Segment 2 Final Exam Review

Segment 2Final Exam Review

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Geologic Time

Huge sections of time are broken down into smaller groups of time:

Eons, Eras, Periods, and Epochs

Eon is the largest time block (kind of like what we would think of as years).

Era is a little less time (like months)

Period would be shorter time (like weeks)

Epochs are even shorter (like days)

(**No different then when we take years and divide them into months, weeks, and days.)

GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE:A visual display of the history (the age) of the Earth in the form of a scale

Geologic Time Scale

Fossils“Fossils are rocks that formed from the remnants

(what’s left) of once-living things. All living organisms, under the right conditions, can be

fossilized.”

Types of fossils include…

Molds Casts

An imprint of something that was once living.

When something is filled with sediment (rocks) and makes it look 3-D.

Petrification

When something is filled with atoms of rock material; this makes them very hard (rock). *Commonly found with wood.

Crystallization

When a living organism gets stuck in something sticky (like sap) the sap and the organism harden and get preserved.

FreezingAn organism gets frozen and the super cold temps prevent it from decaying; therefore preserving it.

Trace Fossils:The remains of an organism's activities but not of the organism itself.

EXAMPLES:-broken eggshells from a dinosaur's nest are trace fossils. -footprints from an organism-chewed section of a plant-”coprolites” fossilized dung or feces (meaning: poop)

There are two types of dating which geologists can use to make the timelines:

relative dating and absolute dating.

Relative dating does not give an exact age (in years) to rocks or geologic events…

Instead, relative dating puts the events in sequential order; the oldest

comes first, and all the rest of the events follow after, on the “relative

dating timeline”.

Example of relative dating (putting events in sequential order):

Since there weren’t scientists around during the formation of the Earth (or for any of the geologic history of Earth) they (scientists) need to rely on carefully recorded observations, so they can make assumptions about these things.

These types of assumptions are called principles, and in these cases, observations made by the scientific community, over time, have repeatedly supported the assumptions.

Geologic Assumptions:

1. Uniformitarianism2. The Principle of Superposition3. The Principle of Original Horizontality4. The Principle of Faunal Succession

What is the order?

More advanced dating techniques have allowed geologists to get more exact dates.

Absolute dating is the: The measurement of time in definite periods of time and is measured with something that gives

us a definite (exact) time.

It assigns specific dates to rocks and geologic events.

Radiometric dating:

Radioactive decay starts with only parent element (an unstable isotope). Because it's unstable, it will decay into a stable daughter element. The time it takes for half of the amount of parent element to decay is constant, (and known as half-life). After one half-life, half of the material is the parent element and the other half is more stable daughter element.

After another half life, one-fourth will be the parent element. As the substance keeps decaying, the amount of parent element will shrink, although it will never be completely gone. The substance would then mostly consist of the daughter element.

All rocks contain radioactive material that decays over time. The rate of radioactive decay allows scientists to establish the absolute age of a rock.** the most common radioactive element is carbon-14 found in all living organisms.

Scientists learn about Earth’s geological (the Earth itself) and biological (living things) history through evidence from rocks and fossils.

FOSSIL RECORD

A fossil record helps us to understand the past and why things are the way they are today.

Theory of evolution

“Life on Earth did not always look the same as it does today. Life has evolved” (changed / altered). “Evolution explains how new species of organisms arise or how existing organisms adapt to new conditions over time.”

Dinosaur Modern day bird

“An adaptation refers to a characteristic of an organism that allows it to survive in a particular environment. “

When an adaptation (a change) makes an organism more likely to survive and reproduce, the organism may pass the new adaptation on to its offspring (babies); organisms with the new adaptation will produce more babies than organisms that don’t have the new adaptation. This process called: natural selection is why some organisms with certain adaptations survive and others do not, depending on Earth's changing conditions.

Chemical evolution:The idea that the appearance of living systems (stuff) on Earth came

from non-living molecules.

Fossil evolution

Phylogeny is studying how different organisms (plants/animals/etc.) are connected (related) through evolution (change over time).

We use something called a “cladogram” to show (in an image/diagram) how one organism is related to another one.

Living fossils: Creatures that are very similar to species that lived long ago (without much change) are called “living fossils”.

Oceans:

EARTH… THE WATER WORLD

Water covers about 71 percent of Earth's surface

The distribution (how it is divided or broken up) of Earth's water is shown in the image below.

OCEAN BASINS:

***The image above is an interactive from: Lesson 1, Discover page 1, “water world” tab

OCEAN BASINS: The areas between land masses.

5 major ocean basins:1.2.3.4.5.

OCEAN BASINS:

The areas between land masses.

OCEAN BASINS:

Artic Ocean

OCEAN BASINS:

5 major ocean basins:1. Artic Ocean2. Indian Ocean3.4.5.

OCEAN BASINS:

5 major ocean basins:1. Artic Ocean2. Indian Ocean3. Pacific Ocean4.5.

OCEAN BASINS:

5 major ocean basins:1. Artic Ocean2. Indian Ocean3. Pacific Ocean4. Antarctica Ocean5.

OCEAN BASINS:

5 major ocean basins:1. Artic Ocean2. Indian Ocean3. Pacific Ocean4. Antarctica Ocean5. Atlantic Ocean

The ocean plays a major role in the water cycle.

All life on Earth depends on the ocean in some way. All water eventually flows into the ocean, where it evaporates and is

recycled by rain back onto land.

Formation of the Oceans

**Please view the video clip on the formation of the oceans, on “Discover pg. 1” under the “Formation of the Oceans” tab.

Ocean water is salt water containing a variety of salts. Salts in soils and rocks that are continually eroded from land cause the ocean's saltiness. Rivers and streams carry small amounts of salt to the ocean day after day. As the water in the ocean is evaporated by the sun in the water cycle, the salts get left behind. Therefore, in areas where there is a lot of evaporation, the ocean water is actually saltier.

The amount of salt in water is a measure of its salinity. Ocean salinity varies by climate. On average, salinity is about 3.5 percent. This means that 3.5 percent of all ocean water is made of salt. In areas with a high evaporation rate, the salinity is higher. When freshwater mixes with ocean water, such as where a river meets the ocean, the salinity is lower than normal.

Water with dissolved salts has a higher density than freshwater without dissolved salts.

Salty Water

The ocean temperature can vary (change) depending on the location (closer to the equator – warmer; closer to the poles – colder) OR it can vary depending on how deep the water is:

*Three main temperature zones (areas) in the ocean:

Surface Water

Thermocline

Deep Water

As it rises and sinks in the ocean, water circulates from bottom to top and back down again.

Cold water sinks Warm water rises

What things impact (or causes) water movement?

The movement of water depends on its density, which in turn depends on temperature and salinity.

Warm water is less dense than cold water. Saline (salt) water is denser than freshwater. Differences in temperature and the amount of dissolved solids within the water drive its circulation (cause water to move) from shallow to deep and back again.

This process is called thermohaline circulation.

Movement:

Ocean floor:Like the land we inhabit, the ocean floor is full of mountain ranges, valleys, and plains.

** Please do this interactive activity in lesson 1, under “Discover” page 2, “The Ocean floor” tab:

continent: The landmass surface where the water from the ocean meets at the shoreline.

The BEACH!

continental shelf: The edge of a continent where the water is relatively shallow.

continental slope: A sharp drop in depth where the ocean basin truly begins and the continental crust ends.

Looks like a half pipe ramp:

volcanic island arc: A line of volcanic islands caused by subduction and the melting of either oceanic or continental crust.

An arc, like the “golden arches”

abyss: The deepest portions of the ocean basin (abyss comes from the Greek word for “bottomless”), excluding ocean trenches.

mid-ocean ridge: A location where sea floor spreading occurs. The release of magma at these active volcanic sites forms new rocks and rows of mountains.

abyssal plain: A large, flat, and deep portion of the ocean surrounding either side of a mid ocean ridge.

guyot: A large, flat-topped underwater volcano.

ocean trench: An extremely deep portion of the ocean, similar to a canyon, formed during subduction. The deepest ocean trench is the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. It reaches a depth of about 11 kilometers.

seamount: An underwater mountain. If the mountain breaks the water surface, it is known as an island.

Surface Ocean Currents

Phytoplankton are microscopic plants at the bottom of the ocean food chain; all the other creatures in the sea depend on phytoplankton.

Phytoplankton are distributed by ocean currents and waves.

Currents cause movement of ocean water by a process called ocean circulation. The constant cycling of ocean water distributes nutrients and energy from the poles to the equator, and back again.

Without water circulation, organisms would quickly use up all of the nutrients at the ocean’s surface. But the nutrient supply (like phytoplankton) is replenished when nutrients that sink deeper into the ocean come back to the surface. The process by which nutrients and energy resurface is called upwelling.

Movement:

upwelling

Upwelling's bring the cold deep water up, cooling the air (environment) around it.

The exchange of heat between the ocean and the atmosphere causes changes in weather patterns.

EFFECTS ON THECLIMATE:

Upwelling water can change weather patterns in an area.

When upwelling currents are happening often they bring the cold water up therefore cooling the air. The closer you are to the water the more moderate your climate (it doesn’t drastically change as much as it does inland).

Remember that the ocean absorbs solar (heat) energy slowly and releases it slowly. So once the ocean water warms, it is slow to cool off; and vice-versa.

The ocean always releases (in the form of evaporation) water molecules which impact the air, therefore impacting our weather.

Solar (heat) energy is absorbed by the ocean and warms the water surface slowly.

Solar (heat) energy is lost very slowly because water holds onto the energy.

The exchange of heat between the ocean and the atmosphere causes changes in weather patterns.

We’ve learned so far that the movement of ocean water occurs due to:1. 2.

We’ve learned so far that the movement of ocean water occurs due to:1. The amount of salt in the water2. The temperature of the water

The amount of salt in the water:

The more salt in the water the denser it is, causing it to sink (move).

The temperature of the water:

Warm water rises and cold water sinks.

Deep Ocean Currents

Density Currents:

To most of us, when we think of density we usually think of how heavy something is. The more mass that an abject has the more dense it is, so the heavier it is.

Density currents have more mass and are therefore pulled toward the ocean bottom by gravity.

REMEMBER: Water density is largely affected by temperature and salinity (the amount of salt), so water which is very cold or higher in salt content sinks deep beneath the surface.

Wind and the Coriolis Effect

Wind changes directions, when moving, do to the movement of the Earth.

Coriolis Effect

Lesson 2, Discover page 1, under the “Coriolis Effect” tab.

1. Air always moves for a high pressure area to a low pressure area.2. The Earth is curved and the sun hits areas on the Earth different; so it warms

them different.3. Warm air rises and cold air sinks (cold air is more dense). So the warm air

from the equator rises, and the cold air from the poles sinks.4. The Earth is rotating (so we get night and day), but was it does it deflects the

air.5. Air actually moves in specific areas (globally) but to you and I (locally) it moves

all over.

Coriolis Effect broken down… the basics!

We’ve learned so far that the movement of ocean water occurs due to:1. 2. 3.

We’ve learned so far that the movement of ocean water occurs due to:1. The amount of salt in the water2. The temperature of the water3. The Coriolis Effect (the effects of the Earth’s movement)

Wind The winds closest to the surface of the Earth affect the ocean water.

Currents that are formed as a result of the wind above them are called: wind-driven currents.

A wind’s strength and the length of time that it blows determine the strength and direction of a surface current. Because winds are deflected by the Coriolis effect, surface currents follow the same pattern.

Things move from:

high lowAND

cold warm

Land and Sea Breezes

Ocean temperatures influence the strength and direction of winds.

Remember that when the temperature is warm in one location it will rise, so the cooler air will move in to replace it; these changes (the movement) creates winds. During the day the movement is in one direction and at night the opposite. Please see the interactive on the Discover page 2, “Land and Sea Breezes” tab.

We’ve learned so far that the movement of ocean water occurs due to:1. 2. 3.4.

We’ve learned so far that the movement of ocean water occurs due to:1. The amount of salt in the water2. The temperature of the water3. The Coriolis Effect (the effects of the Earth’s movement)4. Surface wind

What is a wave?This continuous and repetitive transmission of energy from one location to the next is called a wave.

A surface wave (in the ocean) is a repetitive disturbance in the water that repeats itself in a pattern.

Medium: What the energy travels across/through/over/under (EX: Like a car traveling on a road.)

What are the parts of a wave?

Trough

WavelengthCrest

Wavelength

Trough

Amplitude

Wave: A transfer of energy from one point to the next. One complete wave includes the crest and trough.

Crest: The highest point in the wave.

Trough: The lowest point in the wave.

Wavelength: The distance from one crest to another crest or from one trough to another trough. Wavelength is symbolized as the lowercase Greek letter lambda.

Frequency: The time for successive crests or troughs to pass (or vibrate through) a given location. Frequency is a measure of the wave’s vibration.

Equilibrium: The point in the middle of a successive trough and crest.

Amplitude: The height of a wave from the point of equilibrium to the crest or trough of the wave.

The wind blows

Energy (kinetic energy) transferred to the water

Friction (between the wind and water) causes the water to move.

The stronger and longer the wind blows; the stronger and larger the wave.

A wave is the movement of energy through the water. Although a wave appears to carry water to the shore, in actuality the actual water itself is not moving far. That's how surfers can bob along in the water waiting for a breaking wave.

Wave height determines the size of a wave.

The larger the wave the faster up and down the surfer moves.

Frequency: - describes how many oscillations a wave completes in a period of time.

(How often we go from crest to crest to crest.)

Very frequent; many crests (high frequency)

Few crests (low frequency)

The stronger the wind, the more frequent the waves; the faster the surfer appears to move.

The weaker the wind, the less frequent the waves; the slower the surfer appears to move.

TYPES OF WAVES

As a wave approaches (gets close to) the coast, the shape and slope (angle of the wave) of the shoreline region (area)

determines the type of wave that forms.

Waves “break” when the speed of the wave changes as it reaches shallower coastal regions (beach areas).

Waves are slowed by friction (rubbing against the ocean floor) as the water becomes shallower.

Once a wave gets close to the shore, the top of the wave keeps moving forward even though the bottom part slows down

because it is rubbing against the bottom. The top part of the wave lifts up over the bottom part. If it lifts

high enough, the top part rolls over and crashes back down, and the wave “breaks.”

As waves break, they create a foamy layer of bubbling water, known as surf.

TYPES OF WAVES

REMEMBER: Once a wave gets close to the shore, the top of the wave keeps moving forward even though the bottom part slows down because it is rubbing

against the bottom.

TYPES OF WAVES

against the bottom.

TYPES OF WAVES

against the bottom.

ErosionAs waves crash onto a shoreline, small bits of rock are slowly worn away, creating sediments (little tiny pieces of rock/shells/etc.).

http://seaviewfireisland.com/seaview-erosion.html

An erosional shoreline may contain the following features:

Sea Cliff: A wall of rock, carved by the action of waves on a shoreline.

Sea Stack: An exposed island of rock that is a remnant of a former rocky beach area, now completely surrounded by water.

Sea Cave: A cave that is carved out of rock by the action of waves.

Sea Arch: A hollowed archway of rock extending into the ocean.

DepositionWaves can also cause sediments (sand) to be deposited (placed or left) in

shoreline regions (the beaches).

http://www.collidingcontinents.com/2008_03_01_archive.html

An depositional shoreline may contain the following features:

Barrier Island: Barrier islands are created as sand is deposited into a region near a shoreline, causing an island to form.

Beach: A beach is any location where sand and sediments are deposited by the action of waves.

Sandbar: A sandbar is an elongated area of sand, separated from the mainland, created by the action of waves.

Tides on Earth are caused by the gravitational interaction between the sun,

Earth, and moon system.

A result of the changes in water levels caused by waves .

Complete the interactive activity on, the “Discover” page 1, under the tab “Tidal Forces”

INFLUENCES ON THE TIDES:(Highlights from the interactive)

1. The sun and the moon pull on the Earth’s water, creating tidal bulges.

1. The sun and the moon pull on the Earth’s water, creating tidal bulges.2. Gravity and inertial keep the Earth in orbit around the sun.

1. The sun and the moon pull on the Earth’s water, creating tidal bulges.2. Gravity and inertial keep the Earth in orbit around the sun.3. Solar and lunar days determine the timing of the gravitational effects.

1. The sun and the moon pull on the Earth’s water, creating tidal bulges.2. Gravity and inertial keep the Earth in orbit around the sun.3. Solar and lunar days determine the timing of the gravitational effects.4. The angle of the moon in the sky affects the tidal bulge.

1. The sun and the moon pull on the Earth’s water, creating tidal bulges.2. Gravity and inertial keep the Earth in orbit around the sun.3. Solar and lunar days determine the timing of the gravitational effects.4. The angle of the moon in the sky affects the tidal bulge.5. Tide-generating forces are created by the pull of gravity from the sun and the

moon.6. Shoreline gravity can affect tides.

Types of tides:

Spring Tide

Neap Tide

Types of tides:

Spring Tide

- occur when the sun, Earth, and moon are all in alignment.

(More gravitational attraction occurs)

Types of tides:

- occur when the sun, Earth, and moon are all at right angles.Neap Tide

(Less gravitational attraction occurs)

Incoming tides are called flood currents. Water flows inward toward the shoreline in a flood current. (High tides)

When the tide moves out, it is called the ebb current. Water flows away from the shoreline in an ebb current. (Low tides)

Not every location on Earth experiences the same types of tidal cycles. Several types of tidal cycles occur worldwide.

Semidiurnal: Semidiurnal tides are locations with two high and two low tides of about the same height each day. The East Coast of the United States has a semidiurnal tidal cycle.

Mixed semidiurnal: Locations on the West Coast of the United States experience mixed semidiurnal tides because the levels of tides vary. There are generally two high tides and two low tides, but the water level for each can vary.

Diurnal: Diurnal tides are locations where there is only one high and one low tide each day. The Gulf of Mexico experiences diurnal tides.

Tidal Cycles:

Semidiurnal: Semidiurnal tides are locations with two high and two low tides of about the same height each day. The East Coast of the United States has a semidiurnal tidal cycle.

Mixed semidiurnal: Locations on the West Coast of the United States experience mixed semidiurnal tides because the levels of tides vary. There are generally two high tides and two low tides, but the water level for each can vary.

Diurnal: Diurnal tides are locations where there is only one high and one low tide each day. The Gulf of Mexico experiences diurnal tides.

Tidal Cycles:

Impact of the ocean on the Earth’s spheres:

Biosphere:

Geosphere:

Atmosphere:

Impact of the ocean on the Earth’s spheres:

Biosphere: Human activities such as fisheries and recreation.

Geosphere: Impacts parts of the rock cycle.

Atmosphere: Regulating atmospheric gases

OUR SOLAR SYSTEM

Claudius Ptolemy: Earth is the center. He thought that because when you look at the sky at night, you can see

all the stars moving around Earth. Therefore, Earth must be at the center.

Nicolaus Copernicus: The sun is the center of the solar system. He thought that because of the observations that he had made.

Original thoughts on the solar system (and astronomy):

Solar System:A group of astronomical (space) objects composed of planets or planet-like stuff revolving around a star.

In our solar system, eight planets revolve around the sun; and one dwarf planet (Pluto).

SPACE DISTANCES:Astronomical (space) unit is often used. One AU equals 150 million kilometers

Starting distance in AU

kmkmAU

Ending distance in km

150,000,000

kmkmAU

*The AU units cancel each other out and you’re left with km.So, your answer is in km.

150,000,000

kmkmAU

Example:

135150,000,000

20,250,000,000

kmkmAU

Example:

135150,000,000

20,250,000,000

Starting distance in km

150,000,000 km

AUAUkm

Ending distance in AU

You can do the reverse as well…

Starting distance in km

150,000,000 km

AUAUkm

Ending distance in AU

You can do the reverse as well…

1480,000,000 3.2

Formation of the Solar System

Nebular hypothesis: A cloud of gas and dust in space, known as a nebula, began to rotate. It condensed into a flattened disk. As the dust and gas condensed, gravity pulled the gas and dust ever closer together. At the center of the nebula, the particles of gas and dust were pulled so tightly together that they combined, or fused, together, initiating nuclear fusion . Once nuclear fusion began, the sun was born.

Solar System Models:

These were created to explain observations of how planets and other objects in the night sky

moved.

The geocentric model put Earth at the center of the solar system.

The heliocentric model puts the sun at the center of the solar system.

Claudius Ptolemy: Ptolemy wrote a book that contained the key astronomical ideas of the time. From about 150 AD, his model dominated scientific thought. He thought the solar system was geocentric—the planets and sun travel around Earth in “epicycles,” or large perfectly circular orbits. His model is also known as the Ptolemaic view of the solar system. Prior to Ptolemy, other ancient philosophers, such as Aristotle, also suggested the universe was geocentric, but Ptolemy was the first to explain this model in detail.

Nicolaus Copernicus: Copernicus is considered the father of modern astronomy. Born in 1543, he used scientific measurements of the planets and stars. He published a book with the then-controversial idea that Earth was not at the center of the universe. He provided data and evidence to show that the solar system was heliocentric. This idea was not very popular in his day because it challenged the Ptolemaic view which had become the Roman Catholic Church’s official explanation. To the church, Copernicus’s idea that Earth was not at the center of the universe was antireligious heresy.

Models:

Tycho Brahe: Brahe built one of the first scientific observatories designed solely to study the sky. He was a diligent note taker and made many calculated observations of the movement of objects in the universe. He is known as the “man with the golden nose” because he lost the tip of his nose during a duel and had a brass and gold nose replacement.

Johannes Kepler: Brahe hired Kepler as an assistant in the late 16th century. After Brahe’s death, Kepler used the meticulous notes and data gathered by Brahe to make discoveries about the motion of the planets. Kepler’s work proved Copernicus’s view that the solar system was heliocentric. Kepler also introduced the word “satellite” and became the first person to suggest the sun rotates.

Models:

Galileo Galilei: Galileo was the first person to scientifically observe rotation of celestial objects. He constructed one of the earliest telescopes and was the first to use a telescope to study the night sky. He identified several of Jupiter’s moons by studying the planet. This led him to suggest that it was like a solar system in miniature with Jupiter at the center. The church rejected Galileo’s views and threatened him with death.

Sir Isaac Newton: Newton was a mathematician and philosopher credited with many discoveries. He was the first to describe gravity and how the planets moved as a result of gravitational forces. He invented the reflecting telescope, which today is the main type of telescope used by astronomers. He also discovered that white light is made up of all colors, enabling astronomers to better understand the composition of stars.

Models:

Practice! Discover page 2, “Model Development” tab; “check your understanding”

An object orbiting another object is called a satellite.

The length of time it takes a planet to complete its orbit defines that planet’s year and is called the revolution rate.

The length of time it takes a planet to complete one rotation defines that planet’s day and is called the rotation rate.

VOCABULARY ALERT!

KEPLER’S LAWSKepler’s laws allow you to calculate the shape and duration of a planet’s orbit.

**Please use the interactive activity on Discover page 2, “Kepler’s Laws” tab to help in your understanding of these three laws.

Kepler’s 1st law tells us: “A planet travels around the sun in an elliptical orbit with the

sun at one focus.”

The planet's path is an ellipse (oval/ egg-shaped) with the Sun at a focus (off-center).

The planet speed changes along the orbit, (it moves slower in the more distant parts of the orbit). Lines are drawn to the planet position at equal 1/10 period intervals. These lines are closer together in the outer part of the orbit since the planet position doesnot change as rapidly there.

Kepler’s second law states that the motion of the planets around the sun covers the same area in the same amount of time.

http://www.physics.sjsu.edu/tomley/Kepler12.html

Kepler’s third law defines the time it takes a planet to complete one orbit around the sun.

According to the law, the square of the period (or P) equals the cube of the distance to the planet in AU (or A).

The time it takes a planet to make one orbit is called the period (P).

For example, Mars completes one orbital period about every 1.85 Earth years. Mars’ average distance from the sun is about 1.5 AU (or 225 million kilometers).

From these facts, P = 1.85 and A = 1.5.

So Kepler’s third law is correct: 1.85 squared and 1.5 cubed both equal approximately 3.5.

Given the equation P2 = A3, what is the orbital period, in years, for the planet Saturn? (Saturn is located 9.5 AU from the sun.)

P2? A = 9.53

P2? A = 9.53 = 857.375

857.375 =

P2? A = 9.53 = 857.375

857.375 = ~29

P = ~29 years

Given the equation P2 = A3, what is the orbital period, in days, for the planet Mars? (Mars is located 1.52 AU from the sun?)

P? A = 1.523

P? A = 1.523 = 3.511

3.511 =

P? A = 1.523 = 3.511

3.511 = 1.83 years

(*we need the answer in days so…)

1.83 years 365 days in a year

P? A = 1.523 = 3.511

3.511 = 1.83 years

(*we need the answer in days so…)

1.83 years 365 days in a year = 684 days

P = ~684 days

For there to be gravity… does there need to be air?

Gravity-A force of attraction between two objects that depends on two things: mass and distance.

1.) The larger the mass the greater the gravitation attraction.2.) The closer the two objects the stronger the attraction.

Air resistance is caused by the friction between a falling object and the particles in air. The amount of air resistance a falling object experiences is based on the shape of the object and the speed at which it falls.

GALILEOHis observations of the movement of objects on Earth led him to conclude that all objects accelerate as they fall.

Acceleration is the rate of change in velocity.When we are talking about the acceleration of a falling

object it would be: “… an increase in speed over time”.

Positive acceleration can result from an increase in speed. Negative acceleration, also called deceleration, results from a decrease in speed.

Acceleration of a falling object is due to gravity. All objects fall at a constant rate, the only reason we see them falling different is due to other forces acting on the objects.

Newton observed that planets moved in an orbital path around the sun.

NEWTON

Newton’s laws of Motion• 1st law: An object in motion will remain in

motion, at a constant velocity, unless an outside force acts on it. And an object at rest will remain at rest unless an outside force acts on it.– Example:

This ball will sit here forever, and ever, and ever unless something acts on it; like someone kicks it.

Outside force – a push!

• 2nd law: Force = mass x acceleration

Would the same "force” (push or pull) be used to move each guy below?

If no, why?

The less mass (the boy) the less force needed for acceleration.

The greater the mass (the sumo wrestler) the more force needed for acceleration.

• 3rd law: For every force (action) there is an equal and opposite force (reaction).

Diver moves

Raft moves

Equal in speed (acceleration) and opposite in direction.

EINSTEINEinstein says that time and space are intricately related. Called the space-time continuum, time and space can be thought of as a sort of fabric. Objects within time and space will bend this “fabric,” creating a gravitational force.

Be sure to do the following activity on the “Discover” page, under the “Einstein in space”

tab; at the bottom.

Earth has a magnetic field, called the magnetosphere.

Earth’s magnetic field creates a sort of “shell” that protects Earth from much of the sun’s radiation.Earth's magnetic field interacts with the radiation from the sun.

Earth’s atmosphere is filled with air molecules.Ions from the sun collide with the air molecules in Earth’s atmosphere.The molecules become excited and give off light as they calm down.

Auroras (a.k.a. = Northern/Southern Lights)

Heliophysics:This is the study of how the sun interacts with the Earth and the rest of the solar system.

Properties of the sunThe sun is made of plasma.

Plasma is the fourth state of matter. It comprises electrons and charged atoms, known as ions.

The sun is made up mostly of hydrogen and some helium gasses. The sun makes up 99.9 percent of all the matter in the solar system.

(*That means that EVERYTHING else out there is only .1% of the total mass – so the sun is huge!)

The sun is nearly 110 times wider than Earth. About 1 million Earths would fit inside the sun.

The surface of the sun has a temperature of about 5,500 degrees Celsius. At the sun’s core, temperatures are about 15 million degrees Celsius.

Layers of the sun

Lesson 3 – Discover pg. 1 – “Layers of the Sun” tab.

Please complete the interactive on Discover pg. 1 under the tab “Solar Energy”:

Nuclear fusion:When atoms collide (under super high pressure and temperature), they can be squeezed so tightly that they fuse together.

->This fusion forms new elements.

Nuclear fission:The opposite happens as well, when atoms split apart.

Earth has a magnetic field, called the magnetosphere.

Earth’s magnetic field creates a sort of “shell” that protects Earth from much of the sun’s radiation.Earth's magnetic field interacts with the radiation from the sun.

Plasma from the sun, known as the solar wind, travels toward Earth.

Solar StormsA solar storm describes any increase in activity on the sun.

MUST complete the following interactive on Discover pg. 2, under the “Solar Activity” tab.

CME: A coronal mass ejection, (CME), is a bubble of solar-wind gases shot from the sun’s surface.

Prominence: A loop-shaped plasma ejection formed in the sun’s atmosphere.

Sunspots: Each sunspot is a location where the magnetism of the sun creates a cooler region we perceive as a dark “blemish” on the sun’s photosphere.

(The sunspot is still shining, just not as brightly as the rest of the sun.)

Solar Flares: A sudden explosion of charged particles from the solar atmosphere.

Planet or a Dwarf planet?

What’s the difference you say…

A planet-orbits around the sun-has enough mass to be basically a round shape-is not a satellite or moon of another object-has enough gravity to clear away smaller objects near its orbit

A dwarf planet-orbits around the sun (SAME)-has sufficient mass to assume a nearly round shape (SAME)-is not a satellite or moon of another object (SAME)-does not have enough gravity to clear away smaller objects near its orbit (DIFFERENT)

Inner Planet Basics:

Rock planets (Terrestrial)Few (or even no) moonsClose to the SunNo rings around the planets“Smaller” in size

Outer Planet Basics:

Gas planets (Jovian)Lots of moonsFAR from the SunHave ringsBig planets

The Asteroid Belt

Basically it separates the inner and out planets from each other and there are about one million objects (asteroids) that make up the belt.

->If you added up (if it was even possible) the mass of all of the objects in the asteroid belt, they would even equal the mass of our moon.

An asteroid may be classified as rocky, metallic, or a combination of both.

Asteroids are not crowded together like they show in movies, a space probe could fly for years through the asteroid belt without colliding with an asteroid.

Planet Jupiter’s gravitational pull can actually pull an asteroid out of the belt, sending it floating in space… they think an asteroid is what caused the extinction of the dinosaurs.

Comets A comet has a solid rocky core (center or nucleus) and is made of frozen gases on the surface.

Comets travel around the sun and when they travel close (they pass it), the frozen gases on the surface start to melt (from the hot temperatures of the sun), and we see (as a result of the solar wind blowing these melting gases) what appears to be a tail (which always points away

from the sun, since the solar wind it blowing from the sun).

MeteorsThey are just a streak of light that is formed when pieces of space debris (flying stuff / tiny pieces of rock), called meteoroids, burn

up in Earth's atmosphere.

What we think of as shooting stars.

When a meteor hits our atmosphere they rub together, when they do this causes friction. The friction causes the meteor to start to

burn up and what we see is the light.

Once a meteor hits Earth's surface, it is called a meteorite. An impact crater forms when one object in space collides with another object.

VOCABULARY ALERT!

Kuiper Belt: An area beyond Neptune of debris (stuff left over) from the formation of the solar system.

What are the main ways the movements of the sun, moon, and Earth affect our planet?

Model of the Sun and Earth (models allow us to look at things that are normally too big or too small to view otherwise).

Earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical (egg-shaped) orbit, at a speed of 29.79 km/sec (107,244 km/h), and an average distance of 150 million km.

Earth and most other planets orbit the sun in a disk-shaped region known as the ecliptic plane.

Aphelion is what the Earth is the farthest from the Sun in its orbit.

Perihelion is when the Earth is the closest to the Sun in its orbit.

Just like the Earth traveling around the sun, so does the moon around the Earth.

1. It travels in an elliptical (egg-shaped) orbit.2. It is tilted (5 degree angle) as it orbits3. It has a apogee (farthest distance from Earth) and perigee (closest

distance to the Earth) in its orbit

MOON - EARTH

During apogee: The moon appears normal or smaller.

During Perigee: The moon appears much larger than normal.

MOON - EARTH

Characteristics of the Moon**Please complete the interactive on the Discover pg. 1 “Moon’s Physical Characteristics” tab.

Earth is tilted either toward or away from the sun for almost half of the year.

When any potion of Earth is tilted toward the sun, the angle of solar radiation that strikes Earth’s surface is greater—there is less atmosphere for the sun’s radiation to travel through before it reaches Earth’s surface, and we see the sun rise higher in the sky. Hence, the tilt of Earth’s rotational axis is the reason Earth experiences

seasonal changes.

Northern hemisphere – summer (tilted toward the Sun – warmer)

Southern hemisphere – winter (tilted away from the Sun – colder)

Northern hemisphere – winter (tilted away from the Sun – colder)

Southern hemisphere – summer (tilted toward the Sun – warmer)

When the Southern Hemisphere begins to tilt toward the sun, and the seasons move toward spring.

As the Northern Hemisphere begins to tilt away from the sun, seasons progress from summer to autumn.

Florida = Not much of a change throughout the year

New York = BIG change during a yearHot summer / Very cold winter (snow)

Because solar radiation strikes the equator most constantly, seasons there are less pronounced

than at regions farther from the equator.

When light strikes the surface of an object, the object is illuminated (lite up/bright); if no light strikes the surface, the object is completely dark.

Day time (bright out)

Night time (dark out)

Check out the interactive on the Discover pg. 1, “Solar Eclipse 1” tab

Umbra is the deepest and darkest part of a shadow.

Check out the interactive on the Discover pg. 1, “Solar Eclipse 1” tab

Umbra is the deepest and darkest part of a shadow.

Penumbra forms where sunlight is partially blocked.

Solar Eclipse – the sun is blocked

There are different types of solar eclipses that we can see.

Total eclipse of the Sun

Partial eclipse of the Sun

Annular eclipse of the Sun

The Moon

At night we can see different shapes of the moon. This is called: moon phases.

What we are seeing is shadows that are cast on the moon.

All of the moons “phases” have names.According to:

1. The part of the moon a person can see2. Whether the moon is waxing ("growing") or waning ("shrinking") compared to the observer.

**Please use the interactive on the Discover pg. 2, “Moon Phases” tab

Lunar Eclipse The Earth’s shadow covers the moon.

Please do the interactive activity on Discover pg. 2, under the “Lunar eclipse” tab.

The Geosphere

Review of the Earth’s spheres:Biosphere:

Cryosphere:

Geosphere:

Atmosphere:

Hydrosphere:

Review of the Earth’s spheres:Biosphere: all living things on Earth

Cryosphere: all ice and glacial structures on Earth

Geosphere: the actual physical parts of Earth itself

Atmosphere: all the air that envelops Earth

Hydrosphere: all of the freshwater and saltwater resources of Earth

Review of the Earth’s spheres:

Geosphere: the actual physical parts of Earth itself

Layers of the Earth:1.

Layers of the Earth:1. Crust

2. Mantle

3. Outer core

2. Mantle

3. Outer core

4. Inner core

Which is which?

Mantle

Outer core

Inner core

Layer State of matter

Temperature Thickness Composition Interesting Fact

Crust Solid varies 5 – 75 km varies Oceanic crust is thinner

Mantle Solid - plastic 1,300 – 2,500

peridotite Can “flow” even though it’s a solid.

Outer Core Liquid 4,500 degrees Celsius

2,200 km iron Creates a magnetic field

Inner Core Solid 5,000 degree Celsius

1,250 km iron

Layers of the Earth:

Convection currents in the mantle:

The inside of Earth is very hot. The heat creates a convection current within the mantle that flows from the core to the crust.

The current cools down as it approaches Earth's surface. It begins to move horizontally along the bottom of the crust.

As it continues to cool, it will descend toward the inner Earth, where the temperature increases. This increase in temperature causes the current to rise again.

**Please complete the interactive on Discover pg. 2, under the “Core” tab

Highlights: Earthquakes generate waves of energy that travel

throughout Earth.

The liquid core was discovered when earthquake waves became bent.

No earthquake waves are detected on either side of the core. Waves that move through the core bend again and can be detected.

Liquid core discovered:

CARBON CYCLE:The movement of carbon (an element) between living and non-living things.

Elements, like carbon, are taken (or used) from one of Earth’s spheres and then used in living organisms. When the living organism dies, the elements (like carbon) are returned to one of the spheres. The elements are then available to be reused by other living organisms. This process happens over and over…

Carbon Cycle – the interactive below shows how the element moves through the different Earth spheres. Please go to Discover pg. 1 and complete this activity under the “Earth Cycles” tab.

Carbon Cycle: Please go to Discover pg. 1 and complete this activity under the “Carbon Cycle” tab.

Short-Term Carbon Cycle:

The processing and re-distribution of the carbon in a relatively short period of time.

Long-Term Carbon Cycle:

The processing and re-distribution of the carbon over a long period of time. This process occurs through many different methods: diffusion,

photosynthesis, deforestation, respiration, excretion, extraction, and decomposition, etc.

Trees/plants

Rocks Coal

Ocean water, shells, and plants in the ocean

**Please go through the tabs on Discover pg. 2**

ISSUES:“Earth contains a lot of carbon. If all the carbon on Earth were released from its long-term storage in rocks, fossil fuels, and the deep ocean, the carbon cycle would be completely off balance.”

We must keep a balance between what is stored and what is released.

Unfortunately, carbon being released, in large amounts, into the atmosphere by people and we are not balancing that by the same amount of carbon being returned to long-term storage.

When we are releasing lots of carbon and the balance is off, this contributes to climate change.

Review: **Discover pg. 3, under the “Review” tab**

QUESTION:Alfred Wegener (a German scientist) asked a question;

Do the coastlines of continents separated today show evidence that they once

matched?If we went around the world and looked at all of the coastlines (on different continents) would we see things that would make us believe they used to fit together (the continents).

ANSWER:Yes, they do.

Wegener (and other scientists) found matching animal fossils on coastlines of different continents and also matching geologic structures on different continents. From that discovery he developed the:

“Theory of Continental Drift”

Wegener proposed the idea that once upon a time all of the continents fit together like a puzzle, and were one massive continent called: Pangaea

http://www.historyforkids.org/scienceforkids/geology/platetectonics/

Use the graphic organizer on “Discover” pg. 1 under the “Continental Drift” tab to organize the information in the lesson:

**Use the letter Alfred Wegener wrote to fill in the organizer (on the same page).

Continental Drift

In the beginning Wegener was wrong about “how” the plates moved from Pangaea to what

we see today. He later he developed a new idea called:

The Theory of Plate Tectonics

The Theory of Plate TectonicsUse the interactive on “Discover” pg. 2, under the “Plate Tectonic Theory” tab to investigate the evidence Wegener used to develop this theory.

Plate Tectonics

REVIEW! What’s the difference between them?!

HotspotsHotspots helped to support the theory of plate tectonics. The plate moves (very slowly) over a “plume” which is releasing magma. As it cools it forms chains of islands.

What makes the plates move?

Convection Cells!

“The asthenosphere of Earth acts like a conveyor belt moving slabs of lithosphere.”

“Plates on Earth move as a result of convection deep within Earth. Convection in the mantle of Earth results from the rising of hot rock material and the sinking of cooler rock material. The constant rise and fall of material leads to the formation of convection cells.”

Complete the interactive on “Discover” pg. 2

“Mechanisms of Movement” tab.

Types of Plate Boundaries

Convergent Boundary

• What happens with this type of plate movement?

Convergent Boundary

The plates come together… converge.

This creates:

Convergent Boundary

The plates come together… converge.

This creates:MOUNTAINS

orTRENCHES

Divergent Boundary

What happens with this type of plate movement?

Divergent Boundary

Plates move apart.

…diving away from each other.

Divergent Boundary

Plates move apart.

…diving away from each other.

This creates:New crust is formed

When the plates move horizontally (one moves one way the other moves the opposite).

Transform boundaries:

A fault.

What to do; Lesson 3

The landscape of the Earth is formed and re-formed over time. There are things that can impact the geosphere and change it, such as:

• Wind• Water• Freezing• Gravity

Erosion

Tectonic Plates

Earth's surface has interlocking plates known as tectonic plates, or lithospheric plates.

“The movement of the plates breaks the crust in various locations known as faults. A fault can, but does not necessarily, indicate the edge of a tectonic plate.”

Movement of Faults

About a fault:

The hanging wall is the block of rock above the angle of the fault plane.

The footwall is the block of rock below the angle of the fault plane.

The place where two segments of Earth’s crust come in contact with each other at a fault is called the fault plane. The fault plane is usually at an angle.

(*The location of the fault plane determines how each side of the fault is named.)

Movement of Faults

Normal Faults

Reverse Faults

Strike-Slip (Lateral) Faults

Movement of Faults

Normal Faults

Normal faults form as two segments of crust pull away from each other at divergent plate boundaries. The hanging wall drops down relative to the footwall, or the footwall moves up relative to the hanging wall. Normal faults form as a result of a type of stress known as tension stress.

Movement of Faults

Reverse Faults

Reverse faults are also known as thrust faults. These faults occur along convergent plate boundaries, where lithospheric plates come together. In a reverse fault, the hanging wall is “thrust” up—that is, it moves up relative to the footwall. Reverse faults form from a type of stress known as compression stress.

Movement of Faults

Strike-Slip (Lateral) Faults

Strike-slip faults, also known as lateral faults, occur where two blocks of crust move past each other in opposite directions. Strike-slip faults are common along transform plate boundaries, where tectonic plates slide past each other.

Strike-slip faults form from a type of stress known as shear stress.

Mountains

Mountains result (are formed) from the movement of tectonic

plates.

Mountains result (are formed) at divergent and convergent

boundaries.

There are different types of mountains that can form...

VOLCANOESForms when lava or ash build up to form into a mountain.

FOLDED MOUNTAINSFormed when segments of Earth’s curst are bent and doubled over.

Gentle slopping sides

FAULT-BLOCK MOUNTAINS

Formed when stress causes pieces of the crust in a fault zone to be thrust (pushed forcefully) upward.

Mountains with sharper/jagged edges, and steep cliffs.

Islands

There is land under the ocean, (the ocean floor)

and the movement of the plates under the water can give rise to ISLANDS (and

other structures).

An island is land that is completely surrounded by water.

Islands form as a result of oceanic plates pushing against each other (at a

subduction zone).

Island arc:

Other islands can formfar from plate boundaries…

“How?!” you ask…

HotspotsA hotspot is a location when magma rises up through the Earth’s crust to form volcanoes…

Hotspots

The oceanic plate moves (very slowly) over a “plume” which is releasing the magma. Because the plate is moving, as it cools it forms a chain of islands.

Volcanoes that form over hotspots are known as shield volcanoes.

Differences in Geological Areas:

FLORIDA

COLORADO

FLORIDA- Flat land

COLORADO- Mountains

FLORIDA- Flat land- Younger land

COLORADO- Mountains- Older land

FLORIDA- Flat land- Younger land - Hasn’t experienced as much impact from weather (erosion)

COLORADO- Mountains- Older land- Has experienced lots of impact from weather (erosion and rebuilding)

“The process of mountain building takes time—typically many millions of

years.”

Geologic structures are constantly forming and re-forming, but usually so slow that

you wouldn’t notice at all.

“Geologic structures build up as a result of processes resulting from tectonic plate

movement: volcanism, folding, and faulting.”

Volcanoes

VolcanoesVolcanoes are usually found where two tectonic plates meet (plate boundaries). Remember some volcanoes can form at a hotspot (away from boundaries).

Usually volcanoes build mountains.A volcano is any location where molten rock and other materials make their way to Earth’s crust and onto the surface.

Ring of Fire – No, it’s not really a ring with fire around it; it’s the most seismically and volcanically active zone in the world. It surrounds the Pacific Ocean

Complete the following interactive:

Be sure the read the “text-only” to understand this better!

Types of Volcanoes

Cylinder cone: Magma and ash shoot out and harden in the air, then pile up on the sides creating the cone.

Stratovolcano: These are formed from alternating eruptions; creating a steep cone.

Shield Volcano: Very wide slopes; usually form over a hot spot.

Lava Dome: Really thick lava piles up as it exits the vent; usually formed by one eruption.

Earthquakes

The upper part of the Earth’s crust is pretty breakable (they call this brittle). When it is under “stress” from movements below it can break; this is an earthquake.

EarthquakesEarthquakes happen along boundaries (usually transform boundaries). When the rock breaks energy is released, this is called seismic energy or waves.

“A seismic wave is any ground movement that results from energy released during an earthquake. The point in the Earth’s crust where the rock ruptures is the focus. The point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus is the epicenter.“

Two main types of waves:

Body waves:

Surface waves

Two types of body waves:

P waves:

S waves:

P-waves:

Primary waves or compression waves

Travel through the solid and liquid parts of Earth

Fastest earthquake waves Always the first waves to appear on a seismogram

Cause ground to move horizontally back and forth through compression.

P-waves bounce off the liquid core.

WavesBody waves:

S-waves:

Secondary waves or shear waves

Can travel through Earth’s solid portions only

When they hit the liquid core, S-waves are no longer able to be detected. A shadow zone is created where earthquake waves are not detectedS-waves are absorbed at the core.

Cause ground to move back and forth in an S-shaped pattern

WavesBody waves:

Two types of surface waves:

R waves:

L waves:

R-waves (Rayleigh waves)Cause lots of damage to the surface of the Earth, especially to buildingsHave a rolling motion, like the waves of the ocean

L-waves (Love waves)Cause lots of damage to the surface of the Earth, especially to buildingsHave a side-to-side motion similar to the movement of a snake

WavesSurface waves:

Modeling Geologic Events

Scientists use models to help understand what will happen during a geologic event, such as an earthquake or volcano eruption.

Creating a model allows them to attempt to see what type of damage could occur as a result of one of those events and how intense the event could be.

Segment 2 Final Exam Review

shorter time

geologic time segment

measurement of time

types of dating

definite exact time

absolute dating

definite periods of

soradiometric dating

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