/ -
. MET: 1 (. 210042): .1-2 - (. 210147): .3-4 (. 210056): .5-6 2
(. 210115): 1-13
1
( ) ( ). , , . . . , , . . , . . . . , , . . , - , .
, . . . , .
, . (syntax) , . . (semantics) , , . , () , . (pragmatics) . , .
, , , (. ) . . . [1]
. , , . [1] : , ; : , ; , , , .
(Regularity), . , . , . ` , , . , ( ( ;) . , , . , ` . , ( ),
.
, ` . , . . [2]. [2] . . . , , ( ). [3]. [3] . . . . . ` , ( ).
, , , . . , ,
, .
, . . , . , . . . , . , , . . [4]. [4] . . , (__ )
. , . , , , , [4]. , , . (), (). , . , . p, q r. , p, , q. :
& ( ). , [4] [5]. [5] p & q p q , p & q . p q ( ), , p
& q . . , , p & q , q & p . q & p, [6]. [6] .
, , [4]. , . p q , , &, . . [7]. [7] . [7] . . , . . 2, : ,
. , (. ;). (deixis).
2
(deixis) () . . , (deictic expression). ;, , . (indexicals). ,
(person deixis), (, ) , (spatial deixis) (, ) , (temporal deixis)
(, ). , . , , , [1] , . [1] . ( , .)
. : . (proximal terms) this, here, now, (, , ). , (distal terms)
that, there, then (, , ). (deictic center), . , . , , sore, , are,
, , kore, .
, () (). . () () . , , Read you a story ( me), . , (), () (, ,
).
( ), (. , ). (honorifics). (social deixis). , , . / (T/V
distinction), tu = , vous = , . , (du/Sie) (tu/Usted). . , , , , tu
, , vous. , , ( ), ( ), ; , , , tu Usted. (Usted), (), (), ( ). ,
(-), , . , . , , ( ).
, , [2]. [2] ; , (. ) [3] , [3]. [3] . . . . , , , (), [4]. [4]
. . (exclusive we), ( , ) (inclusive we), ( ). , (. Fijian, keimami
keda ). [4] . , ( ),
( ).
[4]. Lets go ( ) Let us go ( ). going , .
, , . : here there, ( ), . yonder, ( ), hither () thence (), . .
come go, (come to bed) (go to bed). , , this here. that there, ( ).
, . , here () o, .
, . , (= ). (deistic projection). , . ( ), [5], . [5] . , [5] ,
, . , [5] . , , , , . , , : [6] . , ; ( ), . . , , . (. ). ,
, (. ) (I dont like that). , that () , , . .
: ( ). [7] [7] . [7] . 22 1963; . . 8:30; , . , (, [7]) (, [7]).
, () , , , , , , . . ( ) , [8], .
[8] . , [9], . [9] . . ( ), ( ). (. the coming week = ) (. in
days gone by = , the past week = ). , , , . ( ) . , , , [10] ,
[10]. [10] . I live here now. (= ) . I lived there then. (= )
(present tense) (past tense) o . , [11], . , ( )
, (), [11]. [11] . I could swim (when I was a child). (= ). . I
could be in Hawaii (if I had a lot of money). (= , ) (past tense) ,
[12]. [12] a. If I had a yacht, (= ) b. If I was rich, (= ) [12] .
. ( ). ( Had I known sooner ) , , .
, , , (direct/indirect speech). , (you), (here) (this evening),
, , [13]. [13] . Are you planning to be here this evening? (= ;) .
I asked her if she was planning to be there that evening. (= ). ,
[13] , . [13], [13]. , , , , . , . . .
. , .
3 (reference and inference)
M , . , . . . . (referring expressions), (.., , , ), ( , , ,)
(.. , , , ). , , , . , (.., , ) , , , (.. ;). (.. ) ( .. ). ,
(inference).
, . . (.., , , ), . . , [1]. [1] . [1] ( ) , ( ) . [1] , .
(referential and attributive uses) . , [2.],
, , [2.], , , [2.]. 2. . / . . . . / . [2.], , . . , / , . , , ,
[2.], , . . , [3] . (.. ), .. [3] . , , , , [3] , .
( ), , , . , , , , [2.]. .
(names and referents) -- -- . , , , , , . . , . , , , , . .
. , [4] [4.]. [4] . ; . , () , . , , ( ). , [5.] [5.] . [5] . ;
. () , . , , ( ). [4] [5] . [4] ( ) , . . [6]. [6] . . . . . .
, , [7.], [7.], [7.], . [7] . . . . . Rolling Stones !
(pragmatic connection) , - , . , (.., ), (/ ) . , . , [8.], , ,
[8.], , . [8] . . . .
(the role of co-text) ,
. , (co-text) , . [8] , ( ) . . . . , , [9] [9] (. [9] [9] ).
[9] . . . . . (context) , . [9] .
[10] , [10] [10] . [10] . . . . . [10,,,] . ( , ) . . , . .
(anaphoric reference) . , . ,
, [11]. [11]. , . . . , , ( ). [11] ( ) ( ) (anaphoric reference
anaphora). , (the anaphor) (the antecedent). . , , , . [12] , ,
. [12] . . [13].
-
[13] . . . . . , [14] , , [14]. [14] . . . . . . , [14], , (zero
anaphora) (ellipsis). . . 1 . (cataphora),
.
[15]. [15] . . .
. . . . , . [15], ( x , x ) . , [15], (. ). , ( , ), , [15]. , (
) () ( ). , . . . . , ( ) , . , , . .
4 (presupposition and entailment)
, . , , , . . . , . , , . . . (presupposition) . , .
(entailment) . , .
[1]. [1]. . [1] ,
. . . [1] , , , , . . . , , , , .
(presupposition) , . [2] p [2] q, , >>, , [2] . [2] . . (
=p)
. . . p>>q
( =q)
, [2] (= p), [3], . q [3], p, [3]. [3] . . ( = p) . . .
p>>q (constancy under negation). . ( ) , ( [4] ) [4]. [4] . .
( =p) . . ( = p) . . . p>>q & p>>q , p ( [4]) , q (
[4]) . q , [4] , p p, . ( =q) ( =q)
(types of presupposition) , , . (potential presuppositions), .
[1] [3], . (existential presupposition) (.., >> ), . [5], .
[5] , , ,
Counting Crows , [4]. [4], q, q . , , (factive presupposition).
, [6.] [6.], , [6.] [6.] . [6] . . (>> )
. . (>> ) . . (>> ) . . (>> ) . / . (>>
) , . , (lexical presupposition), ( ) . , . , . , , ( ) . , . , , ,
, , [7]. [7] . . (>> ) . . (>> ) . . (>> ) , ( )
, , . , , (structural presuppositions). , .
(.. ) . , wh- , [8.] [8.], (. when where) . [8] . When did he
leave? ( >> He left) [ ; ( >> )] . Where did you buy
the bike? ( >> You bought the bike) [ ; ( >> )] [8] , .
, . . . [9]. [9] ; ( !) , (.. >> ). , , . , . , , .
(non-factive presupposition) . , , [10], . [10] . /. (>>
/) . . (>> ) . . (>> ) , , ( , ....). , ,
(counter-factual presupposition), , , . [11], , . [11] / , .
(>> / ) , , . 4.1. // >> // >>
>> >>
; .... 4.1. .
>>
/, >> /
(the projection problem) . . , ( ) ( ). (the projection
problem). 12, q ( ), [12] , [12]. , : . [12] . . ( = p) . . ( =
q)
. p>>q ( , [12], [12]) . . ( = r) . . ( = q) . r>> q
( , [12], [12], [12].) . . . r & p >> q ( , r & q, q
.) [12] , , . [13] . , [13]. [13] : . . : . . [13] , , . , [14] , q
[14] [14]. [14]
. q (. ) [14]. [14] . . ( = p) . . ( = q) . P>>q . . ( =
r) . , . ( = p & r) . p & r >> q [14], . q (. ) [14].
. . [13], . , , , q q. ( ) ( ). (.. , ) , [15]. ,
[15], . [15] ; [15].- . . . ! [15] (= ) (= ) , . . , 4.1. , . .
( ), , [16]. [16].- ; . . [16], ( ) . . .
(ordered entailments) , (. ), , - . [17] [18]. [17].- . [18].- .
. . . . . . ( = p) ( = q) ( = r) ( = s) ( = t)
[17] [18] p - q, . [17], ( , . [17], (background entailments) (
[18-]). , [17], . , , , , . , [19], . [19] .- . . (foreground
entailment), ,
. . [19], , . , . , , . it , [20]. [20] . It was JOHN who chased
the squirrels ( . It wasnt ME who took your money. ( ) [20], (. ).
[20.] (. someone took your money = ) . [20.] (.., ). .
5 , , , , , . , . , , . , , , . , . , , : [ 1 ] . , [ 1 ] , . [
1 ] business is business boys will be boys (tautologies). , . [ 1 ]
, , - , . , . (implicature). [ 1 ]
, , . , [ 1 ] , . , (..: .) . , , , .
. . . [ 2 ] : ; : . ( . . ) : ! ! : . . . , , . , ( ) . ;
. , . , . , , . , . . (, [ 2 ] .). , (cooperative principle) ,
(maxims), 5.1.
: , , . : 1. ( .) 2. . . 1. . 2. . . .
1. . 2. . 3. /- ( ). 4. . 5.1. ( Grice,1975 ) , . , , ( [ 2 ] )
, . , . , . (hedges).
(quality) , . [ 3 - ] [ 3 ] . [ 3 ] . , . . , . , . . , .
[ 3 ] , , . , (hedges) / /- (quantity) , [ 4 - ] , . [ 4 ] . , .
. , , . . , . ( (relation)) , . , , , . , [ 5 - ] . [ 5 ] . , . . ,
; . , ; (manner) [ 6 - ]
. [ 6 ] . , . . , . . /- , . , . , , , . , . , ( ) . , , . , , ,
, (. ) . (. ) , , .
, , . [ 7 ] , . [ 7 ] : . : , . , , . , . , , . , , , . ,
(conversational implicature) . (=) (=) [ 8 ] . +> . [ 8 ] :
& ; : ( +> )
. .
[ 7 ] , [ 8 ] , . (=) (=) , [ 9 ] [ 9 ] . [ 7 ] , [ 8 ] . [ 9 ]
. : ;(& ;) . : . (+> ) , [ 7 ] [ 9 ] , (generalised
conversational implicature) . // , [ 10 ] . , , : +> . [ 10 ] .
. , , /- /- , / /- /- (. /-, ) , /- . (scalar implicatures) .
Y , . , [ 11 ], . [ 11 ] < , , , > < , , > / /- , ,
, ( ) , [ 12 ] . [ 12 ] . / /- , , ( +> ). (scalar implicature).
, , . [ 11 ] , , , . , / /- (..: +> , +> ). , / /- [ 13 ] . [
13 ] .
, / /- , (+> , +> ) . , , . , [ 14 ] +> [ 14 ] +>
+> . [ 14 ] . . . . , , [ 15 ] , . [ 15 ] - ,
. , , +> , , . , ( +> ) .
, . , , , .
(particularised conversational implicatures) . [ 16 ] , Tom ( ,
) . [ 16 ] : ; : . , . ( +> ) . , , . , (. ) , [ 17 ]. [ 17 ]
Ann : Where are you going with the dog ? Sam : To the V-E-T. , vet
. , Sam , (. ) , . [ 18 ] , . . [ 18 ] : , ;
: . , (..: .) . , . , , , [ 19 ] [ 20 ] , , , . [ 19 ] : ; : ; [
20 ] : ; : ; [ 19 ] , . , . , , ! . , , , . [ 20] ! .
, , . , .
. ( , , ) . , , , / /- , [ 21 ] . [ 21 ] ! ( +> ) [ 22 ] , ,
/ /- ( +> ) [ 22 ] , [ 22 ] [ 22 ] . ! . , , ! . , ! . , , , , .
(conventional implicatures) . [22 ] .
(conventional implicatures) .
. , , , . but . p but q p & q p q . [ 23 ] , (=p) , but ,
(=q) . [ 23 ] . , . . p & q ( +> p q ) . , , . , . , [ 24 ]
(. ) . [ 24 ] . . . , . , . [ 25 ] (= p) , [ 25 ] . [ 25 ] . (= p)
. p ( +> p )
( . 1 ) . , , , [ 26 ] plus . , , , [ 26 ] , . [ 26 ] .Yesterday
, Mary was happy and ready to work(p & q ,+>p plus q ) . . .
(p & q ,+> q p) . , [ 26 ] , . , , [ 26 ] , . ,
(implicature) . , , . , , (speech acts) .
6 , , , . , , [ 1 ] . [ 1 ] . [ 1 ] . , [ 1 ]. , [ 2 ] , [ 2 ] ,
[ 2 ]. [ 2 ] . (-) . . . . ( -) ! (speech acts) , , , , . / /- . /
/- , , / / /- . (/- /-) . ,
, (speech events) . , . , , , [ 3 ] . . [ 3 ] ! , , / /- /- /- /
/- , , [ 3 ] , , . , , , , , . , .
s , . , ( locutionary act) , . (..: /- ) . Aha mokafa , , . , [
4 ] . [ 4 ] Ive just made some coffee .
, . . , (illocutionary act) . . [ 4 ] , , . , , (illocutionary
force) . , . (perlocutionary act) . , [ 4 ] / /- (..: / / .) , ,
(perlocutionary effect) . , . , . ( counts as) . , [ 5 ] , [ 5 ] ,
[ 5 ] , [ 5 ] . [ 5 ] . [ 5 ] . .( = ) . [ ] . . [ ] A . . [ ] A .
[ 5 ] , , (..: ) . / /- / /- ;
: .
M ( ) ( I F I D Illocutionary Force Indicating Device) [ 6 ] , .
(performative verb Vp) . [ 6 ] ( ) [ 5- ] , , . / , . [ 7 ] , , , .
[ 7 ] : ; : , . : ; : ! , , , ( ) . , , . ,
, , ( ) [ 8 ] . [ 8 ] . ! [ ] . . ; [ ]. . ; [ ] . , , , , ,
.
, , (felicity conditions) . , [ 9 ] , / /- ( , o ) . [ 9 ] . , ,
. ( general conditions) , . , (content conditions) . , ,
. / /- . (preparatory conditions) . , : , , , . , : / /- , / /-
, . (sincerity condition) , , / /- , , / /- . , (essential
condition) , , , . , . , , , . , , , , , / /- , () .
H ( ) , [ 6 ] , ( ) , .
(performative hypothesis) [ 10 ] . [ 10 ] ( ) ( ) . , ( ) , , ,
. , ( ) ( ) . , [ 11 ] [ 12 ] , , [ 11 ] [ 12 ] , . [ 11 ] . ! . [
12 ] . . . . , [ 11 ] [ 12 ] ( ) /- (explicit performatives) . [ 11
] [ 12 ] (implicit performatives) , (primary performatives) . . , (
[ 12 ]) ( ) . [ 12 ] . , /- Do it yourself , yourself you ( order
you that you do it
yourself ). , , [ 13 ] , . [ 13 ] . , . . , ; [ 13 ] ( ) , [ 13
] ( , ) . , , . , [ 11 ] [ 11 ] . , . , ( ) . / /- / /- [ 14 ] , [
14 ] . [ 14 ] . . . ; . T , , . , .
: , , , . (declarations) . [ 15 ] , , , . [ 15] . : . . : ! . .
,/ /- . (representatives) / /- . , , [16], / /- . [ 16 ] . . .
Chomsky . . , . , ( ). (expressives) / /- . , , , , :
. [ 17 ] / /- / /- , / /- . [ 17 ] . ! . . . , , , , ! ,/ /- (
). (directives) . / /- . , , , , [ 18 ] , . [ 18 ] . . ' . . , ; .
'. ,/ /-
( / /- ). (commissives) . / /- . , , , , , [ 19 ] , / /- ' / /-
. [ 19 ] . . . .
. . ,/ /-
( / /- ). 6.1. . ( ) . () . () . (/) . (/) 6.1. (Searle , 1979
)
. . [ 20 ] , ( , , ) ( , , / ) . [ 20 ] . . ( declarative= ) . ;
(interrogative= )
. ! ( imperative= ) , ( direct speech act ) . , ( indirect
speech act ) . , , . [ 21 ] , [21] . , [21] , . / , [ 21 ] , . [ 21
] . . . . . . , [ 22 ] , / /- / /- . [ 22 ] / , [ 22 ] . [ 22 ] , ,
[ 22 ] [ 22 ] , , . [ 22 ] . ! . ; . . . , [ 23 ] , ,
(. ) . [ 23 ] . [ 23 ] . ; . ; , / /- ( ;) ( ;) . , , . , .
(..: [ 23 ] ) . , / /- / /- /- , , . , / /- . [ 24 ] . [ 24 ] .
/
/- ( )
;
. - / /- /- ( )
;
.
/ /- .
, [ 24 ] . , , / , / /- , / / /- / /- , , / /- . , / /- . , , ,
, . , , . , , , , , , . (speech event) . , ,
, , . , - . , , , . , , [ 25 ] . [ 25 ] : ! ! . : ; : : ; : . :
; : . . : ; : Macintosh . Macintosh ; : . : ; : . : , . / / . , , .
; - , . , , , , , . .
, , . . , .
MEPO EYTEPO KEIMENAK 1:O K 1 GEORGIA GREEN:Pragmatics and
Natural Language Understanding.Lawrence Erlbaum,1989,.3 H . , .O ,
( ), .Y / , , , , , , , .O .T . >A .N , ; ,
>H : . ; >A ( ), ;
K 2 Pragmatics:meaning and context.File 70 Language
Files:Materials for an introduction to Linguistics(6 ).Ohio State
University Press 1991,.223 , .E . ,K , , 20 . ,T , , .A , , , , . ,
.O .A , , . , , .T YMPAZOMENA(CONTEXT) ,
.H . > , ;M , ;M ; > ;A , , ; >M , , K 1;
K 2: K 3 CHARLES FILLMORE:Santa Cruz Lectures on Deixis,Indian
Uniersity of Linguistics Club,1975,.40-42 O ., .O .Y . , , N
(Gestural), (Symbolic) A (Anarhoric).M
, - .M , , .M , (coreferential). M . .H , . , .X :E ;A , . ,O .
, , . , .A , , , . .A , , , , , .T , . >M ( 2), ( ) , ;
.> , , ; O
, , , , .M , , , , . .A :O , , .A :O X , . X , . >E ,
Fillmore ; ,,( ),(), , , Fillmore.
K 4 QUENTIN SMITH:The multiple uses of indexicals, Synthese
78,1989,.182-183. H ,E , .A , .
, N10, . , .O - ., , ., !K!, N10, N3! >M E(
) ; > E;A , ;A , ;
K 5 GEOFFREY NUNBERG:Indexicality and deixis, Linguistics and
Philosophy 16,1993,.41 John Ashberry, , , : (94) A ( , ). A, John
Ashberry ,E , ,E , E , , , . > , ,A ;A
, ( ) ; >
, ;O ;A , ( ); > E( ) E, 4;
K 5:A K 6 KEITH DONNELLAN:Reference and definite descriptions,
Philosophical Review 75,1966,.285-6 , , .O , , , .A , , , . , , ,
.A , - - , , , .
, , . , , ,O .Y .A , :O . , , , ( ).A, , . , , . > Donnellan,
, . Donnellan ; >X Donnellan( ), , ; >M , , Fillmore (K 3) ,
;
K 7 M.A.K. HALLIDAY and RUQAIYA HASAN:Cohesion in
English,Longman 1976,.31
Y , , ., , .A , .A : .T , . ! ! .O , . , . . . . (A), . (B), .
(), . A , .E, .A , ANAOPA(REFERENCE), . , .K , . > , .N ; >
;T (), ;
>A (B) , , (), ; ; >H Donnellan K 6 ;
K 4: K 8 ROBERT C.STALNAKER:Pragmatic presupposition Semantics
and Philosophy Milton Munitz Peter Unger.New York University
Press,1974,.199-200. , , , , , , . , , ,,T , , , . ,T .H ( )., , ,
, .A , , . A , .M P P, P, .
>, , , ; > , , , ;( , K 4, 25-30, ). >M , , ;
K 9 GERALD GAZDAP:Pragmatics,Implicature,Presupposition and
Logical Form,Academic Press,1979,.106 (65) O , . (66)O , . A (66),
, (66) , (65) .A , , , , .
, , , .
> (65), (66);M , , , ; >T ; , , ;
K 5: K 10 PAUL GRICE:Logic and Conversation Syntax and Semantics
Volume 9:Speech acts P.Cole J.L.Morgan,Academic Press,1975,.48. ,
THN PAMATIKTHTA , OIKO NA TO AKOOYOME, EN A EPEE . , ,
CP(Cooperation Principle=A ) , .A , , , , , ( ) , , , , : 1.O , .O
, - ,
.
, , , , , , . 2.O , . 3.Y ( , ), , , . . A , , , , , . >M , ;
> , , ; >O Grice , . , , , ;
K 11 J.L.Morgan:Two types of convention in indirect speech acts
Syntax and Semantics Volume 9 P.Cole,Academic
Press,1978,.277-8.
A , , ,A , , ,M ; , , , .T
;N . , , , OOIAHOTE , : (37)E ; (38) ; (39)E ; . [O A , ,:
(40)Is the Pope Catholic? (41)Do bagels wear bikinis? ] A, , , , .
:N , /, , , . M , , , - (42) : (42)N,, A!
A , , , : , . >
(,, , ); ( E , ) , ; >O , .N , , ( K 5, 45-46 ); >T , , ;E
, , ;
K 6: K 12 JOHN SEARLE:Speech acts,Cambridge University
Press,1969,.58-59. M , ,
, .M , , , , , .E, , , , . (,,.) , (,,.).N , . >A , . ;Y , ;
K ,, , .Y ,A , .E ;T . .A Y ;N Y (commitment) , . , ,,, . , , .M ,
Y, .Y, , ., ,;.A,O,
, .T .A , Y , , . > , Y, , ; > , , Y, ; >H , K 10;( K
6, 50-51 ).
K 13 GEOFFREY LEECH:Principles of
Pragmatics,Longman,1983,.177-8. A , , , .A , , , .H ,,,, ,,,,.A, ,
, , ,
.K , Searle, . , , , ; , ,, . . [Searle J.1979:Expression and
Meaning.Cambridge: Camridge University Press,.2) A , : , , , ; , ,,
. Searle, , , : ( ) , .A ,() ( ) () , , , :,, . > , , ; >T ,
Leech, , K 12;
>N Leech ; Searle Leech;