EMOTION REGULATION AMONG MOTHERS OF TODDLERS IN THE CONTEXT OF INTENSIVE MOTHERING By ALENA PRIKHIDKO A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2018
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EMOTION REGULATION AMONG MOTHERS OF TODDLERS IN THE CONTEXT OF INTENSIVE MOTHERING
By
ALENA PRIKHIDKO
A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
1 MOTHERS OF TODDLERS: AN INTRODUCTION ................................................ 13
Mothers of Toddlers in the Context of Intensive Mothering ..................................... 14
Background of the Study......................................................................................... 16 Statement of the Problem ....................................................................................... 17 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................ 17
Research Purpose .................................................................................................. 18 Research Hypotheses............................................................................................. 18
2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE .................................................................................... 21
Experiences of Modern Mothers ............................................................................. 21 Connection Between a Mother And a Child ............................................................ 22
Emotional Synchrony ....................................................................................... 23 Emotion Regulation in Mother-Child Dyad........................................................ 24
Social Context of Modern Motherhood.................................................................... 27
Intensive Mothering as a Hegemonic Paradigm ............................................... 28 Intensive Mothering and Mental Health ............................................................ 29 Intensive Mothering and Religion ..................................................................... 34
Negative Emotional Experiences of Mothers .......................................................... 35
Hostile Emotions Towards Children ................................................................. 36 Hostile Emotions Toward Oneself .................................................................... 38
Emotion Regulation Theory and Practice ......................................................... 41 Research on Emotion Regulation of Anger ...................................................... 47 Research on Emotion Regulation of Guilt......................................................... 50
Research on Emotion Regulation among Mothers ................................................. 54 Gender and Emotion Regulation ............................................................................. 59
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Summary of the Chapter ......................................................................................... 60
Exploratory Data Analysis ....................................................................................... 69 Research Hypothesis One ...................................................................................... 71
Research Hypothesis Two ...................................................................................... 72 Research Hypothesis Three ................................................................................... 73
Research Hypothesis Four ..................................................................................... 73 Research Hypothesis Five ...................................................................................... 74
Research Hypothesis Six ........................................................................................ 74 Research Hypothesis Seven ................................................................................... 75
Summary of the Study ............................................................................................ 78
Participants ............................................................................................................. 79 Research Hypothesis One ...................................................................................... 79
Child-centeredness and Emotion Suppression ................................................. 80
Fulfillment and Emotion Suppression ............................................................... 81 Essentialism and Cognitive Reappraisal .......................................................... 82
Research Hypothesis Two ...................................................................................... 83 Research Hypothesis Three ................................................................................... 84 Research Hypothesis Four ..................................................................................... 85 Research Hypothesis Five ...................................................................................... 86 Research Hypothesis Six ........................................................................................ 87
Research Hypothesis Seven ................................................................................... 88 Limitations ............................................................................................................... 88 Implications for Research ....................................................................................... 89
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Implications for Practice .......................................................................................... 91
4-2 Correlational data of intensive parenting attitudes, emotion regulation, and parent anger. ...................................................................................................... 77
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure page 1-1 The relationship between IPA, ER, anger and guilt. ........................................... 20
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Anger
A strong feeling of annoyance, displeasure or hostility
Cognitive reappraisal
An emotion regulation strategy that refers to changing thought processes in order to cope with one’s own emotions
Emotion regulation
Emotion regulation refers to the processes that influence an individual’s emotions, when they have them, and how they experience and express them
Emotion suppression
An emotion regulation strategy that refers to suppressing one’s own emotional expression
Guilt A feeling of having done wrong or failing an obligation
Intensive mothering
Intensive mothering is the expectation that mothers should give of themselves and their resources unconditionally to their children, including but not limited to their time, money, emotional support, and love.
Mothers of toddlers
Mothers of children in an age range from 18 to 48 months
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Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
EMOTION REGULATION AMONG MOTHERS OF TODDLERS IN THE CONTEXT OF
INTENSIVE MOTHERING
By
Alena Prikhidko
May 2018
Chair: Jacqueline M. Swank Major: Counseling and Counselor Education
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between intensive
parenting attitudes, emotion regulation, and experiences of anger and guilt among
mothers of toddlers (N = 122). Specifically, the researcher investigated whether
intensive parenting attitudes predicted the choice of emotion regulation strategies
among mothers (hypothesis one). Additionally, the study focused on examining the
relationship between intensive parenting attitudes and parent anger (experience and
expression of anger) of mothers of toddlers. The researcher hypothesized that (a)
intensive parenting attitudes and parent anger would be positively correlated
(hypothesis two), (b) intensive parenting attitudes would correlate with guilt proneness
(hypothesis three), and (d) parent anger would correlate with guilt proneness
(hypothesis four). The researcher also expected that there would be differences in
intensive parenting attitudes and parent anger based on religiosity and working status of
a mother (hypothesis five and six).
The researcher conducted a Spearman correlational analysis to explore the
relationships between intensive parenting attitudes, emotion regulation strategies, and
experiences of anger and guilt. Additionally, the researcher used multiple regression
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analysis with intensive parenting attitudes as an independent variable and emotion
regulation as a dependent variable. Next, the researcher implemented a Mann-Whitney
test to compare groups of mothers based on their religiosity and a One-Way ANOVA to
compare parent anger based on work status.
Findings from the study indicated that intensive parenting attitudes correlated
with emotion regulation, parent anger, and guilt proneness among mothers of toddlers.
Additionally, mothers differed in their experiences of anger based on their working
status and endorsed intensive parenting attitudes differently based on their religiosity.
However, contrary to expectations, there was no correlation between parent anger and
guilt proneness. Furthermore, results from the multiple regression demonstrated a
difference in expression, but not in experience of anger based on the working status of
the mother. The researcher also discusses the limitations of the study, and implications
for research and practice.
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CHAPTER 1 MOTHERS OF TODDLERS: AN INTRODUCTION
Within this chapter, the researcher introduces information about the ideology of
intensive mothering (IM; Hays, 1996), which influences beliefs of mothers about ways to
raise their children. The author explores the relationship between maternal emotion
regulation (ER) and emotional experiences, and the ways they are connected to a
child’s development. Additionally, the author states the problem, presents a rationale
for the proposed study, and outlines the proposed research questions.
The connection between a mother and a child is vital for a child’s development.
The research on emotional synchrony demonstrates that mothers and their children
experience concordance in their emotional and bodily reactions, mirroring one another
in responses of the autonomic nervous system (Ebisch et al., 2012; Creaven, Skowron,
Hughes, Howard, & Loken, 2014). Laurent, Ablow, and Measelle (2012) found that
mothers’ and toddlers’ cortisol levels increased simultaneously while performing
challenging tasks. Family stress also moderates emotional synchrony, along with self-
regulation, in a mother-child dyad (Suveg, Shaffer, Davis, 2015). Furthermore, parental
punitive actions can be harmful for a child’s ER development (Eisenberg, Fabes, &
Murphy, 1996), whereas positive behavioral synchrony is a predictor of healthy self-
regulation in children (Feldman, Greenbaum, & Yermia, 1999).
Maternal scaffolding affects children’s observed ER (Lincoln, Russell, &
Donohue, 2016). When a mother is non-supportive to children’s negative emotions,
children do not develop sufficient ER (Perry, Calkins, Nelson, Leerkes, & Marcovitch,
2014). Therefore, parental ER affects children’s ER development as children socialize
through modeling parents’ behavior (Eisenberg, Cumberland, & Spinrad, 1998). Thus,
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maternal ER is crucial to a child’s emotional development. However, the research on
mothers’ ER is in its nascence. There is a dearth of studies that are focused on the
relationship between attitudes towards mothering and emotional experiences related to
these mothering attitudes. There is also a paucity of studies on ER strategies that
mothers of toddlers implement to muddle through penetrating negative emotions that
relate to internalized social ideals. Therefore, a need exists for investigating ways that
mothers of young children regulate emotions that are linked to the internalization of
mothering ideals, along with examining the relationship between these ideals and ER
strategies mothers use to cope with negative emotions.
Children start to develop their ER in toddlerhood, while the brain matures (Cole,
Martin, & Davis, 2004). Mothers of toddlers may have difficulty coping with their
emotions due to toddlers’ behaviors, which may be characterized by disobedience and
boundary testing. Simultaneously, mothers of toddlers may feel the pressure of
dominant cultural norms pertaining to social expectations towards motherhood, which
prescribe extensive maternal involvement in the context of IM (Hays, 1996).
Mothers of Toddlers in the Context of Intensive Mothering
Most research on toddlerhood and parenting focuses on the emotional
development of children, and ways mothers can enhance it (Eisenberg, Fabes, &
= .04, p < .05. Thus, the analysis revealed that the higher mothers scored in cognitive
reappraisal, the less intense their parenting attitudes were related to essentialism. The
researcher found no other significant relationships between reappraisal and intensive
parenting attitudes.
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Research Hypothesis Two
Hypothesis two was: IPA (as measured by IPAQ) correlates with parent anger
(as measured by PAS). Spearman correlational analysis revealed that expression of
anger correlated with essentialism rs = .33, Rs2 = .10, p < .001 and challenging rs = .23,
Rs2 = .05, p < .05 and experience of anger correlated with challenging rs = .38, Rs
2 =
.14, p < .001, and essentialism rs = .29, Rs2 = .08, p < .01.
The researcher conducted a multiple linear regression analysis to determine if
experience and expression of anger (as measured by the PAS) could be predicted by
essentialism and challenging (as measured by IPAQ) attitudes toward parenting.
G*Power was used to conduct an a priori power analysis. With an alpha level of .05,
minimum power established at .95, and a large effect size of .35 (Cohen, 1992), and 44
participants were needed to find a statistically significant difference. Therefore, the
number of cases in the present study (N = 122) was large enough to justify proceeding
with the multiple regression analysis.
The null hypothesis was that the regression coefficients were equal to zero. The
researcher tested the multiple linear regression assumptions, including the standardized
residuals normality distribution, and testing for homoscedasticity and multicollinearity.
Review of the scatterplot demonstrated appropriate homeoscedasticity. The normality
distribution plot for the standardized residuals demonstrated linearity between variables.
The assumption of independence was met for all variables. In testing for collinearity, the
variance inflation factor was less than 10 for challenging scores (1.15), and essentialism
scores (1.159). Lastly, all of the condition indices were smaller than 15 (10, 90, 6, 60).
Thus, there was no concern regarding the assumption of multicollinearity.
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The overall model that included the predictor variables of challenging and
essentialism was a good predictor of experience of anger, F (1, 120) = 23.22, p < .001.
The regression equation for predicting experience of anger among mothers of toddlers
is: Experience of anger = 6.505 + .746 (challenging) + .315 (essentialism). Eighteen
percent (R2 = .180) of the variance in experience anger was predicted by the regression
model.
Research Hypothesis Three
Hypothesis three was: IPA (as measured by IPAQ) correlates with guilt
proneness (as measured by GP-5). For research hypothesis three the researcher
predicted that there would be a positive correlation between GP and IPA. The
Spearman correlational analysis showed that guilt proneness significantly correlated
with challenging IP scale rs = .22, Rs2 = .04, p < .05. Additionally, the researcher
compared the working mothers to those who stayed at home, and the correlation for the
GP and challenging scale increased significantly. The researcher found no other
significant correlations between guilt proneness and parenting attitudes.
Research Hypothesis Four
Hypothesis four was: PA (as measured by PAS) correlates with GP (as
measured by GP-5). The Spearman correlational analysis showed no significant
correlations between guilt proneness and two scales of PAS: experience anger and
expression anger. However, expression anger rs = -.31, Rs2 = .09, p < .01 and
experience anger rs = -.24, Rs2 = .05, p < .01 negatively correlated with the ER scale of
reappraisal. These results show that the increase of anger is accompanied with the
decrease in using cognitive reappraisal for mothers of toddlers.
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Research Hypothesis Five
Hypothesis five was that there were differences between mothers of toddlers IPA
and PA based on their religiosity. The results partially supported this hypothesis. IPAQ
attitudes were compared using non-parametric Mann-Whitney test that revealed a
significant difference in ranks of attitudes based on mothers being either religious or
non-religious. A Mann-Whitney test indicated that mothers who answered “yes” to the
question “Are you religious?” were more child-centered (Mnd = 9) U = 11.1, z = -2.289, r
= -.24, p < .05, perceived parenting as more challenging (Mnd = 26) U = 11,5, z = -
2.225, r = -.21 p < .05, fulfiiling (Mnd = 16) U = 96.0, z = -3.418, r = -.32 p < .01, and
experienced and believed that mothers need to invest in their child’s development (Mnd
= 19) U = 11.5, z = -2.577, r = -.24, p < .05 more than mothers who answered “no” to
the question about their religiosity.
Research Hypothesis Six
Hypothesis five was that there were differences between mothers of toddlers IPA
and PA based on their work status. The results partially supported this hypothesis.
A One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the question of
whether mothers of toddlers PA differs with respect to their work status. The
independent variable represented work status, with two groups being represented: 1)
stay-at-home; 2) work. The Levene’s F test revealed that the homogeneity of variance
assumption was met (p > .05). The one-way ANOVA of mothers’ average score on the
measure of PA revealed a statistically significant main effect, F(1, 114) = 5.58, p < .05,
indicating that stay-at-home mothers were more prone to anger expression than
working mothers.
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Research Hypothesis Seven
Research hypothesis six was that mothers differed in IPA based on the number
of children they had. This hypothesis was supported by the results of the study. The
researcher conducted non-parametric Mann-Whitney test that revealed a significant
difference in ranks of parent anger factors based on the amount of children a mother
had. A Mann-Whitney test indicated that mothers who had one child (Mnd = 29) were
less prone to experience anger than mothers who had two children U = 86.00, z = -
2.722, r = -.32, p < .01. Additionally, mothers who had two children (Mnd = 18) were
more prone to expressing anger than mothers who had one child U = 78.00, z = -3.224,
r = -.27, p < .01. Accordingly, mothers who had one child (Mnd = 16) perceived
parenting as less fulfilling than mothers who had two children U = 95.00, z =-.2076, r = -
.20, p < .05.
Chapter Summary
Within this chapter, the researcher presented the results related to examining the
four research hypotheses. The results indicated a relationship between intensive
parenting attitudes (as measured by the IPAQ) and emotion regulation (as measured by
ERQ). Furthermore, the results of the study demonstrated a difference in ER, IPA, and
experiences of anger based on the work status of the mother. Thus, the results provide
implications for future research and practice discussed in chapter 5.
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Table 4-1. Sample demographics. Variable
Response type
N
Percent
Age
20-30 31-40 41-50
22 84 12
18.6 71.2 10.2
Religion
Yes No Other
59 52 6
50.4 44.4 5.1
Religion type Work status Number of kids Number of toddlers Age of toddlers Race/ethnicity
Christian Non-religious Agnostic Jewish Muslim Buddhist Other/non-specified Stay at home Work remotely Work out of home One Two Three Four Five One Two Three 12 24 36 48 White Black Asian Native American Hispanic/Latino European Other
repetition of rational self-statements, metaphors, humor); and (b) behavioral techniques
(i.e., cognitive-behavioral rehearsal, homework).
Working mothers, who experience guilt for not devoting enough time to their
children and struggling with following the intensive parenting ideals, may benefit from
exploring them. In particular, they can decipher values from goals and decide on what
they aim for in raising their children. ACT may be instrumental in increasing mothers’
psychological flexibility by showing how particular behaviors may be workable and lead
to vitality, while others can be detrimental and lead to suffering (Harris, 2009). Using
ACT, a counselor may ask the mother to think about the situation from her values
standpoint, considering the following (a) what does it mean for her to see her child
happy, (b) what personal strengths does she want to cultivate in her child, and (c) what
does the child’s happiness reveal about herself as a mother. After exploring these
questions, the counselor and mother discuss actions to address the situation and
reduce guilt (Prikhidko & Swank, under review). Additionally, the main focus of ACT is
the need for defusion in order to obtain life satisfaction. Mothers can defuse through
detaching from intensive parenting attitudes in exploring their beliefs that evoke guilt.
The results of the current study revealed that expression and experience of
anger both correlated with the essentialism and challenging IPAQ scales. According to
the study, stay-at-home mothers expressed more anger toward their children than
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mothers who worked full-time. ER of anger is necessary for mothers, as expressing
anger without control may be detrimental for children’s wellbeing. Dialectical-behavioral
therapy (DBT) provides an array of ER strategies to control anger (Chapman & Gratz,
2015). In particular, mothers of toddlers may benefit from (a) identifying and
understanding their anger, along with feelings and thoughts that lead to it through
recognizing signs of anger, and learning about the phenomenology of one’s own anger;
(b) reducing the vulnerability to anger through improving self-care and employing
activities that would support maternal self-acceptance and self-confidence. The
counselor may use these interventions, described above, through individual and family
counseling, as well as in psychoeducational programs for mothers of toddlers, provided
through a face-to-face or online format. Counselor educators could include information
on emotion regulation as a part of the curriculum when teaching both mental health and
marriage and family counselors to explore the constructive potential of cognitive
reappraisal as an emotion regulation strategy with parents who struggle with intensive
parenting attitudes that contradict their behavior.
Conclusion
The present study was the first known quantitative study that examined the
relationship between IPA, ER, and experiences of anger. Additionally, the researcher
addressed a gap in researcher related to examining the association between parent
anger and IPA. The examination of the research hypotheses yielded useful results that
serve as a basis for implications for research and practice. The findings parallel the
work of Rizzo, Schiffrin and Liss (2012) who showed that aligning with IPA leads to
lower levels of satisfaction with life and overall decrease in well-being. Additionally, the
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findings correspond with research on ER, bridging suppression and IPA, and revealing
that cognitive reappraisal may be a coping mechanism for addressing guilt.
Based on the findings from the present study, mothers of toddlers endorse IPA,
prioritize their children’s needs, and believe that parenting is demanding, especially
when a mother aligns with essentialist beliefs and is focused on her children, sacrificing
her own life to provide good care. Additionally, mothers’ experiences of anger were
predicted by essentialism and challenging beliefs about parenting, adding to the body of
literature that highlights the detrimental effects of IPA on maternal wellbeing.
Richardson, Rice, and Devine (2014) showed that emotion suppression is related to
perfectionism, neuroticism, and a more acute chronic stress pattern, when an individual
believes that one does not live up to social expectations In the present study,
suppression correlated with prescribed child-centered attitudes. However, agreement on
idealistic and realist actions may not be similar, leading to self-discrepancy between an
ideal and real maternal performance, concluding in suppressing one’s feeling about not
being a good enough mother.
Suppression is perceived as being related to anger, and most often employed in
downregulating negative emotions. However, the use of suppression in anger regulation
may lead to negative consequences for communication (Martini & Busseri, 2012). In
contrast, cognitive reappraisal is perceived as an ER strategy that leads to positive
affect and increased wellbeing. In this study, cognitive reappraisal negatively correlated
with experience and expression of anger, along with essentialism. Mothers who
experience and express parent anger do not engage in cognitive reappraisal and
believe that they are the only parent who can take appropriate care of their children.
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Thus, psychoeducational programs on ER for mothers of toddlers may potentially aid in
changing anger regulation, making it more effective including cognitive reappraisal in
the ER process.
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APPENDIX A INTENSIVE PARENTING ATTITUDES QUESTIONNAIRE (IPAQ)
1. Both fathers and mothers are equally able to care for children 2. Although fathers may mean well, they generally are not as good at parenting
as mothers 3. Parents should begin providing intellectual stimulation for their children
prenatally, such as reading to them or playing classical music 4. Although fathers are important, ultimately children need mothers more 5. Parents never get a mental break from their children, even when they are
physically apart 6. Ultimately, it is the mother who is responsible for how her child turns out 7. Being a parent brings a person the greatest joy he or she can possibly
experience 8. Parenting is exhausting 9. It is important for children to be involved in classes, lessons, and activities
that engage and stimulate them 10. Parenting is not the most rewarding thing a person can do 11. The child’s schedule should take priority over the needs of the parent’s 12. Men do not recognize that raising children is difficult and requires skills and
training 13. Child rearing is the most demanding job in the world 14. Holding his or her baby should provide a parent with the deepest level of
satisfaction 15. Being a parent means never having time for oneself 16. Women are not necessarily better parents than men 17. Men do not naturally know what to do with children 18. A parent should feel complete when he or she looks in the eyes of his or her
infant 19. Children should be the center of attention 20. Men are unable to care for children unless they are given specific instructions about what to do 21. Finding the best educational opportunities for children is important as early as preschool 22. It is harder to be a good parent than to be a corporate executive 23. To be an effective parent, a person must possess wide ranging skills 24. Children’s needs should come before their parents 25. It is important to interact regularly with children on their level (e.g. getting down on the floor and playing with them) Scale Coding Items are presented on a scale from 1 = (strongly disagree) to 6 = (strongly agree). Essentialism: 1(r), 2, 4, 6, 12, 16(r), 17, 20 Fulfillment: 7, 10(r), 14, 18 Stimulation: 3, 9, 21, 25 Challenging: 5, 8, 13, 15, 22, 23 Child-Centered: 11, 19, 24
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APPENDIX B PARENT ANGER SCALE
Instructions: At one time or another, most parents feel angry. For each of the following items, circle the response that best describes you, using scale from 0 to 6: 0 – never or not at all; 1 – less than once a month; 2 – about once a month; 3 – about once a week; 4 – several days a week; 5 – every day; 6 – several times a day
1. Even though I hold it in and do not show it I get angry with my child
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
2. I get angry and break or throw away some of my child things
3. I get angry and can’t stop thinking about the way my child behaved
4. I get angry and have a problem controlling my behavior toward my child
5. I get angry with my child
6. I get angry with my child and I spank, slap or hit my child
7. I get angry with my child and throw things, slam doors or bang the table
8. I get so angry with my child that I cannot control my behavior
9. I get so angry with my child that I do not do things that I know my child wants me to do
10. I get so angry with my child that I feel my blood boil
11. I get so angry with my child that I feel my muscles get tight
12. I get so angry with my child that I grab or push my child
13. I get so angry with my child that I just want to make the tension go away
14. I get so angry with my child that I say mean things, use bad language, curse or insult my child
15. I get so angry with my child that I scream or yell at my child
16. I lose control of my anger with my child
17. I resent the time and energy I put into parenting
18. I think my anger with my child is justified because of the way my child behaves
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19. I think that I have a harder job being a parent than other people
20. I think that my child deserves to be punished for misbehaving
21. I use my anger to get my child to behave
22. When I feel angry with my child, I boil inside, don’t show it, and keep things inside of me
23. When I get angry with my child, I tell relatives and friends so they will know how bad my child has behaved
24. I lose my temper with my child about: 1 almost nothing 2 only one thing 3 two or three things 4 several things 5 many things 6 almost everything 25. When I get angry with my child, I stay angry for: 1 only a few minutes 2 less than 1 h 3 about 1–2 h 4 several hours 5 about 1–2 days 6 several days 26. On average, how angry do you get at your child? 1 not at all angry 2 somewhat angry 3 mildly angry 4 moderately angry 5 very angry 6 extremely angry
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APPENDIX C GUILT PRONENESS SCALE
Five-Item Guilt Proneness Scale (GP-5) Instructions: In this questionnaire, you will read about five situations that people could encounter in day-to-day life, followed by reactions to those situations. As you read each scenario, try to imagine yourself in that situation. Then indicate the likelihood that you would react in the way described.
1 2 3 4 5
Extremely Unlikely
Unlikely About 50% Likely
Likely Extremely Likely
(1) After realizing you have received too much change at a store, you decide to
keep it because the salesclerk doesn't notice. What is the likelihood that you would feel uncomfortable about keeping the money?
(2) You secretly commit a felony. What is the likelihood that you would feel remorse about breaking the law?
(3) At a coworker’s housewarming party, you spill red wine on their new cream-colored carpet. You cover the stain with a chair so that nobody notices your mess. What is the likelihood that you would feel that the way you acted was pathetic?
(4) You lie to people but they never find out about it. What is the likelihood that you would feel terrible about the lies you told?
(5) Out of frustration, you break the photocopier at work. Nobody is around and you leave without telling anyone. What is the likelihood you would feel bad about the way you acted?
SCORING: The scale is scored by summing or averaging the items *The first four items in the GP-5 scale were originally published in: Cohen, T. R., Wolf, S. T., Panter, A. T., & Insko, C. A. (2011). Introducing the GASP scale: A new measure of guilt and shame proneness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100(5), 947-966. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0022641
APPENDIX D REVISED NINE-ITEM EMOTION REGULATION QUESTIONNAIRE
Instructions and Items. We would like to ask you some questions about your emotional life, in particular, how you control (that is, regulate and manage) your emotions. The questions below involve two distinct aspects of your emotional life. One is your emotional experience, or what you feel like inside. The other is your emotional expression, or how you show your emotions in the way you talk, gesture, or behave. Although some of the following questions may seem similar to one another, they differ in important ways. For each item, please answer using the following scale:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Strongly disagree
Disagree Disagree somewhat
Undecided Agree somewhat
Agree Strongly agree
(1) When I want to feel more positive (such as joy or amusement), I change what I’m
thinking about.
(2) I keep my emotions to myself. (3) When I am feeling positive emotions, I am careful not to express them. (4) When I’m faced with a stressful situation, I make myself think about it in a way
that helps me calm down.
(5) I control my emotions by not expressing them. (6) When I want to feel more positive emotion, I change the way I’m thinking about
the situation. (7) I control my emotions by changing the way I think about the situation I’m in. (8) When I am feeling negative emotions, I make sure not to express them. (9) When I want to feel less negative emotion, I change the way I’m thinking about
IRB#: IRB201702505 TITLE: Emotion Regulation Among Mothers of Toddlers in the Context of Intensive
Mothering
Approved as Exempt
You have received IRB approval to conduct the above-listed research project. Approval of this project was granted on 10/9/2017 by IRB-02. This study is approved as exempt
because it poses minimal risk and is approved under the following exempt category/categories:
2. Research involving the use of educational tests (cognitive,
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or reputation.
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In the myIRB system, Exempt approved studies will not have an approval stamp on the consents, flyers, emails, etc. However, the documents reviewed are the
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document(s) in any manner, then you'd need to submit to our office for review and approval prior to implementation.
Principal Investigator Responsibilities:
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The PI is responsible for the conduct of the study. Important
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• Using currently approved consent form to enroll subjects (if
applicable)
• Renewing your study before expiration• Obtaining approval for revisions before implementation
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• Notifying other parties about this project’s approval status
Should the nature of the study change or you need to revise the protocol in any manner
please contact this office prior to implementation.
Study Team:
Jacqueline Swank Co-Investigator
The Foundation for The Gator NationAn Equal Opportunity Institution
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fines, and imprisonment. Thank you.
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APPENDIX G INFORMED CONSENT
IRB # 201702505
Informed Consent
Protocol Title: Emotion Regulation Among Mothers of Toddlers in the Context of
Intensive Mothering
Please read this consent document carefully before you decide to
participate in this study.
Purpose of the research study:
The purpose of the study is to explore your thoughts and feeling about
motherhood, including traditional and contemporary roles of mothers and ways mothers
should take care of their emotions.
What you will be asked to do in the study:
You will be asked to participate in an survey that will take approximately 30-40
minutes. You will also be asked to fill a demographic questionnaire.
Time required:
30-40 minutes.
Risks and Benefits:
There are no known risks of participating in this study. You may benefit from the
study by raising your awareness about motherhood and your own actions. Counselors
may benefit from this study by enhancing their knowledge of mothers’ emotions and
thoughts toward motherhood. This understanding may lead to improvements in
developing new strategies in counseling this population.
108
Compensation:
You will receive free webinar on emotion regulation for mothers of toddlers as an
incentive for participating in this study. You will find the link to the webinar at the end of
the survey.
Confidentiality: Your identity will be kept confidential to the extent provided by
law. The responses will be recorded anonymously. The information on the demographic
questionnaire will be compiled with the other participants’ information and will not be
associated with you.
Voluntary participation:
Your participation in this study is completely voluntary. There is no penalty for not
participating.
Right to withdraw from the study:
You have the right to withdraw from the study at anytime without consequence.
Whom to contact if you have questions about the study:
Alena Prikhidko, Doctoral Student University of Florida, School of Human
Development and Organizational Studies in Education, 1215 Norman Hall, PO Box
IRB02 Office, Box 112250, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611-2250;
phone 392-0433.
Agreement:
I have read the procedure described above. I voluntarily agree to participate in
the procedure.
I agree to participate______
I disagree to participate____
110
APPENDIX H LETTER TO PRINCIPALS
A Letter to the Preschool Principal
Dear Mrs./Mr._________________
I am a doctoral student at the University of Florida. And I am a mother of a child,
who had recently been a toddler. I am sure you know better than me how difficult it is
sometimes for mothers to juggle all their responsibilities and how easy it is to get tired
and upset with your toddler, when he or she throws a tantrum or misbehaves in any
fashion. I am a specialist in emotion regulation and currently I am doing a research on
emotion regulation among mothers of toddlers! I am giving all my study participants free
webinar on emotion regulation, which mothers love and say it helped them a lot! So I
was wondering if you could help me to help mothers asking them to participate in my
study! It will take approximately 15 minutes, but as an incentive they will receive
invaluable knowledge on emotion regulation, which will not only help them, but in the
long run will help their children! As mothers show an example of emotional self-control
and children socialize emotionally through observing their mothers behavior!
I will be waiting for your response.
Let’s help mother together!
Have a Wonderful Day,
Alena Prikhidko
Doctoral Candidate,
Teaching Assistant, College of Education
University of Florida
111
APPENDIX I LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS
Dear____________!
I am a mother of a child, who had recently been a toddler. I am sure you know
better than me how difficult it is sometimes for mothers – us - to juggle all the
responsibilities and how easy it is to get tired and upset with your toddler, when he or
she throws a tantrum or misbehaves in any fashion. I am a specialist in emotion
regulation and currently I am doing a research on emotion regulation among mothers of
toddlers! I am giving all my study participants free webinar on emotion regulation, which
mothers love and say it helped them a lot. So I was wondering if you could help me to
help all of us and participate in my study. It will take approximately 15 minutes, but as
an incentive you will receive invaluable knowledge on emotion regulation, which will not
only help you, but in the long run will help your children. As mothers show an example
of emotional self-control and children socialize emotionally through observing our
behavior.
I will be waiting for your response!
Have a Wonderful Day,
Alena Prikhidko
Doctoral Candidate,
Teaching Assistant, College of Education
University of Florida
112
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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH
Alena Prikhidko is from Moscow, Russia. She graduated with a doctoral degree
in the College of Education at the University of Florida, and specializes in Marriage and
Family Counseling. Her research interests include emotion regulation, emotion
socialization, ethics in counseling, and counselor development. Alena is involved in
leadership within the Florida Counseling Association and actively promotes ethical
counseling practice in her home country of Russia. With the support of her Russian
colleagues, she has launched a social movement against violence towards children and