U.S. History to Reconstruction Unit 7 – The Federalist Era, 1789-1801.
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U.S. History to Reconstruction
Unit 7 – The Federalist Era, 1789-1801
Starting the New Government On April 16, 1789, George Washington was
unanimously elected president by the Electoral College John Adams was selected as the Vice President Many thought his inaugural speech on April 30 was too
reminiscent of the English monarchy speeches to Parliament
Congress had to decide how to formally address Washington: “His Most Benign Highness,” and other kingly titles
fortunately gave way to “Mr. President” Washington’s skilled use of symbols of power were
key to his presidential success Successfully conveyed faith in the existence of a strong
republic
Starting the New Government Congress established three executive
departments: Secretary of War – Henry Knox Secretary of State – Thomas Jefferson Secretary of the Treasury – Alexander Hamilton
Bill of Rights One of Congress’s first tasks was debate over the
constitutional amendments that several states had made a condition of ratification
Congress sent twelve perspective amendments to the states in September 1789
Ten were approved to become the national Bill of Rights in December 1791
Starting the New Government Judiciary Act of 1789
Created the federal court system of 13 courts Purpose was to enforce national laws on a state level John Jay was selected as Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court Hamilton Tariff (1789)
Created a 5% tariff on all imported goods Helped the manufacturing north but harmed agricultural
south Count of the American Population
Necessary for proper representation in the House Undertaken in 1790 Found the U.S. population to be just under 4 million
Washington’s Inauguration (April 30, 1789)
Rise of Political Parties Development of political parties during this
period Mainly due to the ambiguity of republican ideology Both believed in the future of the U.S. but different
on how to transform the country from an agrarian society to an international power
Federalists Later referred to as the Hamiltonians, included the
likes of Alexander Hamilton and John Admas Called for the rapid integration into world economy Distrusted common man Strong national institutions
Rise of Political Parties Republicans
Included Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Thomas Jefferson
Would later be referred to as the Jeffersonians Faith in white yeoman farmers With no government intrusion, they could retain
virtue and resist crass materialism New dynamic public opinion
Politicians focused on public opinion Average people no longer deferred to their social
“betters” Period of increasing political debates, enflamed by
growth of newspapers
Alexander Hamilton Secretary of the
Treasury (1789-1795)
Hamilton’s Plans Two of Washington’s cabinet members would show
the growing split taking place in the 1790s: Hamilton and Jefferson
Hamilton caused the first disagreement Occurred when he submitted to Congress the first of
several major policy statements in January 1790 Ardent proponent of U.S. economic development
through domestic manufacturing and overseas trade Believed that competitive self-interest, whether that of
an individual or nation, was the surest guide to behavior
Hamilton’s politics were profoundly conservative in that he did not trust the people’s wisdom or their purposes
Hamilton’s Plans Main concern was over U.S. debt
Total debt of $54 million with additional state debt of $25 million
80% of debt held by speculators Hamiliton’s First Report on Public Credit
(January 1790) Called for the U.S. government to assume the
responsibility for the remaining state war debts All debts were to be repaid at face value Creditors were to exchange their badly
depreciated securities at face value for new, interest-bearing government bonds
Hamilton’s Plans Hamilton hoped these measures would:
Stabilize government’s finances Establish its credit Build confidence in the new nation at home and
abroad Tie business and commercial interests firmly to
the new administration Funding securities at face value seemed to
benefit speculators Mainly northern businessmen Hamilton believed the speculators who took the
risks should reap the benefits
Hamilton’s Plans Those states who had paid their debts were
opposed to federal assumption of them Included Pennsylvania and Virginia
Other critics were fearful of growing federal power Included Jefferson and James Madison Did not want most of the country’s debt in hands of
speculators Money people would look to the federal government
for a return on investment and that would spur federal use of taxation powers
Congress supported Hamilton’s measures Part of it due to southerners swapping support for a
federal capitol in the south on the Potomac
Hamilton’s Plans Second Report on Public Credit (December 1790)
Called for the creation of a national bank It would be capable of handling the government’s
financial affairs and pooling private investment capital Included making loans and issuing financial notes and
currency Opposition came almost entirely from the South
Critics said the Constitution did not support such an entity
Felt the bank would serve the needs of the northern merchants far better than those of southern agrarians
Also the belief that the bank might “perpetuate a large monied interest” to run the country
Hamilton’s Plans Hamilton defended constitutionality through
doctrine of “implied powers” Meant that the government had the authority to
make any laws “necessary and proper” for exercising the powers specifically granted it by the Constitution
In February 1791, the First Bank of the United States was created with a 20 year charter
Washington signed the bill He followed Hamilton’s arguments regarding the
“implied powers” of the Constitution over Jefferson’s strict reading of it
Hamilton’s Plans People were fearful that Hamilton was
bringing corrupt British system to America Another recommendation in his Second
Report was the creation of excise taxes It proposed a series of excise taxes, including one
on the manufacture of distilled liquor (so-called “Whiskey Tax”)
Signaled government desire to use taxing power to increase revenue
Hamilton know that the power to tax and spend was the power to govern
Whiskey Tax became law in March 1791
Hamilton’s Plans Report on Manufacturing (December1791)
Called for tariffs on imported European goods in order to protect American industries
Bounties to encourage the expansion of commercial agriculture
A network of federally sponsored internal improvements which were intended to stimulate commerce and bind the nation together
Opposition: Madison warned that program would strengthen
federal government at state expense Jefferson warned that the rise of cities would
destroy agriculture and agrarian civic virtue Southerners opposed to protective tariffs
Congress refused to pass these recommendations
Hamilton’s Plans In October 1791, opponents of Hamilton in
Congress establish a newspaper that vigorously attacked the administration’s policies Hamilton responded with a bunch of anonymous
articles accusing Jefferson (inaccurately) of having opposed the Constitution and of fomenting opposition to the government
Washington pleaded for restraint In northern towns, artisans and other working
people turned out to support Hamilton’s ideas
First Bank of the United States
The Whiskey Rebellion Whiskey Rebellion
Started by farmers in western Pennsylvania Upset at the federal government especially at the
Whiskey Tax Their livelihood depended on the transport of
surplus grain in the form of distilled alcohol This made it easier to ship over the Appalachians to
eastern markets Fearful of losing control over local affairs
They were being increasingly absorbed into the market economy and system of politics dominated by more populous, commercialized areas to the east
The Whiskey Rebellion Hamilton cared little about the farmers plight since
the government needed the revenue In the summer of 1792, angry citizens began
gathering at mass meetings across western Pennsylvania Denounced the tax and vowed to prevent its collection Washington issued a proclamation warning against such
“unlawful” gatherings In July 1794, a federal marshal and a local excise
inspector attempted to collect the tax 500 armed men cornered soldiers at the inspector’s
home Soldiers surrendered after an exchange of fire and the
home was burned Similar incidents occurred across the state
The Whiskey Rebellion Republican governor refused to act
Federalists interpreted as Republican conspiracy Washington called federal troops to restore order
He was fearful of an extended rebellion First opportunity to exercise federal authority
By late August, a federal force of 13,000 marched into western Pennsylvania As troops approached, “Whiskey Rebels” disappeared Twenty were captured and two sentenced to death
though they were later pardoned Afterwards there were harsh criticisms about
federal troops being used against American citizens
George Washington leading troops against the Whiskey Rebellion
Battle Over Foreign Affairs Foreign policy generated extraordinary
excitement during the 1790s French Revolution and European war that
accompanied it threatened to draw the U.S. in Age of democratic revolution
In Europe, Ireland, and the Caribbean, political insurgents were using the American Revolution as an inspiration for their own cause
France’s revolution began in 1789 as an effort to reform the injustices of a weakened monarchy Soon exploded into a radical rebellion with the
beheading of Louis XVI in 1793
Battle Over Foreign Affairs For more than a decade the revolution
dominated the stage in European politics Threatened American security Divided Americans deeply Created a huge diplomatic problem for the
American government French Revolutionary Wars shaped U.S.
political divisions Jeffersonian Republicans
Favored France States’ rights Strict interpretation of the Constitution
Battle Over Foreign Affairs Hamiltonian Federalists
Favored England Strong central government and economic planning Maintenance of order by federal troops
The decision was made to remain neutral in the war
By mid-1790s, American merchants were earning handsome profits from neutral trade with both England and France American shipbuilding was booming In 1800, American ships carried 92 percent of all
commerce between U.S. and Europe
Battle Over Foreign Affairs England and France wanted American goods but
also wanted to prevent goods from reaching the other Stopped American ships and confiscated their cargoes Royal Navy also practiced impressment French Treaty of 1778 seemed to obligate U.S. to side
with France British still occupied Ohio River Valley
Discriminated against American trade Franco-British War broke out in 1793
England violated American sovereignty and neutrality on high seas
Jefferson wanted to punish England by cutting off trade Hamilton wanted to appease England because too
strong
Battle Over Foreign Affairs The American public initially viewed French
Revolution as an extension of their own struggle for liberty By the mid-1790s many Americans pulled back in alarm
Federalists saw France as symbolizing anarchy and threatening European order Often seeking a way to bind the U.S. more closely to
England Others, including Jefferson, condemned the
excesses of the revolution but not the revolution itself Often saw England as a bastion of political privilege and
oppression
Battle Over Foreign Affairs Rebellions broke out throughout Europe
Supported by invading armies from France and inspired by the doctrine of natural rights
In 1791 a multi racial coalition rebelled against French rule in Saint-Dominque Conflict developed between white landowners,
mixed-race mulattoes and black slaves Led to a decade of warfare against 30,000 French
and British troops, 100,000 casualties and the devastation of the Haitian economy
Battle Over Foreign Affairs In 1798, the black majority, led by Toussaint
L’Ouverture, seized control of the revolt Made abolition of slavery the primary goal Six years later established Haiti as the first black
nation-state in the Americas For Americans, Haitian revolt demonstrated the
universal relevance of U.S. struggle for liberty It struck a blow against European colonialism in the
New World However, feared the effect of the rebellion on American
slaves Also cast doubt on racial assumptions that blacks could
not comprehend the true meaning of liberty U.S. did not recognize Haiti until the American Civil War
Toussaint Louverture (1743-1803)
Democrat-Republican Societies Political clubs served as tools of democratic
reform Provided safe havens for dissidents and intellectuals The Jacobin clubs in France were the most famous, but
similar organizations appeared in the United States As early as 1792, “constitutional societies” were
formed to oversee the rights of the people Some formed in opposition to Hamilton’s financial
program The increase in these clubs was spurred in 1793
by the arrival of Citizen Edmund Genêt, French minister to the United States Genêt had instructions to court popular support and
negotiate a commercial treaty
Democrat-Republican Societies Genêt began commissioning American
privateers to attack British shipping in the Caribbean Also enlisted Americans for attacks against
Spanish Florida, which would break American neutrality
When he urged Congress to reject Washington’s Neutrality Proclamation, Washington demanded he be recalled Genêt succeeded in fanning popular enthusiasm
for France
Democrat-Republican Societies Forty popular societies sprang up in the next few
years Working people made up bulk of membership Included Irish fleeing from British repression at home Leaders were often doctors, tradesmen and lawyers Organized public celebrations, issued addresses and
sent petitions critical of the administration West of Appalachians, societies agitated against
English control of frontier forts and against Spain for closing the Mississippi Everywhere protested Excise Tax, opposed overtures
to England, and called for a press free of Federalist control
Jay Treaty of 1974
Jay Treaty of 1794 Alarmed by sinking relations with England,
President Washington dispatched Chief Justice John Jay to London in 1794 Purpose was to negotiate a number of
disagreements left over from the Revolutionary War Jay Treaty of 1794
British promised to withdraw from posts in the Great Lakes
Provide selective access to British West Indian ports Provide compensation to U.S. ship owners U.S. received most favored nation trading status Guaranteed payment of debt to Britain
Jay Treaty of 1794 Public was incensed despite administration claims
that this was the only way to avoid war with England Southerners were upset there was no compensation for
their lost slaves Westerners complained British were not evacuating
posts fast enough Merchants and sailors disliked Jay’s failure to stop
impressment or open West Indian trade Republicans and the press criticized Washington Demand for clarification of executive privilege in
national security affairs House demanded papers related to Jay’s mission Washington claimed right to withhold national security
secrets
Jay Treaty of 1794 Washington’s prestige muted criticism, but
bitter partisan division already entrenched Senate ratified treaty by a narrow margin British encouraged Indians to attack settlers
as they withdrew Battle of Fallen Timbers (1794)
U.S. army defeated alliance of Indian nations in Ohio
Treaty of Greenville (1794) Forced Indian removal from Ohio
British withdrew support from Indians, pulled back into Canada
Jay Treaty of 1794 Spain interpreted Jay’s Treaty as Anglo-
American alliance against Spain Treaty of San Lorenzo (1795)
Negotiated by Thomas Pinckney Spain recognized the U.S. boundaries under the
peace treaty 1783 and gave up all claims to U.S. territory
Gave free navigation of Mississippi and right to unload goods for transshipment at New Orleans for three years
Settled disputed border between Florida and U.S. Spanish ceased inciting Indians against settlers
By 1796 Jefferson quit as secretary of state and went into open opposition
Thomas Pinckney (1750-1828)
Election of 1796 Washington’s Farewell Address (September
1796) Deplored deepening political divisions Warned against entangling alliances with foreign
nations Announced he would not accept a third term Announcement timed to prevent Republican
organization of presidential campaign Presidential election of 1796 was narrowed to
Thomas Jefferson or John Adams Two very different men who had a great deal of
shared experiences in the Revolution and the creation of the government
Election of 1796 Adams was a committed Federalist
Believed in a vigorous national government Was appalled by the French Revolution Feared “excessive democracy”
Jefferson supported the Constitution but: Was alarmed by Hamilton’s financial program Viewed France’s revolution as a logical extension
of America’s struggle for freedom Hoped to expand democracy at home
Bitterly divisive election
Election of 1796 The Federalists were divided
Hamilton tried to push Pinckney over Adams Adams won the election by only three votes
Jefferson was to serve as his Vice President Adams was forced to accept people in his
cabinet that were not supportive Federalist Department heads more loyal to
Hamilton than Adams
Electoral College votes of 1796
War Crisis With France Adam’s first trial as president was caused by
French interference with American shipping in the Caribbean
Jay’s Treaty prompted France to treat U.S. as unfriendly nation Quasi-war developed with the French seizing U.S. ships
XYZ Affair An American delegation was sent to Paris French administrators (termed “X, Y, Z”) made it clear
that the success of the American mission depended on a loan to the French government and a huge bribe for themselves
Two of the commissioners sailed for home and one stayed under threat by Talleyrand of war if all three left
War Crisis With France Adams reported the “XYZ Affair” to Congress
Federalist congressmen saw this as an insult to American honor
Secretary of State Pickering urged a declaration of war Provoked anti-French outrage in U.S. Federalists attempted to crush Republicans by
branding as pro-French In May 1798, Congress called for a naval force
capable of defending the American coast against French attack
In July, it repealed the treaty of 1778 Also called for the formation of 10,000 man army
War Crisis With France Federalists began building up the army
Ostensible purpose: repel French invasion Actual intention: stifle internal opposition
Jeffersonians worried the army would be used against them
Adams was also worried when Hamilton was placed in charge of the army He issued only a few officer commissions thereby
preventing the army’s mobilization (the army can’t move without officers)
Hamilton sought declaration of war against France to begin operations against dissent Adams created navy, but refused to ask Congress
for war
Text of the Alien Friends Act (1798)
Alien and Sedition Acts Congress also sought to curb the flow of aliens
into the U.S. Fearful of foreign subversion and aware that the
many immigrants were active in the Jeffersonian opposition
Passed a series of laws in 1798 known as the Alien and Sedition Acts
Purpose to silence Republicans First civil liberties crisis
Naturalization Act 1798 Raised residency requirement for citizenship from
5 to 14 years Many immigrants supported the Republican party
Alien and Sedition Acts Alien Friends Act
Authorized the president to expel aliens whom he judged “dangerous to the peace and safety of the United States”
Investigations were launched that were intended to force foreigners to register with the government
Large numbers of foreigners left the country Alien Enemies Act
Gave the president the right to imprison or deport any aliens from hostile nations during times of war without any charges or appeals
Alien and Sedition Acts The Sedition Act
Made it punishable by fine and imprisonment for anyone to: Conspire in opposition to the government or aided
insurrections Write, print, utter or publish “any false, scandalous and
malicious writings…”against the government, Congress or the president
25 people were arrested under this act and 15 were indicted
Federalist appointees in federal courts enforced Sedition Act in absurd ways Republican Congressman Mathew Lyon arrested,
won re-election from jail
Alien and Sedition Acts Luther Baldwin
While drunk, commented that he did not care if the cannons in Newark firing to celebrate Adams presence, “fired thro’ his ass”
He was charged and convicted of sedition, was fined and sent to jail until both fines and court fees were paid
Jeffersonian Republicans made a field day of the Baldwin trial
David Brown set up a liberty pole in Dedham, MA The words “No Stamp Act, No Sedition Act, No Alien Bills,
No Land Tax, downfall to the Tyrants of America…” were placed on it
Convicted of sedition and forced to serve 18 months in jail
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions With little redress in the Federalist-dominated
Congress, Jeffersonians turned to the states for redress Saw Alien and Sedition Acts as dire threat to liberty Believed the states should have final say in
determining constitutionality of federal law Kentucky Resolutions (November 16, 1798)
Kentucky Assembly passed a resolution declaring the federal government had violated the Bill of Rights
Each state had the right to judge infractions and decide on the appropriate redress
Nullification (declaring a federal law invalid within a state’s borders) was the remedy for unconstitutional laws
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions Virginia Resolutions
Written by Madison, they were passed by the Virginia assembly the next month
Asserted that when the central government threatened the people’s liberties, states were bound to prevent it
Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions received little support outside of those two states Alien and Sedition Acts were not enforced in the South It illustrated popular opposition to the Federalist
program Purpose of resolutions: clarify differences between
Republicans and Federalists, not justify secession
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions By 1799 country seemed on the brink of war
between the Federalists and the Opposition In Virginia, the Assembly called for a reorganization of
the militia In Philadelphia, Federalist patrols walked the streets
to protect government officials from angry crowds President Adams smuggled arms into the White
House as a precaution Things calmed down when Adams broke with
Hamilton Word from France came that Talleyrand was willing to
negotiate Adams sent a new team to negotiate with France
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions Adams cabinet was enraged
Peace would undercut the Federalist war program which depended on the crisis for legitimacy
When Secretary of State Pickering refused to send the commissioners, Adams dismissed him and sent them anyway
Treaty of Mortefontaine (1800) No compensation for seized American ships 1778 treaties null and void French restrictions on U.S. commerce removed Created climate of trust between France and U.S.
Signing of the Treaty of Mortefontaine
“Revolution of 1800” As presidential election approached, the
Federalists were in disarray Going into the election they were charged with
exercising federal power unconstitutionally, suppressing political dissent, and threatening to use a federal army against American citizens
Plotted Adams defeat when he announced effort to be re-elected
Federalists lost, but Republicans Jefferson and Burr tied Both Republicans, each had 75 votes Adams had only 65 votes
“Revolution of 1800” The election was thrown into the House of
Representatives Hamilton and Federalists decided Jefferson better than Burr Jefferson was elected 10 states to 4 states on the 36th
ballot 12th Amendment
Designed to prevent a recurrence of such a crisis Provided for separate ballots for president and vice
president In Congress, the Federalists lost their majorities in
both the House and the Senate The election revealed the strong sectional
divisions in the country’s politics
“Revolution of 1800” Federalists
Dominated New England because of regional loyalty to Adams, area’s commercial ties with England, and fears that their opponents intended to import social revolution from France
Support was strongest among merchants, manufacturers and commercial farmers situated within easy reach of the coast
From Maryland south the Jeffersonians dominated The election was more evenly contested in the
middle states Election of 1800 one of the most important
Transfer of power from Federalists to Republicans achieved peacefully
Nation averted ideological civil war
Electoral College votes in 1800
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