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인간의 이해:뇌과학,
인지(신경)과학그리고 미래
2015
성균관대학교 일반대학원 휴먼ICT융합학과 교수/홍익대학교 영상대학원 HCI개론 강의/
연세대학교 공학대학원 서비스디자인경영 강의/HEDcentric UX미래융합전략연구소 연구소장
Probabilistic epigenesis(확률적 후생) by Gottlieb and Halpern(2002)
• 예정된 후생학(Predetermined epigenesis): 유전자에서 뇌구조로 그리고 뇌와 인지기능에의 변화로 일방향적인원인 경로가 있다고 주장
• 확률적 후생학(Probabilistic epigenesis): 유전자 간에 상호작용, 뇌의 구조적인 변화, 기능을 양방향적인 것으로간주. 양방향 상호작용이란 유전자들에 의해 행동변화가 일어날 뿐만 아니라, 어린이에게의 감각입력은 유전자발현패턴에 변화를 가져올 수 있다는 의미 (예) 갓 태어난 아이는 다른 사람들의 얼굴을 잘 바라보게 편중되어있는 원시적 뇌회로가 있어서(Johnson, 1991), 얼굴에 대한 어려서부터의 주의집중은 얼굴을 처리하도록 하는시각경로에 관여하는 신경회로가 발달하게 처리함. 이런 형성과정에 깔려있는 신경해부학적 변화는 차별적유전자 발현에 기인함
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유전적 활동(유전자 간의 상호작용)
신경 활동(뇌의 구조적인 변화)
개인의 발달
양방향 영향들
A systems view of psychobiological development(심리생물학 발달의 시스템 관점). Source : Adapted from Gottlieb and Halpern, 2002.
Terms that are used to refer to social cognition(2/7)
• Empathy(공감) carries the sense of feeling the feelings of others. In Latin, the word means ‘feeling inside’(내면을 느끼는 것) or ‘feeling with’(~와 느끼는 것).
• Theory of mind (TOM, 마음의 이론) is often used to highlight the idea that we normally have complex metacognitive understandings of our own minds as well as the minds of others –including cognitive and affective aspects(인지와 정서적 측면). One of the most difficult aspects of understanding the concept of theory of mind is understanding the difference between seeing others as sensory objects versus seeing others as subjective beings with minds and mental states.
Terms that are used to refer to social cognition(3/7)
• Empathy(공감) carries the sense of feeling the feelings of others. In Latin, the word means ‘feeling inside’(내면을 느끼는 것) or ‘feeling with’(~와 느끼는 것).
• Theory of mind (TOM, 마음의 이론) is often used to highlight the idea that we normally have complex metacognitive understandings of our own minds as well as the minds of others –including cognitive and affective aspects(인지와 정서적 측면). One of the most difficult aspects of understanding the concept of theory of mind is understanding the difference between seeing others as sensory objects versus seeing others as subjective beings with minds and mental states.
• Frith and Frith(1999) introduced the term mentalizing(마음화) to capture the idea that, when we have a well-developed Theory of Mind, we understand ourselves and others not just as sensory objects(감각적 대상) but also as subjective beings with mental states(정신상태를 가진 주관적 존재). We understand others as having mental states that we can anticipate and make use of to guide our own behaviors.
Terms that are used to refer to social cognition(4/7)
• Empathy(공감) carries the sense of feeling the feelings of others. In Latin, the word means ‘feeling inside’(내면을 느끼는 것) or ‘feeling with’(~와 느끼는 것).
• Theory of mind (TOM, 마음의 이론) is often used to highlight the idea that we normally have complex metacognitive understandings of our own minds as well as the minds of others –including cognitive and affective aspects(인지와 정서적 측면). One of the most difficult aspects of understanding the concept of theory of mind is understanding the difference between seeing others as sensory objects versus seeing others as subjective beings with minds and mental states.
• Frith and Frith(1999) introduced the term mentalizing(마음화) to capture the idea that, when we have a well-developed Theory of Mind, we understand ourselves and others not just as sensory objects(감각적 대상) but also as subjective beings with mental states(정신상태를 가진 주관적 존재). We understand others as having mental states that we can anticipate and make use of to guide our own behaviors.
• Mind-reading(마음 읽기), like mentalizing, identifies our ability to attune(맞출 수있는 능력) our own behaviors to the minds and anticipated actions of others.
Terms that are used to refer to social cognition(5/7)
• Philosophers use the term intentionality(지향성) when they want to speak about how minds and mental states are always ‘about something else’ in a way that other physical objects, i.e. body parts, are not. Our thoughts always have an object. Minds have mental states; minds represent objects and events outside themselves.
Terms that are used to refer to social cognition(6/7)
• Philosophers use the term intentionality(지향성) when they want to speak about how minds and mental states are always ‘about something else’ in a way that other physical objects, i.e. body parts, are not. Our thoughts always have an object. Minds have mental states; minds represent objects and events outside themselves.
• A separate concept is the psychological term ‘intention(의도)’ , our ability to form an image of a goal state and to organize action in pursuit of that goal state. Theory of mind abilities allow us to read the intentions of others and to share attention with others about a common focus.
Terms that are used to refer to social cognition(7/7)
• Philosophers use the term intentionality(지향성) when they want to speak about how minds and mental states are always ‘about something else’ in a way that other physical objects, i.e. body parts, are not. Our thoughts always have an object. Minds have mental states; minds represent objects and events outside themselves.
• A separate concept is the psychological term ‘intention(의도)’ , our ability to form an image of a goal state and to organize action in pursuit of that goal state. Theory of mind abilities allow us to read the intentions of others and to share attention with others about a common focus.
• The term intersubjectivity(상호주관성) emphasizes our ability to coordinate mutual interactions in light of our perception of the subjectivity and intentionality of others. When this ability is absent, we readily recognize the deficiency in the social exchanges of others. Examples are found in autistic spectrum disorders(자폐적 스펙트럼 장애), in the sometimes deficient emotion recognition of schizophrenia(정신분열증의 정서 재인결함), and in the empathic failures of psychopathic(정신병) and borderline personalities(경계역 인격).
Approaches to perceiving others’ minds(타인 마음을 지각하기 위한 방법)(1/4)
• Once past our fourth birthday (whether we are normally developing or developmentally delayed), we human beings give indications of understanding other minds – ‘ mentalizing ’ as Chris Frith has called it. We can recognize and respond to the invisible, internal subjective regularities that account for the behaviors of others.
• We will call the full-fledged ability to understand and predict our own and others’ minds theory of mind (TOM).
• TOM has been explained by three kinds of theories: module theories, theory theories, and simulation theories.
Approaches to perceiving others’ minds(타인 마음을 지각하기 위한 방법)(2/4)
• Theory theories suppose that TOM capabilities develop as a primitive, implicit theory over the course of development, much like Piaget’s conservation theories(피아제보존이론).
Such implicit theories predict abrupt changes in behavior as new knowledge is added, as is seen in the abrupt change in children’s understanding of their own minds between ages three and four.
We act as if we have a complex set of rules about our own and others’ mental states.
Approaches to perceiving others’ minds(타인 마음을 지각하기 위한 방법)(3/4)
• Simulation theories suppose that we understand other minds by internally simulating or ‘running off line’ the mental states of others in each situation.
The dual responsiveness of mirror neurons to self- and other-generated action could be taken as support for simulation theory.
The system that allows us to imitate others seems to operate through internal simulation of the actions of others.
Approaches to perceiving others’ minds(타인 마음을 지각하기 위한 방법)(4/4)
• According to module theories , such as that of Simon Baron-Cohen, human beings develop a theory of mind module (TOMM) that is separate from but builds on other mental abilities that may be shared with nonhuman primates and other mammals.
Only humans are presumed to have a complete TOMM. This kind of theory fits well with findings from the study of autism(자폐증).
Intentionality detector(ID) This is the ability to perceive intention or purposeful action in many forms of
biological and non-biological movement. We interpret action as intention. For example, when we watch leaves swirling in a parking lot, we have a tendency to
see the leaves as ‘wanting to go together’. We ascribe a common purpose to the leaves.
Shared attention mechanism (SAM) The ability we have, by the end of our first year of life, to understand that when
someone else shifts his or her direction of gaze he or she is ‘looking at’ something. We seem to learn that looking leads to seeing – an advance over the simpler
signal of eye direction. Gaze shifting and social pointing of fingers are ways we learn to direct the
attention of a companion.(시선을 돌리고 남을 위해 손가락으로 가리켜주는 것은 상대방의 주위를 돌리기 위해 우리가 배운 방식들이다.)
Infants before 1 year of age, most other primates, and other mammals do not have a shared attention ability.
Similarly, an infant at 6 months does not turn her head to follow the caregiver’s gaze; a 1-year-old does.
Shared attention abilities mark(구별) the human species.
Theory of mind module(TOMM) A complex knowledge base containing rules of social cognition that develops by
the time we reach our fourth birthday. Some of the things that the TOMM tells us by the age of 4 years: Appearance and reality are not necessarily the same: a rock can look like an egg
but not be an egg; I can pretend to be a dog and not be a dog Other people have mental states as well as physical states I can fool or deceive others, I understand the the point of games like hike-and-
MIRROR NEURONS AND INTENTION DETECTION(거울뉴런과 의도검출)
• The mirror neuron system (MNS) is a collection of cortical neurons(피질뉴런) that is theorized to allow one to understand the intentions of others from observation of their actions.
• These cortical neurons have the remarkable property that the individual mirror neuron fires not only when a particular action is perceived but also when the observer performs the same action.
• Mirror neurons are being examined as a basis for inferring the goals and intentions of others through internal matching of action representations of others’ actions with action representations in one’s own action repertoire.(거울뉴런들은 타인 행동의행동표상을 자신의 행동목록에 있는 행동표상과 내적으로 맞추어보는 과정을 통해타인의 목표와 의도를 추정하기 위한 하나의 기반으로 여겨지고 있다.)
• The original work on mirror neurons was conducted by Rizzolatti et al . at the University of Parma in Italy in the early 1990s.
MIRROR NEURONS AND INTENTION DETECTION(거울뉴런과 의도검출)
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Source : Iacoboni et al ., 2005.
Source : Iacoboni et al ., 2005.
Results: Actions embedded in contexts (Intention condition) yielded a significant increase in activation in the posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus and the adjacent sector of ventral premotor cortex
Social cognition of others like and unlike us: I-It in the brain?
• Mitchell et al . (2006)의 연구에 따르면, 참가자들에게 정치적 성향에서 그들과 같은(유사한) 사람들과 그렇지 않은 사람들(비슷하지 않은)의선호하는 것들에 대해 추측해보라고 지시했을 때내측 전전두피질(medial prefrontal cortex)에서뚜렷한 활성의 차이가 나타났음
• 또한 복내측 전전두피질(ventromedial prefrontal cortex, VM-PFC) 영역들이 유사한 사람들에 대한판단 시 활용하는 반면, 배내측(dorsomedial) PFC는유사하지 않은 사람들에 대한 판단 시 활성화되었음
• 옆의 사진은 유사한 타인들 또는 유사하지 않은타인들을 이해하는 것에 대한 것임 (a) 복내측 PFC 활성화가 유사한 타인들을 판단할 때 일어남 (b) 배내측 PFC는 유사하지 않은 타인들의 판단에서활성화됨
• The forebrain evolves and expands along the lines of the three basic neural assemblies that anatomically and biochemically reflect ancestral commonalities with reptiles, early mammals, and late mammals. (Source : Adapted from MacLean, 1967, with kind permission.)