Worlds3 lect ch13

Worlds Entangled, 1600–1750

Chapter 13

Economic and political effects of global commerce

• Transoceanic trade affected mercantile groups as well as nations, their rulers, and their people

• Increasing economic ties drew more markets into global trade

• Economic integration weakened some rulers while strengthening others

• Interruptions of trade could destabilize economies and political systems

• Extracting wealth: Mercantilism – Lucrative mining ventures in Spanish and

Portuguese New World colonies led other European powers to seek similar opportunities in the seventeenth century

• Extracting wealth: Mercantilism – Latecomers did not find mineral wealth but

instead used the fertile land to raise cash crops

• Crops included sugarcane, tobacco, indigo, and rice

• Negotiated with Indians to establish a fur trade

• Extracting wealth: Mercantilism – Sugar transformed the European diet– These adventures in the Americas led

Europeans to create a new economic philosophy—“mercantilism”

– Presumed the world’s wealth was fixed and that one country’s wealth came at another’s expense

• Extracting wealth: Mercantilism – These adventures in the Americas led

Europeans to create a new economic philosophy—“mercantilism” (cont’d)

– Assumed that colonies existed to generate wealth for the motherland

– Colonies were forbidden to trade with the motherland’s competitors

New colonies in the Americas

• Holland’s trading colonies – In 1621, formed the Dutch West India

Company to promote commerce in the Atlantic Ocean and promote participation in the slave trade

– The Dutch East India Company's colony on the North American Hudson River initiated a thriving fur trade with the Iroquois Indian Confederation

• Holland’s trading colonies – Never established an elaborate colonial

presence in the Americas, but were able to profit from an extensive carrying trade across the Atlantic Ocean

• Dutch were often referred to as “universal carriers”

• France’s fur-trading empire – French explored the St. Lawrence River valley

and the Great Lakes – In the early seventeenth century, Samuel de

Champlain founded the colony of New France in the St. Lawrence River valley

• With relatively few settlers, they established a thriving fur trade with Native Americans

• France’s fur-trading empire – French dependent on Indians for knowledge,

promoted a cultural sharing – This cooperative, not conquering, form of

colonization was unique

• England’s landed empire – Unlike the French, England’s colonists

established expansive agrarian settlements along the Atlantic seaboard of North America

• Relations with Indians more confrontational

– Protestant dissenters colonized New England • Fought brutal wars with Indians in the 1630s and

• England’s landed empire – Farther south, the Virginia Company fostered

the growth of a tobacco colony in the Chesapeake Bay

• English settlers battled and ultimately displaced Indians for most of the century

– Colonizing style based on land ownership

• The plantation complex in the Caribbean – The Portuguese sugarcane plantation model

was extended into the English and French possessions in the Caribbean

– Because of the earlier decimation of the Indian population, African slaves made up the vast majority of the islands' population

• The plantation complex in the Caribbean – Sugar was a “killing” crop

• It flourished in hot and humid climates that fostered diseases to which even Africans had no natural immunities

• European plantation owners rarely lived on their plantations, leaving managers to run them

– Managers tended to work slaves to death

• The plantation complex in the Caribbean – Sugar was a “killing” crop (cont’d)

– Sugar production included planting, harvesting, and manufacturing

– Rarely were slaves afforded proper housing and nutrition– The average life expectancy for a slave who survived the

Atlantic passage was three years

• Slaves resisted as they could – Few incidents of armed insurrection – More common form of resistance was flight

» Slaves founded sanctuary “maroon” communities in the island highlands

– Most common form of resistance was subterfuge in daily work

• No single colonial power dominated the Caribbean plantation complex

– The wealthiest colony was the French Saint-Domingue

Map 13.3 Caribbean Colonies, 1625–1763Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

The slave trade and Africa

• During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, two Africans for one European migrated to the Americas – Depopulated and destabilized much of Africa

• Capturing and shipping slaves – Europeans grafted onto an existing slave

system – Roughly 12 million slaves were shipped to

Atlantic ports from the 1440s to 1867

Map 13.4 The African Slave Trade, 1440–1867Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

• Capturing and shipping slaves – African-controlled commercial networks

responsible for the capture and transportation of slaves to the African coastal entrepôts

• In the Bight of Biafra, European slavers employed the traditional African practice of “pawnship”

– A trader's pawns (often family members) were held until the promised delivery of slaves was secured

– If deal not completed, pawns were sold into slavery as a replacement

– These deals were enforced by a secret male society called "Ekpe"

• Capturing and shipping slaves – Slaves were treated horribly

• Most died before leaving Africa – Left for long periods in filthy holding camps– Held in port, on slave vessels, for extended periods

• Slavery’s gender imbalance – Gender-ratio imbalances seen in Africa and

the Americas • European traders preferred males, and African

sellers desired women as domestic workers

• Slavery’s gender imbalance – Gender imbalance in the New World meant

little reproduction and a need for continued slave purchases to increase labor force

– Polygyny reinforced in Africa because of gender-ratio imbalance

– Dahomean women asserted more power and authority because of their numbers

• Queen mother, or kpojito, was one of the most powerful political forces in Dahomean court

• Africa’s new slave-supplying polities – African slavery practices led to changes

• Centralized polities • Shifted control of wealth from families with large

herds or land to families of urban slavers

– The Kongo Kingdom • Feuding to control the slave trade resulted in a

century of civil war after 1665 • Key to success was the presence of firearms and

gunpowder

• Africa’s new slave-supplying polities – The Kongo Kingdom (cont’d)

• Some leaders resisted European presence and demand for slaves

– Queen Nzinga held off Portuguese with diplomacy as well as guerilla warfare

– Christian visionary Dona Beatriz Kimpa tried to end the civil wars and reunify the kingdom

• Africa’s new slave-supplying polities – Oyo, Asante, and other groups

• Slave trade helped some merchants and warlords to consolidate and extend political power

• Certain mercantile groups in central and West Africa grew wealthier, especially the Asante

– Asante state displaced local political organizations – Long-distance trade networks fostered the growth of

strong state systems– Access to gold allowed them to acquire firearms

• Africa’s new slave-supplying polities – Oyo, Asante, and other groups (cont’d)

• Oyo Empire gained power through its army – Linked commercial networks in tropical rain forests to the

savanna areas to the north in West Africa

– Although the slave trade enriched and empowered some Africans, it cost Africa dearly

• The Atlantic commercial system shifted wealth from the countryside to urban areas

• Many areas suffered severe population loss

Asia in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries

• Europeans not as dominant in Asian trade networks; yet by 1750 parts of Asia were beginning to feel the power of the growing European military and economy

• The Dutch in Southeast Asia

• The Dutch in Southeast Asia- Chartered the Dutch East India Company

(VOC) in 1602 to challenge the Portuguese and Spanish influence in the Indian Ocean system • Because of Amsterdam’s financial strength, the

VOC was able to raise more capital than any of its European competitors

• The Dutch in Southeast Asia• VOC goal was to achieve trade monopolies

- In the 1620s, seized the Javanese city of Jakarta (renamed Batavia) and the nutmeg-producing islands known as Banda to monopolize the nutmeg trade

- Capture the cities of Melaka and Banten in an effort to control the entire spice trade in Southeast Asia

- Chinese and English merchants continued to compete with the VOC, so it never achieved the monopoly it sought

• The Dutch in Southeast Asia• Since there was no demand for European

products, the VOC became involved in inter-Asian trade such as sending textiles from India or copper from Japan to markets in Southeast Asia

• Old cosmopolitan Asian cities were eclipsed by new European outposts

• Transformations in Islam - The Safavid Empire

• Foundered in the eighteenth century for several reasons - Weak rulers allowed chaos to emerge - Afghan warriors attacked and invaded the empire

• Transformations in Islam - The Ottoman Empire

• Slowing of territorial expansion in the seventeenth century concerned intellectuals who believed the empire was in decline

• A succession of weak rulers created a sense of crisis

• Transformations in Islam - The Ottoman Empire (cont’d)

• The inflow of American silver into Ottoman commercial networks destabilized the empire- Merchants increasingly defied commercial regulations

and traded commodities such as wheat, copper, and wool to Europeans for silver

- Trade in silver reduced the amount of goods available in the Ottoman Empire

Map 13.1 Trade in Silver and Other Commodities, 1650–1750Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

• Transformations in Islam - The Ottoman Empire (cont’d)

- Trade in silver reduced the amount of goods available in the Ottoman Empire

- Illegal trade did not enrich the imperial coffers; the government resorted to deficit spending

- Deficits, shortages, and the inflow of silver sparked inflation Breakaway regimes emerged

• Transformations in Islam - The Mamluks in Ottoman Egypt

• Biggest threat to Ottoman Empire was from the Mamluks in Egypt

• Egypt wealthiest region of empire • Mamluks were military men who had ruled Egypt

for Ottomans, gained great strength

• Transformations in Islam - The Ottoman's Koprulu reforms

• Financial reforms• Instigated by the Koprulu family, who controlled

the office of grand vizier• Arrested financial difficulties in the middle of the

seventeenth century

• Transformations in Islam - The Ottoman's Koprulu reforms (cont’d)

• Led to renewed zeal against European Christians, threatened central Europe - By the end of the seventeenth century, the Ottomans

had lost Hungary and talk of decline began again

• Transformations in Islam - The Mughal Empire

• Continued to expand its territory in the Indian subcontinent

• By the end of the seventeenth century, the dynasty found it increasingly difficult to rule effectively over such a large and diverse realm

• Transformations in Islam - The Mughal Empire (cont’d)

• Encouraged foreign commerce, but never opted to become a naval power or expand its territory overseas - In the seventeenth century, the empire prospered as

European demand for Indian products, especially cotton textiles, increased dramatically

- Imported silver fueled economic growth

• Transformations in Islam - Local autonomy in Mughal India

• Under Aurangzeb (1658–1707), the Mughals fought to expand their territory in southern India, which drained the treasury - Faced fierce resistance - Aurangzeb raised taxes and imposed additional taxes

on non-Muslims

• Transformations in Islam - Local autonomy in Mughal India (cont’d)

• After Aurangzeb’s death a war of succession broke out- Widespread revolts against central authority- Many regions achieved their independence or

autonomy

• Transformations in Islam - Local autonomy in Mughal India (cont’d)

• Private commercial enterprise - Local rulers welcomed European traders - The trading and banking empire Jagat Seth showed

how local wealth undercut imperial authority- On local levels India prospered and traded in the

international economy

• From Ming to Qing in China - Increased prosperity led to the splintering of

central control in Ming China during the seventeenth century • Merchants defied commercial regulations, robbing

the government of the profits of long-distance trade

Map 13.5 From Ming to Qing China, 1644–1760Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

• From Ming to Qing in China - Administrative problems

• Quality of Ming leadership declined in the sixteenth century

• Zhu Yijun, the Wanli emperor (1573–1620), avoided governing for years

• He and other emperors had little impact on the vast bureaucracy

• From Ming to Qing in China - Economic problems

• Pirates, officially labeled Japanese but quite often Chinese, constantly raided coastal ports

• Silver caused numerous problems - In times of influx, it caused inflation - In times of shortages, peasants scrambled to acquire

silver to pay their taxes; this dislocation often led to revolts

• From Ming to Qing in China - Economic problems (cont’d)

- An overall silver shortage in the 1630s and 1640s led to an economic slowdown and, correspondingly, to higher taxes

- The collapse of Ming authority • Economic problems hamstrung the government’s

ability to cope with natural disasters and food shortages in the early sixteenth century

• From Ming to Qing in China - The collapse of Ming authority (cont’d)

• Several formidable rebellions appeared- One led by Li Zicheng captured Beijing and ended the

Ming dynasty in 1644

- The Qing dynasty asserts control • Beneficiaries of the Ming collapse were the

Manchu

• From Ming to Qing in China - The Qing dynasty asserts control (cont’d)

• The Manchu formed the Qing (Pure) dynasty• By the end of the seventeenth century, it had

begun an impressive economic and territorial expansion

• From Ming to Qing in China - The Qing dynasty asserts control (cont’d)

• Flexibility and respect for local traditions allowed for early success- The Qing continued to rule under Confucian principles- Newly acquired territories in Tibet and Mongolia

retained their local administrative institutions

• From Ming to Qing in China - Expansion and trade under the Qing

• The Qing still carefully regulated long-distance trade

- The Qing revival reinforced the Chinese sense of cultural superiority

• Tokugawa Japan - Japan tended to deal with external pressures

better than its Asian counterparts - Unification of Japan

• In the sixteenth century, Japan was racked by civil war among various feudal warlords, or daimyo

Map 13.6 Tokugawa Japan, 1603–1867Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

• Tokugawa Japan - Unification of Japan (cont’d)

• At the end of the century, Toyotomi Hideyoshi emerged as the most powerful warlord

• On Hideyoshi’s death, another daimyo, Tokugawa Ieyasu, attained power- In 1603, took the title of shogun (military ruler in the

emperor’s name) and passed it to his son

• Tokugawa Japan - Unification of Japan (cont’d)

• The Tokugawa moved the administrative capital to Edo (modern-day Tokyo)

• Under Tokugawa, villages paid taxes to daimyo, who transferred resources to the shogun - Peace brought prosperity as farmers became more

productive and the government improved the infrastructure

• Population doubled in the seventeenth century

• Tokugawa Japan - Foreign affairs and foreigners

• The Tokugawa banned Christianity and expelled all missionaries

• The Tokugawa limited trade to Dutch merchants, who were allowed to remain at a small island near Nagasaki and unload just one ship per year

• Tokugawa Japan - Foreign affairs and foreigners (cont’d)

• The Tokugawa did not completely isolate Japan- Trade flourished between China and Japan - The shoguns gathered reports and publications from

Chinese and Dutch emissaries - Much of the periphery of the empire escaped close

supervision

• Tokugawa Japan - Foreign affairs and foreigners (cont’d)

• The regime tried to create buffer zones between Japan and other powers - Ryūkyūs in the south- Ezo in the north

• This carefully regulated interaction helped build the dynasty by limiting domestic upheavals brought on by greater contact, as in the cases of Ming China and Mughal India

Transformations in Europe

• Expansion and dynastic change in Russia – Russian Empire became the world's largest-

ever state – Muscovy becomes the Russian Empire

• After 1480, the Muscovy state expanded rapidly across north central and northeast Eurasia

• Expanded trade networks helped consolidate a powerful political order

• Named Russian Empire by Peter the Great around 1700

Map 13.7 Russian Expansion, 1462–1795Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

• Expansion and dynastic change in Russia – Muscovy becomes the Russian Empire

(cont’d)• Expansion into the steppes eliminated attacks from

descendants of the Mongols • Trade enhanced government coffers

– Internal feuding plagued the regime in the sixteenth century

• Expansion and dynastic change in Russia – In 1613, the crown passed to the Romanov

dynasty, which retained control into the twentieth century

• Absolutist government and serfdom – Romanovs centered as much power as

possible in their own hands – Nobles forced to serve as bureaucrats

• Absolutist government and serfdom – Peasants became the serfs of nobles to

sustain the crown and the nobility’s wealth

• Imperial expansion and migration – Three factors key to empire building

• Conquest of Siberia • Incorporation of Ukraine

• Imperial expansion and migration – Three factors key to empire building (cont’d)

• Victory in war with Sweden – Achieved by Peter the Great – Followed Swedish-style bureaucracy

– After rule of Peter the Great, Russia continued to expand

• Imperial expansion and migration – Thousands of Russian natives immigrated into Siberia

in the eighteenth century, helping Russia consolidate an empire that stretched from the Baltic to the Pacific

• Economic and political fluctuations in western Europe– Economy of Europe continued to grow, but it was

affected by developments throughout the world and the Thirty Years’ War.

• Economic and political fluctuations in Western Europe– The Thirty Years’ War

• War between Protestant princes and the Habsburg Catholic emperor for religious predominance in central Europe

• Struggle for continental control between Catholic powers, namely the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs and the French

• Dutch sought independence from Spain so they could trade and worship as they liked

• Economic and political fluctuations in Western Europe– The Thirty Years’ War

• Cost was the lives of civilians and mercenary soldiers

• Ended with the Treaty of Westphalia signed in 1648

• Transformed war making in Europe – Enhanced the powers of larger, centralized states

• Economic and political fluctuations in Western Europe– The Thirty Years’ War (cont’d)

– Army became more professional – Weapons more standardized and efficient – War cost more and led to public debt

• Western European economies– Financing wars depended on taxing peasants

• Western European economies– Commercial expansion led to rising merchant

class willing to invest in new endeavors – Some countries, such as Spain, lost ground

because of rising military costs – Dutch mercantile class used advantages in

shipbuilding and financial practices to prosper

• Western European economies– England and France emerged as commercial

powerhouses in the seventeenth century • State set policies that promoted national business

and drove out competition – Navigation acts

• Western European economies– Economic development not limited to port

towns • Reforms and improvements in agriculture spurred

food production • England’s agriculture became more commercial

with “enclosure movement”

• Dynastic monarchies: France and England – European monarchs tried to centralize

authority during the seventeenth century – The French Bourbon dynasty strived toward

“absolute” rule, where the kings answered only to God

• Versailles symbolized their goal, as it served as a place where the nobility came to seek the benefits from the king and where the king could thus keep watch over the nobility

• Dynastic monarchies: France and England – The French Bourbon dynasty strived toward

“absolute” rule, where the kings answered only to God (cont’d)

• Other dynasties—the Habsburgs and the Romanovs, for example—tried to emulate the Bourbons

• No dynasty achieved “absolute” power despite their efforts

• Dynastic monarchies: France and England – England differed from France in that it allowed

women to rule in their own right • Parliament remained important because monarchs

needed commoners to raise funds

• Dynastic monarchies: France and England – In England, the Stuart dynasty’s efforts to

achieve absolute power provoked civil war with Parliament

• With the Glorious Revolution of 1688–1689, the Stuart kings agreed to rule in conjunction with Parliament, providing England’s nobility and merchant classes a permanent voice in public affairs

• Dynastic monarchies: France and England – These political struggles stimulated political

writing such as Thomas Hobbes’s Leviathan and John Locke’s Two Treatises of Civil Government

• Mercantilist wars – The ascendance of new powers such as

France and England intensified commercial rivalries

• In the eighteenth century, new mercantilist wars to control sea lanes and colonies emerged

• European powers accordingly built large navies

• Mercantilist wars – The ascendance of new powers such as

France and England intensified commercial rivalries (cont’d)

• These wars culminated in the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763), the first world conflict

– Fought in Europe, the Americas, and India – The British Empire was the clear winner with the most

lucrative overseas empire

Map 13.2 Colonies in North America, 1607–1763Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Conclusion

• Economic integration between 1500 and1650 unsettled the world. More and more people were drawn into long-distance commercial networks.

• These networks fostered further European colonization in the Americas and an explosion in the Atlantic slave trade, with diverse repercussions in Africa.

Conclusion

• In Afro-Eurasia, economic integration challenged the legitimacy of the Ottoman and Mughal Empires while contributing to the downfall of the Ming dynasty in China.

• Newer powers in England, Russia, and Japan were able to use this process to further consolidate and/or expand their power. But even in these new regimes, the pace of change was often unsettling.

WORLDS TOGETHER,

WORLDS APART

Robert Tignor, Jeremy Adelman, Stephen Aron,

Peter Brown, Benjamin Elman, Stephen Kotkin,

Xinru Liu, Suzanne Marchand, Holly Pittman,

Gyan Prakash, Brent Shaw and Michael Tsin.

Norton Art Slides

THIRD EDITION

Norton Art Slides

• Chapter 13

Worlds Entangled

1600–1750

Chapter OpenerWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Coffee drinkers at an Ottoman banquetWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

An English coffee houseWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Map 13.1 Trade in Silver and Other Commodities, 1650–1750Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Map 13.2 Colonies in North America, 1607–1763Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Woodlands IndiansWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Map 13.3 Caribbean Colonies, 1625–1763Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

The Fur TradeWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

TobaccoWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Slaves Cutting CaneWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Map 13.4 The African Slave Trade, 1440–1867Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

The Slave TradeWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

The Port of LoangoWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Attack on BantamWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Siege of ViennaWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Indian CottonWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

AurangzebWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

SilverWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Map 13.5 From Ming to Qing China, 1644–1760Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Qing Theater with Female ImpersonatorsWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

CantonWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Map 13.6 Tokugawa Japan, 1603–1867Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Edo in the RainWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Portuguese Arriving in JapanWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Map 13.7 Russian Expansion, 1462–1795Worlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Nenets HuntersWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Catherine the GreatWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

The Thirty Years’ WarWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Amsterdam Stock ExchangeWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

VersaillesWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

Queen Elizabeth of EnglandWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

ChronologyWorlds Together Worlds Apart, 3rd Edition

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THIRD EDITION

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