© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 5 Motivation at Work Learning Outcomes 1 Define motivation. 2 Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate.

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Chapter 5Motivation at Work

Lea

rnin

g O

utc

om

es

1 Define motivation.

2 Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

3 Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation.

4 Describe the two-factor theory of motivation.

5 Explain two new ideas in human motivation.

6 Describe the role of inequity in motivation.

7 Describe the expectancy theory of motivation.

8 Describe the cultural differences in motivation.


Learning Outcome

Define motivation.

1


Definition of Motivation

the process of arousing and sustaining

goal-directed behavior


MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES• Internal

– Suggest that variables within the individual give rise to motivation and behavior

– Example: Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory

• Process– Emphasize the nature of the interaction

between the individual and the environment– Example: Expectancy theory

• External– Focus on environmental elements to explain

behavior– Example: Two-factor theory

3 G

RO

UP

S


Early Philosophers

Max Weberwork contributes to salvation Protestant work ethic

Sigmund Freuddelve into the unconscious mind to better understand a person’s motives and needs

of Motivational Theories

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Max_Weber_1894.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Sigmund_Freud-loc.jpg


Early Philosophers

Adam Smith“enlightened” self-interest; that which is in the best interest and benefit to the individual and to other people

Frederick Taylorfounder of scientific management; emphasized cooperation between management and labor to enlarge company profits

of Motivational Theories

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0a/AdamSmith.jpg

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Frederick_Winslow_Taylor.JPG

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Physiological

Safety and Security

Love (Social)

Esteem

SA

Low

est t

o hi

ghes

t ord

er


Learning Outcome

Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

2


Motivational Theories X and Y

Theory X

A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are motivated by lower order needs

Theory Y

A set of assumptions of how to manage individuals who are motivated by higher order needs

Theories Applied to Needs Hierarchy

Physiological

Safety and Security

Love (Social)

Esteem

SA Theory Y – a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by higher order needs

Theory X – a set of assumptions of how to manage individuals motivated by lower order needs


McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory X

• Naturally indolent

• Lack ambition, dislike responsibility, and prefer to be led

• Inherently self-centered and indifferent to organizational needs

• Naturally resistant to change

• Gullible, not bright, ready dupes

Adapted from Table 5.1 which is from “The Human Side of Enterprise” by Douglas M. McGregor, reprinted from Management Review, November 1957. Copyright 1957 American Management Association International. Reprinted by permission of American Management Association International, New York, NY. All rights reserved. http://www.amanet.org.


McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory Y

• Passive and resistant behaviors not inherent; result of organizational experience

• People possess– Motivation – Development potential – Capacity for assuming responsibility – Readiness to direct behavior toward

organizational goals



McGregor’s Assumptions About People Based on Theory Y

Management’s task—arrange conditions and operational methods so people can achieve their own goals by directing efforts to organizational goals


OrganizationGoals

Individual Goals


Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Existence

Relatedness

Growth

Physiological

Safety and Security

Love (Social)

Esteem

SA


Learning Outcome

Discuss the needs for achievement, power, and affiliation.

3


McClelland’s Theory

3 main categories of needs

• Achievement• Power• Affiliation


McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Achievement

[Need for Achievement] a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns individuals’ issues of excellence, competition, challenging goals, persistence, and overcoming difficulties


McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Power

[Need for Power] a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to make an impact on others, influence others, change people or events, and make a difference in life


McClelland’s Need Theory:Need for Affiliation

[Need for Affiliation]

a manifest (easily perceived) need that concerns an individual’s need to establish and maintain warm, close, intimate relationships with other people

Self-actualization

3 Motivational Need TheoriesMaslow Alderfer McClelland

HigherOrderNeeds

LowerOrderNeeds

Esteem selfinterpersonal

Safety and Security interpersonal

physical

Need for Achievement

Need for Power

Relatedness Need for Affiliation

Existence

Growth

Belongingness(social and love)

Physiological

McGregor

Theory Y

Theory X


Learning Outcome

Describe the two-factor theory of motivation.

4


Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

• Hygiene factor • Motivation factor

Both are work conditions, but each addresses a different part of an employee’s experience


HYGIENE FACTOR

maintenance factor

contributes to employee’s feeling not dissatisfied

contributes to absence of complaints


Motivation Factor

job enrichment

leads to superior performance & effort

Motivation–Hygiene Theory

Hygiene factors avoid job dissatisfaction

• Company policy and administration

• Supervision• Interpersonal relations• Working conditions• Salary• Status• Security

SOURCE: Adapted from Frederick Herzberg, The Managerial Choice: To be Efficient or to Be Human . (Salt Lake City: Olympus, 1982). Reprinted by permission.

• Achievement• Achievement recognition • Work itself• Responsibility• Advancement• Growth

• Salary?

Motivation factors increase job satisfaction


Motivation–Hygiene Combinations

High M Low M

High H high motivation few complaints

low motivation few complaints

Low H high motivation many complaints

low motivation many complaints

(Motivation = M, Hygiene = H)


Questions on Herzberg’s Theory

• Is salary a hygiene or a motivational factor?

• What role do individual differences (age, sex, social status, education) play?

• What role do intrinsic job factors (work flow process) play?


Learning Outcome

Explain two new ideas in human motivation.

5


New Ideas : Eustress, Strength, Hope

• Eustress – healthy, normal stress

Opportunities

Challenges

Energy

Obstacles

Barriers

Frustration


New Ideas : Positive Energy and Full

EngagementManagement of Energy

Expend Energy

Build Positive Energy

Renewal and

Recovery


A recent study examined the effects of job demands, job control, and job social support on fatigue and intrinsic motivation among a sample group of 555 nurses.

The study found no correlation between job social support and fatigue, but higher levels of support produced elevated levels of intrinsic motivation regardless of job-demands and job-control levels.

Beyond the Book:Intrinsic Motivation


Learning Outcome

Describe the role of inequity in motivation.

6


Social Exchange & Equity Theory

• Equity theory focuses on individual–environment interaction

• Concerned with social processes

Individual–Organizational

• Organizational goals• Departmental objectives• Job tasks

• Physiological needs• Security needs• Physical needs

• Company status• Benefits• Income

• Developmental potential• Employee knowledge• Employee skills and

abilities

IndividualOrganization

Dem

ands

Con

trib

utio

ns

SOURCE: J. P. Campbell, M. D. Dunnette, E. E. Lawler, III. And K. E. Weick, Jr. Managerial Behavior. Performance and Effectiveness (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1970. Reproduced with permission from McGraw-Hill, Inc.

Exchange Relationship


Adam’s Theory of Inequity

Inequity – the situation in which a person perceives he or she is receiving less than he or she is giving, or is giving less than he or she is receiving

Positive Outcomes > OutcomesEquity Inputs Inputs

Equity Outcomes = Outcomes Inputs Inputs

Negative Outcomes < OutcomesEquity Inputs Inputs

Person Comparison other

Equity and Inequity at Work


Strategies for Resolution of Inequity

• Alter the person’s outcomes

• Alter the person’s inputs

• Alter the comparison other’s outputs

• Alter the comparison other’s inputs

• Change who is used as a comparison other

• Rationalize the inequity

• Leave the organizational situation


New Perspectives on Equity Theory

Equity Sensitive

I prefer an equity ratio equal to that of my comparison other


New Perspectives in Equity Theory

Benevolent

I am comfortable with an equity ratio less than that of my comparison other


New Perspectives on Equity Theory

Entitled

I am comfortable with an equity ratio greater than that of my comparison other


Learning Outcome

Describe the expectancy theory of motivation.

7


Expectancy Theory of Motivation:

Valence – value or importance placed on a particular reward

Expectancy – belief that effort leads to performance

Instrumentality – belief that performance is related to rewards

Key Constructs

Expectancy Model of Motivation

Performance RewardEffortEffort

Perceived effort –performance probability

Perceived effort –performance probability

Perceived value of reward

Perceived performance – reward probability

“What are my chances of getting the job done if I put forth the necessary effort?”

“What are my chances of getting the rewards I value if I satisfactorily complete the job?”

“What rewardsdo I value?”


3 Causes of Motivational Problems

• Belief that effort will not result in performance

• Belief that performance will not result in rewards

• The value a person places on, or the preference a person has for, certain rewards


Moral Maturity

the measure of a person’s cognitive moral

development


Moral Maturity

Morally mature people behave and act based

on universal ethical principles.

Morally immature people behave and act

based on egocentric motivations.


Learning Outcome

Describe the cultural differences in motivation.

8


Cultural Differences

• Motivational theories are culturally bound

• Research results differ among cultures

U.S. Results

Other Cultural Results

=


Ways to Motivate People

• Training

• Coaching

• Task assignments

• Rewards contingent on good performance

• Valued rewards available


Emily Williams, a volunteer at CCI, has helped to raise 180 dogs over the course of a decade.

Emily is an unpaid volunteer—love for dogs and disabled persons are her sole motivations to work with CCI.

Canine Companions for Independence provides trained assistance dogs for the disabled.

Beyond the Book:Volunteering and Motivation

© 2009 Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. Chapter 5 Motivation at Work Learning Outcomes 1 Define motivation. 2 Explain how Theory X and Theory Y relate.

Documents

cengage learning

factor theory of motivation

y theory x

higher order needs theory

lower order needs theory

higher order needs slide

lower order needs slide

behavior slide