buddhist nun, in this radio discussion on religious attitudes to disability.The realms of the universe

The abode of the gods. Photo: Falk Kienas ©The great tragedy of existence, from a Buddhist point of view, is that it is both endless and subject to impermanence, suffering and uncertainty. These three are called the tilakhana or three signs of existence.Existence is endless because individuals are reincarnated over and over again, experiencing suffering throughout many lives.It is impermanent because no state, good or bad, lasts forever. Our mistaken belief that things can last is a chief cause of suffering.It is uncertain because when we examine our experience, no knower can be defined and no enduring essence of experience can be located.Only achieving liberation, or nirvana, can free a being from the cycle of life, death and rebirth.The realmsBuddhism has six realms into which a soul can be reborn. From most to least pleasant, these are:

Heaven, the home of the gods (devas): this is a realm of enjoyment inhabited by blissful, long-lived beings. It is subdivided by later sources into 26 levels of increasing happiness

The realm of humanity: although humans suffer, this is considered the most fortunate state because humans have the greatest chance of enlightenment

The realm of the Titans or angry gods (asuras): these are warlike beings who are at the mercy of angry impulses

The realm of the hungry ghosts (pretas): these unhappy beings are bound to the fringes of human existence, unable to leave because of particularly strong attachments. They are unable to satisfy their craving, symbolised by their depiction with huge bellies and tiny mouths

The animal realm: this is undesirable because animals are exploited by human beings, and do not have the necessary self-awareness to achieve liberation

Hell realms: people here are horribly tortured in many creative ways, but not for ever - only until their bad karma is worked off

(Early sources listed five realms, excluding the Titans.)

The first two levels are good places to be born. The inhabitants of the next three levels all have a particular defect (hatred, greed, ignorance), and hell is obviously the worst of the lot.InterlinkedThese are not all separate realms, but are interlinked in keeping with the Buddhist philosophy that mind and reality are linked.

Hungry ghosts. Photo: Falk Kienas ©Thus, although humans and animals live together in the same world, the implications of being born as a human and as an animal are very different, and they are represented as two separate realms.And a human being can experience touches of heaven when happy, or the lower states when hateful, greedy, ignorant or in pain. Someone adept at meditation will experience progressively higher heaven realms.These realms are depicted in a diagram known as theBhavachakra, the Wheel of Life or Wheel of Becoming, which is explored in detail in the next section.

The Wheel of LifeThe realms, or states of reincarnation, of the Buddhist universe are depicted in a diagram known as the Bhavachakra, the Wheel of Life or Wheel of Becoming.See the wheel explained in this gallery.The wheel itself is a circle, symbolising the endless cycle of existence and suffering.In the middle of the Wheel are the Three Fires of greed, ignorance and hatred, represented by a rooster, a pig and a snake. These are the cause of all suffering and are shown linked together, biting each other's tails, reinforcing each other.In the next circle out, souls are shown ascending and descending according to their karma.The next ring out is composed of six segments showing the six realms: gods, humans and Titans above and hungry ghosts, animals and those tortured in hell below.The outer ring shows twelve segments called nidanas, illustrating the Buddhist teaching of dependent origination, the chain of causes of suffering (explained in the following section).The wheel is held by Yama, the Lord of Death, who symbolises the impermanence of everything. The beings he holds are trapped in eternal suffering by their ignorance of the nature of the universe.

The Wheel of Life (Bhavachakra) ©

Origin of the universe

1. Ignorance © 2. Willed action ©Buddhism has no creator god to explain the origin of the universe. Instead, it teaches that everything depends on everything else: present events are caused by past events and become the cause of future events.Indian religions often see space and time as cyclical, such that world-systems come into being, survive for a time, are destroyed and then are remade. In Buddhism this happens naturally without the intervention of gods.One tale told by the Buddha in the Aggan ̄n ̄a Sutta describes the process of recreation on this grand scale. An old world-system has just been destroyed, and its inhabitants are reborn in a new system. To begin with they are spirits, floating happily above the earth, luminescent and without form, name or sex.

3. Conditioned consciousness © 4. Form and existence ©The world in these early stages is without light or land, only water. Eventually earth appears and the spirits come to taste and enjoy it. Their greed causes their ethereal bodies to become solid and coarse and differentiate into male and female, good-looking and ugly. As they lose their luminescence the sun and moon come into being.Gradually the beings fall into further wicked habits, causing themselves - and the earth itself - to become less pleasant.

5. The senses © 6. Sense-impressions ©In this way, the Buddha seems to be saying, desire, greed and attachment not only cause suffering for people but also cause the world to be as it is.The physical world as we know it, with all its imperfections and suffering, is the product of what the Buddha called dependent origination.Dependent originationThe Buddha taught that this was a 12-stage process - a circular chain, not a straight line. Each stage gives rise to the one directly after it.

7. Sensation © 8. Craving ©1. Ignorance: inability to see the truth, depicted by a blind man2. Willed action: actions that shape our emerging consciousness, depicted by a potter moulding clay3. Conditioned consciousness: the development of habits, blindly responding to the impulses of karmic conditioning, represented by a monkey swinging about aimlessly4. Form and existence: a body comes into being to carry our karmic inheritance, represented by a boat carrying men

9. Attachment © 10. Becoming ©5. The six sense-organs:eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body (touch) and mind, the way sensory information passes into us, represented by the doors and windows of a house6. Sense-impressions: the combination of sense-organ and sensory information, represented by two lovers7. Sensation: the feelings we get from sense-impressions, which are so vivid that they blind us, represented by a man shot in the eye with an arrow8. Craving (tanhā): negative desires that can never be sated, represented by a man drinking

11. Birth © 12. Old age and death ©9. Attachment: grasping at things we think will satisfy our craving, represented by someone reaching out for fruit from a tree10. Becoming: worldly existence, being trapped in the cycle of life, represented by a pregnant woman11. Birth: represented by a woman giving birth12. Old age and death: grief, suffering and despair, the direct consequences of birth, represented by an old man