© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Heritage of Physical Education, Sport, and Fitness in the United States. HPHE.

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Chapter 2:Chapter 2:The Heritage of Physical Education, Sport, The Heritage of Physical Education, Sport,

and Fitness in the United States.and Fitness in the United States.

HPHE 1500Dr. Ayers

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.22

Greece

(500 – 300 BC)

Roman Empire

(300 BCE – 476 BC)

Europe

UNITED STATES


The Greek influence (500-300 BC)

Male dominated society; only men had access to education.

Physical prowess was much sought after; games key part of life. Physical training and sport also prepared military for defense against outside intruders.

Sparta (a military dominated city-state) typified the use of stringent selection of children for lifelong physical training.

Greeks were creators of philosophy, music, etc.


The Roman influence (300-476 BC)

Military training critical to conquering other civilizations.

Obedience, discipline, & physical prowess were key goals of military training.

Its sporting events mirrored what we see today: Entertainment, large venues, betting.

Women were less marginalized.

The empire’s demise also lessened the perceived importance of sport and fitness .

Romans were adopters of cultural practices.


Discussion QuestionDiscussion Question

1. How was the Roman influence different from the Greeks?


The Birth of a Profession - 1885

William G. Anderson noted the lack of support (i.e., preparation programs, literature) for

“gymnastics teachers” (aka, physical educators)

Organized the first ever professional meeting, that spawned the Association for the Advancement of Physical Education (n=60).


The pre-1885 Sport & fitness scene

1827 -First competitive football game

Some sample marquee developments: (see also Box 2.1)

1839 -First teacher training program founded

1851 -First YMCA in America (character edu & PA)

1848 -“Turnverein” club (German) formed

1859 -First intercollegiate baseball game

1825 -1st Physical Education teacher: Charles Beck

1837 -Catherine Beecher founded Western Female Inst


The pre-1885 Sport & fitness Context

Strong Puritan values prohibiting play & exercise

A young, conservative nation

Mid 1800s: Exercise & fitness become valued & commonly accepted . . . Yet Sport emerges later!

1879 - Dudley Sargent, Ast. Prof. @ Harvard

Sport played mostly in colleges – student driven


Context for an emerging Profession

Large-scale immigration to the new world.

Declining opposition to sport & exercise.

Urbanization (necessitated the dev’t of other acts).

Industrialization (produced wealth).

Transportation (rail) & communication (radio & TV).

Intellectual climate (e.g., Darwin, Freud, Marx).

Education – Free universal education for ALL.


Battle of the “Systems”

European climate=Nationalism & military preparation

Multiple approaches to formal Gymnastics hailed from Europe (e.g., Germany & Sweden).

Faculty Psychology=Perceived cognitive benefits of exercise

1889 Boston Conference Focus: Purposes of Physical Education and how to achieve these

Formal, prescribed exercises done in unison as group


Emergence of Organized Sport (late 1800’s)

Post-Civil War period: Sport games gradually become standardized (i.e., institutionalized) . . . They “come of age” (see list on pg. 33)

Two-way influence between Europe & USA in the emergence of different sports.

Women played key role in Sport’s emergence in the USA (e.g., Basketball and Volleyball).

1896: First Modern Olympic Games: P. de Coubertin proposes Olympism philosophy (edu program of peace & cultural understanding to unite modern world)


Sport on College Campuses

Rapid rise in men’s college sport (fr. 1850 to 1900)

Initially, mostly student driven (despite frequent opposition from faculty and administration)

As sport became more central, abuses increased which made faculty support and oversight necessary

Women’s intercollegiate sports were controlledby faculty from the start, ergo slower growth &fewer abuses.


Roots of abuse in College Sport

“Win at all cost” mentality (lack of gentleman class)

Absence of any sense of honor, fair play, and respect for rules (as taught to young British men in schools)

Abuse occurred relative to eligibility and athlete treatment by universities (pg. 36 example)

Examples: Playing for multiple colleges, getting paid to play.

NEEDED . . . FACULTY OVERSIGHTNEEDED . . . FACULTY OVERSIGHT


Faculty oversight of College Sport

Emergence of Athletic Conferences (e.g., Western Conference).

Increased institutional control over college sport.

Rules were made for eligibility, transfer of students, hiring and retaining coaches, etc.

Women’s college sport was overseen from the start, thus experienced fewer abuses (e.g., Blanche

Trilling forms Athl. Conf. of American College Women in 1917)


The New Physical Education

1891: Physical Education recognized as curricular field for schools (assoc w/ Education vs Medicine)

Thomas Wood argues Physical Education’s role toward complete education (pg. 37)

New agenda heavily promoted by:

T. Wood R. Cassidy C. Hetherington L. Gulick


Physical Education . . .The Profession

(1900 – 1920)

Embrace of other movements: Dance, Playgrounds, Camping, College Intramurals, &

Recreation

Emergence of a Sport culture.

1904: American Academy of Physical Education.

See Box 2.3 (pg. 39) for evolution of our organization


Physical Education: The Golden Age (Post-World War I)

USA comes out of WWI as an international power with a strong economy & an emerging middle class

Interest in sport grows rapidly (radio and cars aid this)

Continued discrimination against African- Americans results in formation of separate leagues


Which is it? . . .

“OF the Physical”

C.H. McCloy

“THROUGH the Physical” (represents the “New Physical Education”)

J.F. Williams

Development of the body for health

& skill

Contribute tomental, social, and emotionaldevelopment


Second-generation leaders (“through the Physical”)

Jay B. Nash (NYU)

Jesse Feiring Williams (Teachers College)

VS.Charles H. McCloy

The “OF” vs. “THROUGH” continues even today


Discussion QuestionDiscussion Question

What is education OF the physical versus THROUGH the physical?


The Science of Physical Education… Beginnings (1920’s)

Hitchcock & Sargent’s emphasis on measurement & prescriptive exercises based on test data establ. American gymnastic systems on science

Increased focus on Research was essential to ensuring legitimacy in Universities & Colleges

1930: Research Quarterly’s first issue published

1924: The first doctoral programs established


Access and Equity . . . Not such a Golden Age

Pioneer women in Physical Education: Delphine Hanna Ethel Perrin Jessie Bancroft Amy Morris Homans Elizabeth Burchenal Blanche Trilling

REMEMBER: Women not yet allowed to vote . . .


Access and Equity . . . Not such a Golden Age

Colleges that accepted black students: Springfield College Oberlin College Sargent School for Women

REMEMBER: African-Americans still lacked full constitutional rights…


Consolidation & Specialization (1930 – present)

APEA firmly established as THE umbrella org. for:-physical educators -recreationists-sport administrators -fitness experts-health educators

Status Quo

Battle between education OF/THROUGH the physical clearly won by THROUGH advocates

Physical education clearly established w/in education


1929 -Wall Street collapse >> the Great Depression

Cultural & Global Context (1930 – 1940)

Changes in economic and social systems, FDR 1932:1935-Social Security Act, and the Wagner Act (unions)Work Progress Administration (WPA): facility buildingCivilian Conservation Corps (CCC): opened campsNational Youth Administration (NYA): p-time work for HS Ss

Effects of World War I, Russian Revolution, and the Great Depression contribute to rise of Germany’s and Italy’s quest for expansion and influence . . . World War II (1939-1945)

Automobile, radio (and now TV) also influence the evolution of sport, fitness and physical education


Sport, Fitness, and Physical Education - The Depression Years

Significant cutbacks in funding for sport

Spectatorship drops, while participation increases (Softball)

Participation more democratized (across SES levels)

Federal & private programs boost participation (i.e., building of facilities and programs targeting youth – Little League Baseball)


APEA>>AAHPE’s membership actually increases throughout Depression

NEA institutes Physical Education Teacher Education program evaluation

AAHPE becomes department in NEA

1938: The Physical Education Curriculum (3-6 week block plan format)


Sport, Fitness, and Physical Education - World War II Years

WWII shifts focus back to physical fitness, including in-school Physical Education programs

War Training camps included extensive sport, fitness and recreation facilities and programs

War Years precipitated the research specialization in Physical Education that would explode in the 1960s as the Kinesiology discipline movement

Emergence of Adapted Physical Education


Sport, Fitness, and Physical Education - Post-World War II Years

Cultural & societal shifts: > Birth of “suburbs” (housing demands)> Higher education enrollment soars (G.I. Bill)> The Baby Boom

Expansion of Sport through the growth of spectator sports:

> Growth in the number of teams in professional sport> Golf becomes a sport for the general public> Olympics return in 1948 in London> Growth in collegiate sports, w/ increased media

coverage


School Physical Education in the post-war years: > Sports and games become more dominant> Emergence of “lifetime sports” in the curriculum> BUT . . . .

1954:> JOHPER: Minimum Muscular Fitness Tests in School

Children (Kraus & Hirschland, 1954) 60% USA failed

> President’s Council on Youth Fitness formed (1958)> Physical fitness focus renewed in school programs


Mid 1950’s and on

Social and cultural shifts: > Generational clashes in the 50’s and 60’s

> 1954 - “Brown v. Board of Education” (defeated sep but =)

> 1956 - Civil Rights movement – Rosa Parks, MLK, Jr.

> 1957 - Sputnik launch in USSR

Influence on Sport, Fitness and Physical Education?


More social and cultural shifts: > 1962-The Silent Spring (Carlson) (pesticides, chemicals)

> 1965-Consumer movement – Ralph Nader Unsafe @ Any Speed

> 1972-Title IX: Equal access to sport for girls & women

> 1975 – PL94-142 (rights of people w/ disabilities)


Explosion of women’s sport

Emergence of outdoor / wilderness sports

Racial integration in sports at all levels

Youth sports expand in both number of sports

and participants

Influence on Sport, Fitness and Physical Education?


Fitness Renaissance and the Aerobics Era

Fitness becomes “fashionable” in the 60’s and 70’s . . . the thing to do

Private sector grabs on to it (driven by economics)

Kenneth Cooper publishes Aerobics and established the Cooper Aerobics Institute (www.cooperinst.org)

Increasing scientific support for adopt & value a physically active lifestyle across entire population (AAHPERD major goal)


Physical Education since the 1950’s

Lifetime sports gain place in school programs

Cooperative games emerged as a counter-movement against the strong push for competition (Sputnik)

“Discipline of Physical Education” > Knowing as well as doing


New philosophies and approaches emerge:> Adventure Education > Movement Education (fr. England)> Social & Personal Responsibility Model (Hellison, 1984)> Sport Education (Siedentop, Hastie & van der Mars, 1994, 2004) > Teaching Games for Understanding (Almond, Bunker &

Thorpe, 1983)

Title IX . . . Opportunities and challenges:> More equal access for both boys and girls> Having to share budgets and facilities


Academic Discipline Movement

“ I suggest that there is an increasing need for the organization and study of the academic discipline herein called physical education.”

(Franklin Henry, 1964, p. 32)

Subdisciplines:Biomechanics Sport PsychologyKinesiology Sport SociologyMotor Control Sport HistoryMotor Learning Sport Philosophy

AAHPERD is the primary professional & academic organization (see Box 2.5, pg. 54)


Strong influence on the Physical Education curriculum in Colleges and Universities:

> Specialized Graduate programs emerge

> Knowledge gained via research becomes prominent in undergrad teacher preparation courses (i.e., courses in Ex. Phys, Motor Learning, Sport Psych, Biomechanics, etc.)

A backlash from Physical Education Teacher Education (PETE) leaders:

> Study of human movement vs. human movement itself and the development of teaching skills

> Recognized the need to engage in research on teaching-learning processes in school physical education


NAMES TO KNOW: William Anderson (organized 1st professional meeting of AAPE, became 1st Secretary of what is now AAHPERD)

Edward Hitchcock (1st President of AAPE, also Dir., Dept of Hygiene & Physical Culture @ Amherst College)

Dudley Sargent (founded 1st college dept of PE)

Springfield College, Oberlin College, Sargent Normal School of Physical Training (roots of PE)

Amy Morris Homans (Boston Conference)


NAMES TO KNOW2: Rosalind Cassidy (published The New Physical Education) Jay B. Nash (advocated “through” the physical)

Jesse Feiring Williams (advocated “through” the physical)

Thomas Wood (advocated “through” the physical)

Clark Hetherington (advocated “through” the physical)

C.H. McCloy (advocated “OF” the physical)


NAMES TO KNOW3: Delphine Hanna (developed 1st PETE program)

Luther Halsey Gulick (early foundational leader in PE)

Mabel Lee (1st female Pres. of APEA)


Find a Friend…Find a Friend…

What are three key things that you learned today?

What is something you had never heard of that matters to your future as a Physical

Educator?

© 2009 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved. Chapter 2: The Heritage of Physical Education, Sport, and Fitness in the United States. HPHE.

Documents

mcgrawhill higher education

physical education teacher

heritage of physical

physical prowess

lifelong physical training

sport fitness scene

physical educators

harvard sport