Unit 4: Parent-Child relationships
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UNIT 4: PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPSChapter 9: Parenthood TodayChapter 10: Parents and ChildrearingChapter 11: Parent-Child Issues and Trends
CHAPTER 10: PARENTS AND CHILDREARING Overview
The transition to parenthood Parent-child relationships Parental roles
Parenting styles Family structure and parent-child relationships Parents, work, and child development Parenthood within the larger society
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD Many social scientists
consider the transition to parenthood to be one of the most significant events in life Some people don’t consider
couples a family until they become parents
Others view becoming parents as the final step to reaching adulthood
There are many adjustments couples have to make, both individually and as a couple, to successfully complete the transition to parenthood
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD The family life-cycle theory sees the transition to
parenthood as a major normative event An event that occurs naturally in the course of a person’s
life The family unit has several developmental tasks to
complete during the transition Need to adjust and accept a new member into the system The couple must alter their relationship as a couple to
make room for children The couple must make changes in the way they organize
their personal, family, and work routines to fit the new demands for child care
Also need to work through issues related to how they will raise the child, how the child will be cared for, what roles they will play as primary caregivers, and who else will be included in child care
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD Many couples experience
some decrease in marital satisfaction after the birth of a child
New parents reported that the change that bothered them most was the lack of time They complained of lack of time
for such activities as watching tv, sleeping, communicating with each other, having sex, and even going to the bathroom!
It takes a while to adjust to the additional time required to care for a child
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD The couple’s financial situation also changes
The addition of a new member of the family brings additional costs Some expenses occur immediately (food, clothing, etc.) Others occur in the near future (daycare) or distant future (university)
During parental leave, employment insurance doesn’t compensate for the entire wage that’s lost Typically only provides 55% of the person's salary
It is often difficult for some couples to make up the income lost during the first few years of a child’s life
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD Relationships undergo a major change at this stage
of the life cycle The transition to parenthood changes the couple’s
relationship with others in their family Parents become grandparents, and siblings become
aunts and uncles The couple’s new emphasis on family will affect
their relationships with friends as well Some relationships will be slow or resistant to change
One of the parents’ tasks is to work through these changes in the best possible manner for themselves and their child Can be one of the most challenging developmental
tasks of new parents
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD Relationships will also change if
one member of the couple decides to leave the work force for an extended period of time to provide child care Usually, it is the mother who takes
time out of her career to care for the children
This change in role can be positive or negative Seems to depend on the amount of
care giving provided by the father Situations where the father spent
more time caring for the child had higher martial satisfaction than those in which the father was less involved
THE TRANSITION TO PARENTHOOD Past research on the transition to parenthood
focused on the negative adjustments couples had to make when they became parents
More recent research has looked at the long-term satisfaction of couples After an initial disruption of marital satisfaction, most
couples seem to be happy and enjoy life as parents The best predictor of marital satisfaction during the
transition to parenthood is marital satisfaction before it
The better adjusted couples are prior to becoming parents, the better they are able to cope with the demands of parenthood
PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS A great deal of research
has been done on the attachment relationship between mother and infant
Attachment is the behaviours that represent the need of the infant to attain and maintain proximity and protection with an available and responsible caregiver
PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS Infant attachment to the primary caregiver,
usually the mother, is seen to be essential for normal child development
Erik Erikson saw socialization as a process that lasts a lifetime, beginning at birth and continuing into old age He identified 8 stages of human development, with
each involving a crisis brought on by the changing social situation
During infancy, the crisis faced is trust vs. mistrust Trust is developed when the infant’s needs are met How well the sense of trust is developed depends on
the quality of care the infant receives
PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS Research has focused on infants from 6 months
to 24 months of ago Used observation in the stranger situation to
assess the degree of infants’ psychological and biological attachment to their parents A stranger enters a room where an infant and the
parents are at play The infants’ reaction depends on the the degree
of attachment Securely attached infants head for their mothers
in a stressful situation (such as the entrance of a stranger)
Insecurely attached infants will either avoid or resist their parents in a stressful situation
PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS Attachment research has tended to
focus on the mother-infant bond Has almost completely ignored the
father-infant bond As fathers’ involvement in their
children’s lives became more apparent, the research has shifted
Studies found that fathers of secure infants were: More extroverted and agreeable Had higher levels of self esteem Had more positive marriages Had positive work and family boundaries Had work demands that didn't override
family commitments
PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS Recent research on attachment has focused on
the stability of attachment over time and how secure attachment affects social adaptation later in life Secure attachments are much more stable than
insecure ones Adults who had secure attachments are better
adjusted socially later in life Children who don’t have a secure attachment
may remain socially and emotionally underdeveloped into adulthood May have difficulty with trust, empathy, self-esteem,
and successful relationships for the rest of their lives
PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS Brain development research
has shown a connection between good parenting and optimal brain development
Children who receive language stimulation from their parents develop better language skills than those who do not
The emotional development of children during the first 6 years of life is dependent on strong parenting skills
PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS In the Early Years report, researchers emphasize the
importance of parental support in early learning New evidence on brain development supports what “good
mothering” has done for centuries: “Babies and young children need good nutrition, stimulation,
love, and responsive care” “mothering” is an inclusive term, as they believe that both
parents have a critical role to play in the optimal development of their children
PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS Children who don’t receive proper stimulation
during the early years may suffer from a deficit that is difficult to make up later in life
However, later intervention with good parenting skills can help improve the lives of all children There is not a “window of opportunity” that once
shut, is closed forever It’s important to remember that good parenting
needs to continue throughout children's lives to make a significant impact on their overall development Children who have had a difficult start in life are not
doomed forever, and good parenting can improve their circumstances later in life
PARENTAL ROLES In the past, the role of the parent
was different from what it is today Parents of the past relied on firm
disciplinary practices (often corporal punishment) and unquestioning obedience from their children due to the difficult times in which they lived
Today, parents use more democratic strategies including rational control, strong communication between parent and child, and high levels of affection in their parenting
PARENTAL ROLES Socializing children is one of the most
important tasks parents have The process of learning one’s culture and
acquiring one’s personality and personal values throughout life
There are 3 important aspects of socialization: How it affects the attitudes and behaviour of the
individual being socialized to social institutions and cultural norms
How the people who are doing the socialization affect the individual
The way in which the socialization takes place. In most societies, it is the function of the family.
PARENTAL ROLES Socialization is an ongoing process that
continues from birth to old age It does not end after childhood Parents socialize their children by influencing and
shaping their behaviour, and children socialize their parents in a similar manner
There are 2 preconditions for socialization: The child must have the physical capacity to learn The child lives in a society that has values, norms,
statuses, role, institutions, and a variety of social structures
If a child is missing any of these preconditions, then socialization is not possible
PARENTAL ROLES In every culture in the
world, women are the primary caregivers to children For many, parenting and
mothering are one and the same
But as more and more North American women stay in the work force after the birth of their children, they are no longer at home to be the sole caregiver
PARENTAL ROLES As the mother’s role changed, so has the father’s In the past, especially the 1950s and 1960s, the
father’s roles were that of breadwinner and head of the household
Today, couples have a more equal role to play in the family, and the head of the household is both parents
In a poll of Canadians in which they were asked if they agreed with the statement “The father of the family must be the master of his own house”… 42% agreed in 1983 26% agreed in 1992 5% agreed in 2000 Results were consistent across gender, age groups, marital
status, size of community lived in, and the region of the country
PARENTAL ROLES Changing ways of life in North
America have changed fathers’ involvement with their children Most participate in prenatal classes
with their wives and are present for the birth of their children
Most divorced fathers now have joint or sole custody of their children
However, parental roles still follow more traditional gender roles Fathers tend to do the more skilled
jobs, like playing with and educating their children
Mothers tend to do the less skilled jobs, like laundry, dishes, and feeding their children
PARENTAL ROLES Reasons for fathers’ more traditional roles in the
family include the fact that male and female roles are not considered to be interchangeable Society sees the mother as the principal parent
responsible for the family’s care Men often wait to be asked to help
PARENTAL ROLES Research focused on
single-parent families headed by females has given the impression that, in many families, there is no father figure This has been shown to be
untrue There is a father present in
78% of Canadian families Many Canadian children
benefit from the involvement of their fathers in their lives
PARENTAL ROLES Being close to their father can impact a
child’s: Happiness Life satisfaction Psychological well-being Intellectual development Educational and occupational success
Children with absent fathers have: Lower levels of academic achievement Are more likely to be delinquent or deviant Are more likely to drop out of school
PARENTAL ROLES Fathers and mother interact
differently with their children Fathers tend to be more
physically engaged and less emotional with their children
Play with fathers involves teamwork and games, with fathers stressing healthy competition, risk taking, and independence
This type of play helps children develop the ability to manage their emotions and to improve their intelligence and academic achievement
PARENTAL ROLES People are reconstructing the social image of
fatherhood Many fathers today understand that “a family
is a mother and father working together as a team” More focus on family and children, rather than
focusing entirely on career Some of this change comes from necessity
Most women with young children are now working and fathers have to spend more time parenting than before
PARENTAL ROLES Many authors argue that Canadian society
needs to change the ways that fathers are treated in order to better reflect fathers’ views of themselves as parents
Society is more accommodating of mothers than it is of fathers We maintain a culture of jokes that show fathers as
incompetent parents Many families find that the wife’s workplace is more
accommodating of the responsibilities that come with parenting than the husband’s workplace
Canadian society needs to offer more support to men who become more involved in parenting
PARENTAL ROLES Parents are the main agents of socialization for
their children’s gender roles Babies are socialized from the moment they
enter this world to be masculine or feminine Children see definitions of what it means to be
male or female all around them In books, on tv, in their neighbourhoods, and in their
own families
PARENTAL ROLES Children view the tasks performed by their
parents in the home and come to gender-based conclusions about who should perform which jobs
Parents encourage certain sex-role stereotyped behaviour through something as simple as: Buying toys Disciplining their children Responding to them when they are sick
PARENTING STYLES Families develop a shared view of the world,
and this shared view has an impact on parent-child relationships
Shared views consist of assumptions that families hold on the following: How the world inside and outside of family
boundaries is organized How members relate to one another How the family treats the environment
surrounding them
PARENTING STYLES Shared views provide a sense of meaning
and order for families, establishing a rationale for many of their functions, such as setting goals, making decisions, governing behaviour, and managing their resources
Views change over time as outside forces come to influence the family’s thinking Factors such as education, differing social or
work experiences, or a family crisis can change a family’ shared view
PARENTING STYLES The commonly held views of the family have
a direct impact on parenting and parent-child relationships
Parents who value career and work success highly will place a different value on family time and time with their individual children than those who place less value on work success May have a difficult time putting their personal
needs on hold to care for family members May not take the time to parent in a democratic
and nurturing manner May use punishment or coercion to get their
children to behave
PARENTING STYLES Parents who spend a
great deal of time with their children get to know them better and becomes more sensitive to their needs
Children who spend a great deal of time with their parents may also become more sensitive to their parents’ needs
PARENTING STYLES There are 3 basic styles of parenting: Authoritative
Characterized by warmth, support, acceptance, and indirect positive control of the children
Authoritarian Characterized by more parental control and use
of punishment Permissive
Characterized by few rules and by the children controlling family situations
PARENTING STYLES Children raised by authoritative parents…
Are better adjusted psychologically and have a better self-concept
Children raised by authoritarian parents… Feel rejected by their parents Tend to have more problems with psychological
adjustment Children raised by permissive parents who offer
warmth and encouragement… Are more irresponsible, impulsive, and immature
Children raised by permissive parents who are hostile or rejecting… Are more flighty, anxious, and emotionally
impoverished
PARENTING STYLES Optimum parenting provides a balance
between over-control and permissiveness Factors that inhibit parents from performing
authoritative parenting are: Economic hardship Marital behaviour Conflict between spouses regarding parenting
style Maternal antisocial behaviour Neighbourhood poverty
Using positive parenting techniques despite these risk factors can, however, reduce the impact of the risk factors
FAMILY STRUCTURE AND PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS Over 30 years ago, family structure was fairly
consistent across Canada Most families were intact, meaning both parents
were in their first marriage and they had biological or adopted children
Most single-parent families existed because of the death of a spouse
Family breakdowns did occur, but they were not as widespread as they are today
FAMILY STRUCTURE AND PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS In the past, over 90% of children were born
into a two-parent family Now, for several reasons, an increasing
number of children are born to single parents Children are also living in lone-parent
families at younger and younger ages In the 1960s, 25% of children were living in lone-
parent families by the age of 20 In the 1980s, this changed to 22% living in lone-
parent families by the age of 6 In the 1990s, 37% were living in lone-parent
families by the age of 4
FAMILY STRUCTURE AND PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS Previous research indicated that divorced
fathers saw their children infrequently, and their contact with them decreased over time
More recent research suggests that divorced fathers maintain frequent contact with their children
More recent research has also shown that more fathers of children born to single mothers are acknowledging their paternity by putting their name on the birth certificate
FAMILY STRUCTURE AND PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS The dynamics of a couple’s relationship has
an impact on their children’s development When a child is old enough to understand
intense marital conflict that is child-related and is not resolved in a constructive manner… There are direct negative effects on the child
Children who are exposed to conflict that’s resolved in a constructive, non-aggressive, and productive manner… Don’t suffer the same negative effects
FAMILY STRUCTURE AND PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS Couples who engage in constructive
conflicts may be able to parent better They are able to solve problems as a couple Provide good role models for their children
Couples who engage in destructive conflict with each other are more likely to use this method of solving conflicts with their children Can have long-lasting negative effects on
children May experience more tension in parent-child
relationships May reject their children and be hostile or
physically abusive toward them
PARENTS, WORK, AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT Most mothers of young children in Canada
today work at least part-time In the 1950s, only 8% of mothers went back to
work within 2 years of the birth of a child In the 1990s, that figure had increased to 57%
In Canada, these is a nationally funded maternity- and parental-leave system that allows parents access to employment insurance to support staying home to care for their infants At the end of the leave, 45-50% of women return
to work, while others are more likely to return at the end of 2 years
PARENTS, WORK, AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT Approximately 7-8% of people work from
home More prevalent among families with young
children (14.8%) The increase in home-based work has been
linked to the use of computers and related technologies
PARENTS, WORK, AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT There are clear advantages to working from
home, especially for families with young children: Different child-care arrangements Less time spent commuting More time with children More flexibility
But there are also disadvantages: Decreased social network Isolation from colleagues Interrupted work Inconsistent hours
PARENTS, WORK, AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT Working full-time or part-time has an impact on
the parents’ level of satisfaction concerning the amount of time they get to spend on their children Mothers who worked 20 hours per week were more
satisfied than those who worked more There are many ways that the parents’ work
situation can affect the parent-child relationship Parents who work in stressful environments may
bring that tension home with them Parents who work in situations where they see
children at risk (ex: police officers) may become more protective of their children
PARENTS, WORK, AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT Family time is an essential part of the optimal
development of a child But Canadian families are facing a time crunch Parents are having a hard time balancing work
and family demands Statistics show that today’s parents spend
less time with their children than any family surveyed in Statistics Canada since the survey began 60 years ago
PARENTS, WORK, AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT Parents who have little
free time devote less time to parenting their children They can’t provide as
much sensitive nurturing, intellectual stimulation, and consistent discipline to enable their children to reach their full potential
PARENTHOOD WITHIN THE LARGER SOCIETY The parent-child relationship exists within a
larger society with many outside influences including: Neighborhood and community Extended family and ethnic background Work situations Social networks Socio-economic status
Each of these factors provides a different influence on the relationship between parent and child
PARENTHOOD WITHIN THE LARGER SOCIETY Significant others are the people who make an
important contribution to the developing child’s life For infants and young children, parents are the
most significant others Individuals who come to be important are:
Siblings Aunts and uncles Grandparents Peers Teachers Athletes Celebrities Etc…
PARENTHOOD WITHIN THE LARGER SOCIETY Significant others affect children by what
they do and say, and the manner in which they do and say it
Influence developing children and their view of their future role in life Become children’s role models
PARENTHOOD WITHIN THE LARGER SOCIETY Reference groups are groups of people
with whom one identifies Children may see themselves as a member of a
team or club These reference groups act as standards
against which the child measures him/herself For most adolescents, peer groups become
the main reference group in their lives
PARENTHOOD WITHIN THE LARGER SOCIETY Socio-economic status has an impact in
many ways The higher the socio-economic status of the
family, the more control they have over many other influences in their lives Can choose to live in safer communities Can provide activities for their children
Parents who live in safer communities give their children more freedom, while those in unsafe communities may place more restrictions on their children
PARENTHOOD WITHIN THE LARGER SOCIETY Many recent immigrants experience conflict
between parenting styles and values in the system of the country they have left and those in Canada
Children tend to take on the values of a new country sooner than adult do Can be a source of conflict between parents and
children The greater the difference between cultures,
the more impact this will have on the family system and relationships between parents and children
PARENTHOOD WITHIN THE LARGER SOCIETY The parents’ social network also influences
their parenting Parents tend to spend time with other
parents to share common interests and concerns They can gain insights into parenting by viewing
other parents with their children and incorporate new techniques into their own parenting
When parents spend time with childless people, it has a different type of influence They may come to resent the time demands and
lack of freedom in caring for a young child
CARE OF CHILDREN BY OTHERS There has been a lot of research on the effects
of non-parental care on young children The quality of the parent-child relationship is the
key factor in determining the effects of non-parental care on child development Children who had a poor relationship with their
parents and spent substantial amount of non-parental caregivers were: More likely to develop insecure attachments with their
mothers More likely to develop heightened aggressiveness and non-
compliance during their preschool and early school years Children with a good relationship with their parents
did not suffer these ill effects
CARE OF CHILDREN BY OTHERS Most families don’t use public day-care
centers to tend their children Most use sitters, licensed in-home child care, or
relatives Grandparents are the most commonly used
relative, followed by aunts and uncles Parents who seek child care from their
relatives usually do so out of economic necessity When the cost of child care becomes too great,
they seek other forms of care
CARE OF CHILDREN BY OTHERS Day-care centers are used by 8% of families Licensed day-cares must have:
Trained staff Low staff-child ratios Flexible hours High-quality facilities Low turnover rates Parental involvement
Advocates claim that licensed day care must be available and accessible for all families Called universal day care
CARE OF CHILDREN BY OTHERS In Canada, there are not enough licensed
day-care spaces available As a nation, Canada needs to provide a
variety of child care situations for working parents to ensure that children have good-quality care, no matter what the parents’ work situation is
Providing effective support for parents has been shown in the research to also improve children’s chances for a successful future
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