Rice

Rice 1

Rice

Oryza sativa commonly known as Asian rice

Rice is the seed of the monocot plants Oryza sativa (Asian rice) orOryza glaberrima (African rice) As a cereal grain it is the mostimportant staple food for a large part of the worlds human populationespecially in Asia and the West Indies It is the grain with thesecond-highest worldwide production after maize (corn) according todata for 2010[1]

Since a large portion of maize crops are grown for purposes other thanhuman consumption rice is the most important grain with regard tohuman nutrition and caloric intake providing more than one fifth ofthe calories consumed worldwide by the human species[2]

There are many varieties of rice and culinary preferences tend to varyregionally For example in India there is a saying that grains of riceshould be like two brothers close but not stuck together while in theFar East there is a preference for softer stickier varieties Because ofits importance as a staple food rice has considerable culturalimportance For example rice is first mentioned in the Yajur Veda andthen is frequently referred to in Sanskrit texts Rice is often directly associated with prosperity and fertility thereforethere is the custom of throwing rice at weddings[3]

Rice is normally grown as an annual plant although in tropical areas it can survive as a perennial and can produce aratoon crop for up to 30 years[4] The rice plant can grow to 1ndash18 m (unknown operator ustrongunknownoperator ustrongunknown operator ustrong unknown operator ustrong) tall occasionally moredepending on the variety and soil fertility It has long slender leaves 50ndash100 cm (unknown operatorustrongunknown operator ustrongunknown operator ustrong unknown operator ustrong) long and2ndash25 cm (unknown operator ustrongunknown operator ustrongunknown operator ustrong unknownoperator ustrong) broad The small wind-pollinated flowers are produced in a branched arching to pendulousinflorescence 30ndash50 cm (unknown operator ustrongunknown operator ustrongunknown operatorustrong unknown operator ustrong) long The edible seed is a grain (caryopsis) 5ndash12 mm (unknownoperator ustrongunknown operator ustrongunknown operator ustrong unknown operator ustrong)long and 2ndash3 mm (unknown operator ustrongunknown operator ustrongunknown operator ustrongunknown operator ustrong) thickRice cultivation is well-suited to countries and regions with low labor costs and high rainfall as it is labor-intensiveto cultivate and requires ample water Rice can be grown practically anywhere even on a steep hill or mountainAlthough its parent species are native to Asia and certain parts of Africa centuries of trade and exportation havemade it commonplace in many cultures worldwideThe traditional method for cultivating rice is flooding the fields while or after setting the young seedlings Thissimple method requires sound planning and servicing of the water damming and channeling but reduces the growthof less robust weed and pest plants that have no submerged growth state and deters vermin While flooding is notmandatory for the cultivation of rice all other methods of irrigation require higher effort in weed and pest controlduring growth periods and a different approach for fertilizing the soil(The name wild rice is usually used for species of the grass genus Zizania both wild and domesticated although theterm may also be used for primitive or uncultivated varieties of Oryza)

Rice 2

EtymologyFirst attested in English in the middle of the 13th century the word rice derives from the Old French ris whichcomes from Italian riso in turn from the Latin oriza which derives from the Greek ὄρυζα (oruza) The Greek wordis the source of all European words (cf Welsh reis Ger Reis Lith ryžiai Serbo-Cr riža Pol ryż Dutch rijstRomanian orez)[5][6][7] Ultimately the original source for those languages is from the Tamil word அரிசி

(arisi)[8][9]

Preparation as food

Rice broker in 1820s Japan (36 Views of MountFuji Hokusai)

Thresh rice cleaning by a watermill (36 Views ofMount Fuji Hokusai)

Transplanting rice seedlings in Java Indonesia

The seeds of the rice plant are first milled using a rice huller to removethe chaff (the outer husks of the grain) At this point in the process theproduct is called brown rice The milling may be continued removingthe bran ie the rest of the husk and the germ thereby creating whiterice White rice which keeps longer lacks some important nutrientsmoreover in a limited diet which does not supplement the rice brownrice helps to prevent the disease beriberi

Either by hand or in a rice polisher white rice may be buffed withglucose or talc powder (often called polished rice though this termmay also refer to white rice in general) parboiled or processed intoflour White rice may also be enriched by adding nutrients especiallythose lost during the milling process While the cheapest method ofenriching involves adding a powdered blend of nutrients that willeasily wash off (in the United States rice which has been so treatedrequires a label warning against rinsing) more sophisticated methodsapply nutrients directly to the grain coating the grain with awater-insoluble substance which is resistant to washing

In some countries a popular form parboiled rice is subjected to asteaming or parboiling process while still a brown rice grain Thiscauses nutrients from the outer husk especially thiamine to move intothe grain itself The parboil process causes a gelatinisation of the starchin the grains The grains become less brittle and the color of the milledgrain changes from white to yellow The rice is then dried and canthen be milled as usual or used as brown rice Milled parboiled rice isnutritionally superior to standard milled rice Parboiled rice has anadditional benefit in that it does not stick to the pan during cooking ashappens when cooking regular white rice This type of rice is eaten inparts of India and countries of West Africa are also accustomed toconsuming parboiled rice

Despite the hypothetical health risks of talc (such as stomachcancer)[10] talc-coated rice remains the norm in some countries due to its attractive shiny appearance but it has beenbanned in some and is no longer widely used in others (such as the United States) Even where talc is not usedglucose starch or other coatings may be used to improve the appearance of the grains

Rice 3

Removing seedlings from seed beds the first stepalong a labor-intensive process of growing rice as

seen in Cambodia

Rice bran called nuka in Japan is a valuable commodity in Asia and isused for many daily needs It is a moist oily inner layer which isheated to produce oil It is also used as a pickling bed in making ricebran pickles and takuan

Raw rice may be ground into flour for many uses including makingmany kinds of beverages such as amazake horchata rice milk andrice wine Rice flour does not contain gluten so is suitable for peopleon a gluten-free diet Rice may also be made into various types ofnoodles Raw wild or brown rice may also be consumed byraw-foodist or fruitarians if soaked and sprouted (usually a week to 30days ndash gaba rice)

Processed rice seeds must be boiled or steamed before eating Boiled rice may be further fried in cooking oil orbutter (known as fried rice) or beaten in a tub to make mochi

Rice white long-grain vegetable raw

Nutritional value per 100 g (unknown operator ustrong oz)

Energy 1527 kJ (unknown operator ustrong kcal)

Carbohydrates 80 g

- Sugars 012 g

- Dietary fiber 13 g

Fat 066 g

Protein 713 g

Water 1161 g

Thiamine (vit B1) 00701 mg (6)

Riboflavin (vit B2) 00149 mg (1)

Niacin (vit B3) 162 mg (11)

Pantothenic acid (B5) 1014 mg (20)

Vitamin B6 0164 mg (13)

Calcium 28 mg (3)

Iron 080 mg (6)

Magnesium 25 mg (7)

Manganese 1088 mg (52)

Phosphorus 115 mg (16)

Potassium 115 mg (2)

Zinc 109 mg (11)

Percentages are relative toUS recommendations for adults

Source USDA Nutrient Database [11]

Rice is a good source of protein and a staple food in many parts of the world but it is not a complete protein it doesnot contain all of the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts for good health and should be combined with othersources of protein such as nuts seeds beans fish or meat[12]

Rice 4

Rice like other cereal grains can be puffed (or popped) This process takes advantage of the grains water contentand typically involves heating grains in a special chamber Further puffing is sometimes accomplished by processingpuffed pellets in a low-pressure chamber The ideal gas law means either lowering the local pressure or raising thewater temperature results in an increase in volume prior to water evaporation resulting in a puffy texture Bulk rawrice density is about 09 gcmsup3 It decreases to less than one-tenth that when puffed

CookingFurther information Steamed rice

The many varieties of rice for many purposes are distinguished as long- medium- and short-grain rices The grainsof long-grain rice (high amylose) tend to remain intact after cooking medium-grain rice (high amylopectin) becomesmore sticky Medium-grain rice is used for sweet dishes for risotto in Italy and many rice dishes such as arrogravesnegre in Spain A stickier medium-grain rice is used for sushi the stickiness lets the rice be moulded into a solidshape Short-grain rice is often used for rice pudding

Uncooked polished white long-grain rice grains

A Pakistani-style Chinese rice dish using theBasmati variety

Rice is cooked by boiling or steaming and absorbs water duringcooking It can be cooked in just as much water as it absorbs (theabsorption method) or in a large quantity of water which is drainedbefore serving (the rapid-boil method)[13] Electric rice cookerspopular in Asia and Latin America simplify the process of cookingrice Rice (or any other grain) is sometimes quickly fried in oil or fatbefore boiling (for example saffron rice or risotto) this makes thecooked rice less sticky and is a cooking style commonly called pilafby American chefs or biryani (Dam-pukhtak) in India Pakistan andIran

Rice 5

Rice served with Indian curry ndash note theyellowish tinge in the rice due to the common

Indian practice of adding turmeric duringcooking

Unmilled to milled rice from right to left brownrice rice with germ white rice (Japanese rice)

Black rice ndash one of several colored varieties ofnatural rice rich in anthocyanins and tocols

Image compares white and black rice from Japan

Rice stem cross section magnified 400 times

In Arab cuisine rice is an ingredient of many soups and dishes withfish poultry and other types of meat It is also used to stuff vegetablesor is wrapped in grape leaves (dolma) When combined with milksugar and honey it is used to make desserts In some regions such asTabaristan bread is made using rice flour Medieval Islamic textsspoke of medical uses for the plant[14]

Rice may also be made into congee (also called rice porridgefawrclaab okayu Xifan jook or rice gruel) by adding more water thanusual so that the cooked rice is saturated with water usually to thepoint that it disintegrates Rice porridge is commonly eaten as abreakfast food and is also a traditional food for the sick

Rice 6

A Rice with chaffB Brown rice

CRice with germD White rice with bran residue

EMusenmai (Japanese無 洗 米) Polished andready to boil rice literally non-wash rice

(1)Chaff(2)Bran

(3)Bran residue(4)Cereal germ(5)Endosperm

Rice may be soaked prior to cooking which saves fuel decreasescooking time minimizes exposure to high temperature and thusdecreases the stickiness of the rice For some varieties soakingimproves the texture of the cooked rice by increasing expansion of thegrains

Instant rice differs from parboiled rice in that it is milled fully cookedand then dried There is a significant degradation in taste and texture

A nutritionally superior method of preparing brown rice known asGABA Rice or GBR (Germinated Brown Rice)[15] may be used Thisinvolves soaking washed brown rice for 20 hours in warm water (38 degCor 100 degF) prior to cooking it This stimulates germination whichactivates various enzymes in the rice By this method a result ofresearch carried out for the United Nations International Year of Riceit is possible to obtain a more complete amino acid profile includingGABA

Cooked rice can contain Bacillus cereus spores which produce anemetic toxin when left at 4ndash60 degC (39ndash140 degF) When storing cooked rice for use the next day rapid cooling isadvised to reduce the risk of toxin production[16] One of the enterotoxins produced by Bacillus cereus isheat-resistant reheating contaminated rice kills the bacteria but does not destroy the toxin already present

Rice flour and starch often are used in batters and breadings to increase crispiness

Nutrients and the nutritional importance of rice

Rice is the staple food of over half the worlds population It is the predominant dietary energy source for 17countries in Asia and the pacific 9 countries in North and South America and 8 countries in Africa Rice provides20 of the worldrsquos dietary energy supply while wheat supplies 19 and maize 5[17]

A detailed analysis of nutrient content of rice suggests that the nutrition value of rice varies based on a number offactors It depends on the strain of rice that is between white brown black red and purple varieties of rice ndash eachprevalent in different part of the world It also depends on nutrient quality of the soil rice is grown in whether andhow the rice is polished or processed the manner it is enriched and how it is prepared before consumption[18]

An illustrative comparison between white and brown rice of protein quality mineral and vitamin qualitycarbohydrate and fat quality suggests that neither is complete nutrition source Between the two there is a significantdifference in fiber content and minor differences in other nutrients[19]

Brilliantly colored rice strains such as the purple rice derives its color from anthocyanins and tocols Scientificstudies suggest that these color pigments have antioxidant properties that may be useful to human health In purplerice bran hydrophilic antioxidants are in greater quantity and have higher free radical scavenging activity thanlipophilic antioxidants Anthocyanins and γ-tocols in purple rice are largely located in the inner portion of purple ricebran[20]

Comparative nutrition studies on red black and white varieties of rice suggest that pigments in red and black ricevarieties may offer nutrition benefits Red or black rice consumption were found to reduce or retard the progressionof atherosclerotic plaque development induced by dietary cholesterol in mammals White rice consumption offeredno similar benefits and the study claims this to be due to absent antioxidants of red and black varieties of rice[21]

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Comparison of rice to other major staple foodsThe following table shows the nutrient content of major staple foods in a raw form Raw grains however arentedible and can not be digested These must be sprouted or prepared and cooked for human consumption In sproutedand cooked form the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably differentfrom that of raw form of these grains reported in this table

Nutrient content of major staple foods[22]

STAPLE Maize Corn[A]

Rice[B] Wheat[C] Potato[D] Cassava[E] Soybean[F] Sweetpotato[G]

Sorghum[H] Yam[Y] Plantain[Z]

Component (per 100gportion)

Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount Amount

Water (g) 76 12 11 79 60 68 77 9 70 65

Energy (kJ) 360 1528 1419 322 670 615 360 1419 494 511

Protein (g) 32 71 137 20 14 130 16 113 15 13

Fat (g) 118 066 247 009 028 68 005 33 017 037

Carbohydrates (g) 19 80 71 17 38 11 20 75 28 32

Fiber (g) 27 13 107 22 18 42 3 63 41 23

Sugar (g) 322 012 0 078 17 0 418 0 05 15

Calcium (mg) 2 28 34 12 16 197 30 28 17 3

Iron (mg) 052 431 352 078 027 355 061 44 054 06

Magnesium (mg) 37 25 144 23 21 65 25 0 21 37

Phosphorus (mg) 89 115 508 57 27 194 47 287 55 34

Potassium (mg) 270 115 431 421 271 620 337 350 816 499

Sodium (mg) 15 5 2 6 14 15 55 6 9 4

Zinc (mg) 045 109 416 029 034 099 03 0 024 014

Copper (mg) 005 022 055 011 010 013 015 - 018 008

Manganese (mg) 016 109 301 015 038 055 026 - 040 -

Selenium (mcg) 06 151 894 03 07 15 06 0 07 15

Vitamin C (mg) 68 0 0 197 206 29 24 0 171 184

Thiamin (mg) 020 058 042 008 009 044 008 024 011 005

Riboflavin (mg) 006 005 012 003 005 018 006 014 003 005

Niacin (mg) 170 419 674 105 085 165 056 293 055 069

Pantothenic acid (mg) 076 101 094 030 011 015 080 - 031 026

Vitamin B6 (mg) 006 016 042 030 009 007 021 - 029 030

Folate Total (mcg) 46 231 43 16 27 165 11 0 23 22

Vitamin A (IU) 208 0 0 2 13 180 14187 0 138 1127

Vitamin Ealpha-tocopherol (mg)

007 011 0 001 019 0 026 0 039 014

Vitamin K (mcg) 03 01 0 19 19 0 18 0 26 07

Beta-carotene (mcg) 52 0 0 1 8 0 8509 0 83 457

Rice 8

Lutein+zeazanthin(mcg)

764 0 0 8 0 0 0 0 0 30

Saturated fatty acids (g) 018 018 045 003 007 079 002 046 004 014

Monounsaturated fattyacids (g)

035 021 034 000 008 128 000 099 001 003

Polyunsaturated fattyacids (g)

056 018 098 004 005 320 001 137 008 007

A corn sweet yellow raw B rice white long-grain regular raw

C wheat durum D potato flesh and skin raw

E cassava raw F soybeans green raw

G sweetpotato raw unprepared H sorghum raw

Y yam raw Z plantains raw

Rice growing ecologyRice can be grown in different environments depending upon water availability[23] Generally rice does not thrive ina waterlogged area yet it can survive and grow herein[24] and it can also survive flooding[25]

1 Lowland rainfed which is drought prone favors medium depth waterlogged submergence and flood prone2 Lowland irrigated grown in both the wet season and the dry season3 Deep water or floating rice44 Coastal Wetland5 Upland rice is also known as Ghaiya rice well known for its drought tolerance[26]

History of domestication and cultivation

Asia

Terraced rice paddy on a hill slope in Indonesia

The commonly accepted view is that rice was first domesticated in theregion of the Yangtze River valley in China[27][28] Morphologicalstudies of rice phytoliths from the Diaotonghuan archaeological siteclearly show the transition from the collection of wild rice to thecultivation of domesticated rice The large number of wild ricephytoliths at the Diaotonghuan level dating from 12000ndash11000 BPindicates that wild rice collection was part of the local means ofsubsistence Changes in the morphology of Diaotonghuan phytolithsdating from 10000ndash8000 BP show that rice had by this time beendomesticated[29] Soon afterwards the two major varieties of indica andjaponica rice were being grown in Central China[28] In the late 3rdmillennium BC there was a rapid expansion of rice cultivation into mainland Southeast Asia and westwards acrossIndia and Nepal[28]

Rice 9

Semi-ripe Paddy in West Bengal India

The Banaue Rice Terraces in the Philippines

Rice field under monsoon clouds in PeguDivision Burma

Rice crop in Madagascar

In 2003 Korean archaeologists claimed to have discovered the worldsoldest domesticated rice[30] Their 15000 year old age challenges theaccepted view that rice cultivation originated in China about 12000years ago[30] These findings were received by academia with strongskepticism[31] and the results and their publicizing has been cited asbeing driven by a combination of nationalist and regional interests[32]

In 2011 a combined effort by the Stanford University New YorkUniversity Washington University in St Louis and Purdue Universityhas provided the strongest evidence yet that there is only one singleorigin of domesticated rice in the Yangtze Valley of China[33][34]

The earliest remains of rice in the Indian subcontinent have been foundin the Indo-Gangetic Plain and date from 7000ndash6000 BC though theearliest widely accepted date for cultivated rice is placed at around3000ndash2500 BC with findings in regions belonging to the Indus ValleyCivilization Perennial wild rices still grow in Assam and Nepal Itseems to have appeared around 1400 BC in southern India after itsdomestication in the northern plains It then spread to all the fertilealluvial plains watered by rivers Cultivation and cooking methods arethought to have spread to the west rapidly and by medieval timessouthern Europe saw the introduction of rice as a hearty grain

According to Zohary and Hopf (2000 p 91) O sativa was recoveredfrom a grave at Susa in Iran (dated to the 1st century AD) at one end ofthe ancient world another domestication of rice in South Asia

Today the majority of all rice produced comes from China IndiaIndonesia Pakistan Bangladesh Vietnam Thailand MyanmarPhilippines and Japan Asian farmers still account for 92 of theworlds total rice production

Companion plant

One of the earliest known examples of companion planting is thegrowing of rice with Azolla the mosquito fern which covers the top ofa fresh rice paddys water blocking out any competing plants as wellas fixing nitrogen from the atmosphere for the rice to use The rice isplanted when it is tall enough to poke out above the azolla Thismethod has been used for at least a thousand years

Africa

African rice has been cultivated for 3500 years Between 1500 and 800BC Oryza glaberrima propagated from its original centre the NigerRiver delta and extended to Senegal However it never developed farfrom its original region Its cultivation even declined in favour of theAsian species which was introduced to East Africa early in thecommon era and spread westward[35] African rice helped Africa conquer its famine of 1203[36]

Rice 10

Woman drying rice in Bhaktapur

Middle East

In Iraq rice was grown in some areas of southern Iraq With the rise ofIslam it moved north to Nisibin the southern shores of the Caspian Seaand then beyond the Muslim world into the valley of Volga In Egyptrice is mainly grown in the Nile Delta In Palestine modern day Israelrice came to be grown in the Jordan Valley Rice is also grown inYemen[37]

Europe

The Moors brought Asiatic rice to the Iberian Peninsula in the 10thcentury Records indicate it was grown in Valencia and Majorca In Majorca rice cultivation seems to have stoppedafter the Christian conquest although historians are not certain[37]

Muslims also brought rice to Sicily where it was an important crop[37] long before it is noted in the plain of Pisa(1468) or in the Lombard plain (1475) where its cultivation was promoted by Ludovico Sforza Duke of Milan anddemonstrated in his model farms[38]

After the 15th century rice spread throughout Italy and then France later propagating to all the continents during theage of European explorationThe Ottomans introduced rice in the Balkans it was a unknown plant in the Balkans before the Ottomanconquest[39]

Caribbean and Latin AmericaRice is not native to the Americas but was introduced to Latin America and the Caribbean by European colonizers atan early date with Spanish colonizers introducing Asian rice to Mexico in the 1520s at Veracruz and the Portugueseand their African slaves introducing it at about the same time to Colonial Brazil[40] Recent scholarship suggests thatenslaved Africans played an active role in the establishment of rice in the New World and that African rice was animportant crop from an early period[41] Varieties of rice and bean dishes that were a staple dish along the peoples ofWest Africa remained a staple among their descendants subjected to slavery in the Spanish New World coloniesBrazil and elsewhere in the Americas[36]

The Native Americans of what is now the Eastern United States may have practiced extensive agriculture with formsof wild rice

United States

South Carolina rice plantation (MansfieldPlantation Georgetown)

In 1694 rice arrived in South Carolina probably originating fromMadagascar[40]

In the United States colonial South Carolina and Georgia grew andamassed great wealth from the Slavery labor obtained from theSenegambia area of West Africa and from coastal Sierra Leone At theport of Charleston through which 40 of all American slave importspassed slaves from this region of Africa brought the highest prices inrecognition of their prior knowledge of rice culture which was put touse on the many rice plantations around Georgetown Charleston and

Rice 11

Savannah From the enslaved Africans plantation owners learned how to dyke the marshes and periodically floodthe fields At first the rice was milled by hand with wooden paddles then winnowed in sweetgrass baskets (themaking of which was another skill brought by slaves from Africa) The invention of the rice mill increasedprofitability of the crop and the addition of water power for the mills in 1787 by millwright Jonathan Lucas wasanother step forward Rice culture in the southeastern US became less profitable with the loss of slave labor afterthe American Civil War and it finally died out just after the turn of the 20th century Today people can visit theonly remaining rice plantation in South Carolina that still has the original winnowing barn and rice mill from themid-19th century at the historic Mansfield Plantation in Georgetown South Carolina The predominant strain of ricein the Carolinas was from Africa and was known as Carolina Gold The cultivar has been preserved and there arecurrent attempts to reintroduce it as a commercially grown crop[42]

Rice production by county in the United States 2010

In the southern United States rice hasbeen grown in southern ArkansasLouisiana and east Texas since themid-19th century Many Cajun farmersgrew rice in wet marshes and low lyingprairies where they could also farmcrayfish when the fields wereflooded[43] In recent years riceproduction has risen in North Americaespecially in the Mississippi RiverDelta areas in the states of Arkansasand Mississippi

Rice cultivation began in Californiaduring the California Gold Rush whenan estimated 40000 Chinese laborersimmigrated to the state and grew smallamounts of the grain for their own

consumption However commercial production began only in 1912 in the town of Richvale in Butte County[44] By2006 California produced the second largest rice crop in the United States[45] after Arkansas with productionconcentrated in six counties north of Sacramento[46] Unlike the Mississippi Delta region Californias production isdominated by short- and medium-grain japonica varieties including cultivars developed for the local climate such asCalrose which makes up as much as 85 of the states crop[47]

References to wild rice in the Americas are to the unrelated Zizania palustris

More than 100 varieties of rice are commercially produced primarily in six states (Arkansas Texas LouisianaMississippi Missouri and California) in the US[48] According to estimates for the 2006 crop year rice productionin the US is valued at $188 billion approximately half of which is expected to be exported The US providesabout 12 of world rice trade[48] The majority of domestic utilization of US rice is direct food use (58) while16 is used in each of processed foods and beer The remaining 10 is found in pet food[48]

Rice 12

AustraliaRice was one of the earliest crops planted in Australia by British settlers who had experience with rice plantations inthe Americas and the subcontinentAlthough attempts to grow rice in the well-watered north of Australia have been made for many years they haveconsistently failed because of inherent iron and manganese toxicities in the soils and destruction by pestsIn the 1920s it was seen as a possible irrigation crop on soils within the Murray-Darling Basin that were too heavyfor the cultivation of fruit and too infertile for wheat[49]

Because irrigation water despite the extremely low runoff of temperate Australia was (and remains) very cheap thegrowing of rice was taken up by agricultural groups over the following decades Californian varieties of rice werefound suitable for the climate in the Riverina and the first mill opened at Leeton in 1951Even before this Australias rice production greatly exceeded local needs[49] and rice exports to Japan have becomea major source of foreign currency Above-average rainfall from the 1950s to the middle 1990s[50] encouraged theexpansion of the Riverina rice industry but its prodigious water use in a practically waterless region began to attractthe attention of environmental scientists These became severely concerned with declining flow in the Snowy Riverand the lower Murray RiverAlthough rice growing in Australia is highly profitable due to the cheapness of land several recent years of severedrought have led many to call for its elimination because of its effects on extremely fragile aquatic ecosystems TheAustralian rice industry is somewhat opportunistic with the area planted varying significantly from season to seasondepending on water allocations in the Murray and Murrumbidgee irrigation regions

Production and commerce

Worldwide rice production

Production of rice by country mdash 2010(million metric ton)

[51]

Peoples Republic of China 1972

India 1206

Indonesia 664

Bangladesh 493

Vietnam 399

Myanmar 332

Thailand 315

Philippines 157

Brazil 113

United States 110

Japan 106

Rice 13

Cambodia 82

Source Food and Agriculture Organization

ProductionRice is a major food staple and a mainstay for the rural population and their food security It is mainly cultivated bysmall farmers in holdings of less than 1 hectare Rice is also a wage commodity for workers in the cash crop ornon-agricultural sectors Rice is vital for the nutrition of much of the population in Asia as well as in Latin Americaand the Caribbean and in Africa it is central to the food security of over half the world population Developingcountries account for 95 of the total production with China and India alone responsible for nearly half of the worldoutput[52]

World production of rice has risen steadily from about 200 million tonnes of paddy rice in 1960 to over 678 milliontonnes in 2009 The most productive farms for rice in 2009 were in China producing 659 tonnes per hectare[53]

The three largest producers of rice in 2009 were China (197 million tonnes) India (131 Mt) and Indonesia (64 Mt)At 44 million hectares India had the largest farm area under rice production in 2009 The rice farm productivity inIndia were about 45 of the rice farm productivity in China and about 60 of the rice farm productivity inIndonesia If India could adopt the farming knowledge and technology in use in China and Indonesia India couldproduce an additional 100 million tonnes of rice enough staple food for about 400 million people every year andUS$50 billion in additional annual income to its rice farmers (adjusted to 2010 dollars and global rice prices pertonne) In the 1990s genetic studies took place in many European laboratories to increase rice production perhectare Most of them were Dutch agricultural organizations united by HNGAC These studies were later stoppeddue to lack of fundingIn addition to the gap in farming system technology and knowledge many rice grain producing countries havesignificant losses post-harvest at the farm and because of poor roads inadequate storage technologies inefficientsupply chains and farmers inability to bring the produce into retail markets dominated by small shopkeepers AWorld Bank ndash FAO study claims 8 to 26 of rice is lost in developing nations on average every year because ofpost-harvest problems and poor infrastructure Some sources claim the post-harvest losses to exceed 40[52][54]

Not only do these losses reduce food security in the world the study claims that farmers in developing countriessuch as China India and others lose approximately US$89 billion of income in preventable post-harvest farm lossespoor transport the lack of proper storage and retail One study claims that if these post-harvest grain losses could beeliminated with better infrastructure and retail network in India alone enough food would be saved every year tofeed 70 to 100 million people over a year[55]

Harvesting drying and millingUnmilled rice known as paddy (Indonesia and Malaysia padi Philippines palay) is usually harvested when the grains have a moisture content of around 25 In most Asian countries where rice is almost entirely the product of smallholder agriculture harvesting is carried out manually although there is a growing interest in mechanical harvesting Harvesting can be carried out by the farmers themselves but is also frequently done by seasonal labour groups Harvesting is followed by threshing either immediately or within a day or two Again much threshing is still carried out by hand but there is an increasing use of mechanical threshers Subsequently paddy needs to be dried to bring down the moisture content to no more than 20 for milling A familiar sight in several Asian countries is paddy laid out to dry along roads However in most countries the bulk of drying of marketed paddy takes place in mills with village-level drying being used for paddy to be consumed by farm families Mills either sun dry or use mechanical driers or both Drying has to be carried out quickly to avoid the formation of moulds Mills range from simple hullers with a throughput of a couple of tonnes a day that simply remove the outer husk to enormous operations that can process 4000 tonnes a day and produce highly polished rice A good mill can achieve a

Rice 14

paddy-to-rice conversion rate of up to 72 but smaller inefficient mills often struggle to achieve 60 Thesesmaller mills often do not buy paddy and sell rice but only service farmers who want to mill their paddy for theirown consumption

DistributionBecause of the importance of rice to human nutrition and food security in Asia the domestic rice markets tend to besubject to considerable state involvement While the private sector plays a leading role in most countries agenciessuch as BULOG in Indonesia the NFA in the Philippines VINAFOOD in Vietnam and the Food Corporation ofIndia are all heavily involved in purchasing of paddy from farmers or rice from mills and in distributing rice topoorer people BULOG and NFA monopolise rice imports into their countries while VINAFOOD controls allexports from Vietnam[56]

TradeWorld trade figures are very different to those for production as only about 5ndash6 of rice produced is tradedinternationally In economic terms the global rice trade was a small fraction of 1 of world mercantile trade Manycountries consider rice as a strategic food staple and various governments subject its trade to a wide range ofcontrols and interventionsDeveloping countries are the main players in the world rice trade accounting for 83 of exports and 85 ofimports While there are numerous importers of rice the exporters of rice are limited Just five countries ndash ThailandVietnam China the United States and India ndash in decreasing order of exported quantities accounted for aboutthree-quarters of world rice exports in 2002[52]

In 2010 the three largest exporters of rice in decreasing order of quantity exported were Thailand Vietnam andIndia Together they accounted for nearly 70 of the world rice exports The primary variety exported by Thailandand Vietnam were Jasmine rice while exports from India included aromatic Basmati variety China an exporter ofrice in early 2000s was a net importer of rice in 2010[57]

Major importers usually include Nigeria Indonesia Bangladesh Saudi Arabia Iran Iraq Malaysia the PhilippinesBrazil and some African and Persian Gulf countries Although China and India are the two largest producers of ricein the world both countries consume the majority of the rice produced domestically leaving little to be tradedinternationally

Worlds most productive rice farms and farmersThe average world yield for rice was 43 tonnes per hectare in 2010Australian rice farms were the most productive in 2010 with a nationwide average of 108 tonnes per hectare[58]

Yuan Longping of China National Hybrid Rice Research and Development Center China set a world record for riceyield in 2010 at 19 tonnes per hectare on a demonstration plot In 2011 this record was surpassed by an Indianfarmer Sumant Kumar with 224 tonnes per hectare in Bihar Both these farmers claim to have employed newlydeveloped rice breeds and System of Rice Intensification (SRI) a recent innovation in rice farming SRI is claimedto have set new national records in rice yields within the last 10 years in many countries The claimed Chinese andIndian yields have yet to be demonstrated on seven-hectare lots and to be reproducible over two consecutive years onthe same farm[59][60][61][62]

Rice 15

PriceIn late 2007 to May 2008 the price of grains rose greatly due to droughts in major producing countries (particularlyAustralia) increased use of grains for animal feed and US subsidies for bio-fuel production Although there was noshortage of rice on world markets this general upward trend in grain prices led to panic buying by consumersgovernment rice export bans (in particular by Vietnam and India) and inflated import orders by the Philippinesmarketing board the National Food Authority This caused significant rises in rice prices In late April 2008 priceshit 24 US cents a pound twice the price of seven months earlier[63]

On April 30 2008 Thailand announced plans for the creation of the Organisation of Rice Exporting Countries(OREC) with the intention that this should develop into a price-fixing cartel for rice[64][65] However little progresshad been made by mid-2011 to achieve this

Worldwide consumption

Consumption of rice bycountrymdash20032004

(million metric ton)[66]

China 1350

India 853

Indonesia 370

Bangladesh 264

Vietnam 177

Thailand 102

Myanmar 102

Philippines 97

Japan 87

Brazil 81

South Korea 50

United States 39

Egypt 33

Iran 31

North Korea 16

Taiwan 12

South Africa 07

SourceUnited States Department of Agriculture [67]

Between 1961 and 2002 per capita consumption of rice increased by 40Rice is the most important crop in Asia In Cambodia for example 90 of the total agricultural area is used for riceproduction[68]

US rice consumption has risen sharply over the past 25 years fueled in part by commercial applications such asbeer production[69] Almost one in five adult Americans now report eating at least half a serving of white or brownrice per day[70]

Rice 16

Environmental impactsRice cultivation on wetland rice fields is thought to be responsible for 6ndash29 of the anthropogenic methaneemissions annually[71] Rice requires slightly more water to produce than other grains[72]

Long-term flooding of rice fields cuts the soil off from atmospheric oxygen and causes anaerobic fermentation oforganic matter in the soil[71] Current contributions of methane from agriculture is ~15 of anthropogenicgreenhouse gases as estimated by the IPCC Methane is twenty times more potent a greenhouse gas than carbondioxide[73]

A 2010 study found that as a result of rising temperatures and decreasing solar radiation during the later years of the20th century the rice yield growth rate has decreased in many parts of Asia compared to what would have beenobserved had the temperature and solar radiation trends not occurred[74][75] The yield growth rate had fallen10ndash20 at some locations The study was based on records from 227 farms in Thailand Vietnam Nepal IndiaChina Bangladesh and Pakistan The mechanism of this falling yield was not clear but might involve increasedrespiration during warm nights which expends energy without being able to photosynthesize

Pests and diseasesRice pests are any organisms or microbes with the potential to reduce the yield or value of the rice crop (or of riceseeds)[76] Rice pests include weeds pathogens insects nematode rodents and birds A variety of factors cancontribute to pest outbreaks including the overuse of pesticides improper irrigation and high rates of nitrogenfertilizer application[77] Weather conditions also contribute to pest outbreaks For example rice gall midge and armyworm outbreaks tend to follow periods of high rainfall early in the wet season while thrips outbreaks are associatedwith drought[78]

Several nematode species infect rice crops causing diseases such as Ufra (Ditylenchus dipsaci) White tip disease(Aphelenchoide bessei) and root knot disease (Meloidogyne graminicola) Some nematode species such asPratylenchus spp are most dangerous in upland rice of all parts of the world Rice root nematode (Hischmanniellaspp) is a migratory endoparasite which on higher inoculum levels will lead to complete destruction of a rice cropBeyond being obligate parasites they also decrease the vigor of plants and increase the plants susceptibility to otherpests and diseasesCrop protection scientists are trying to develop rice pest management techniques which are sustainable In otherwords to manage crop pests in such a manner that future crop production is not threatened[79] Sustainable pestmanagement is based on four principles biodiversity host plant resistance (HPR) landscape ecology andhierarchies in a landscape ndash from biological to social[80] At present rice pest management includes culturaltechniques pest-resistant rice varieties and pesticides (which include insecticide) Increasingly there is evidencethat farmers pesticide applications are often unnecessary and even facilitate pest outbreaks[81][82][83][84] Byreducing the populations of natural enemies of rice pests[85] misuse of insecticides can actually lead to pestoutbreaks[86] The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) demonstrated in 1993 that a 875 reduction inpesticide use can lead to an overall drop in pest numbers[87] IRRI also conducted two campaigns in 1994 and 2003respectively which discouraged insecticide misuse and smarter pest management in Vietnam[88][89]

Rice plants produce their own chemical defenses to protect themselves from pest attacks Some synthetic chemicalssuch as the herbicide 24-D cause the plant to increase the production of certain defensive chemicals and therebyincrease the plantrsquos resistance to some types of pests[90] Conversely other chemicals such as the insecticideimidacloprid can induce changes in the gene expression of the rice that cause the plant to become more susceptibleto attacks by certain types of pests[91]

5-Alkylresorcinols are chemicals that can also be found in rice[92]

Botanicals so-called natural pesticides are used by some farmers in an attempt to control rice pests Botanicals include extracts of leaves or a mulch of the leaves themselves Some upland rice farmers in Cambodia spread

Rice 17

chopped leaves of the bitter bush (Chromolaena odorata) over the surface of fields after planting This practiceprobably helps the soil retain moisture and thereby facilitates seed germination Farmers also claim the leaves are anatural fertilizer and helps suppress weed and insect infestations[93]

Among rice cultivars there are differences in the responses to and recovery from pest damage[94][95] Thereforeparticular cultivars are recommended for areas prone to certain pest problems The genetically based ability of a ricevariety to withstand pest attacks is called resistance Three main types of plant resistance to pests are recognized asnonpreference antibiosis and tolerance[96] Nonpreference (or antixenosis) describes host plants which insects preferto avoid antibiosis is where insect survival is reduced after the ingestion of host tissue and tolerance is the capacityof a plant to produce high yield or retain high quality despite insect infestation[97] Over time the use of pestresistant rice varieties selects for pests that are able to overcome these mechanisms of resistance When a rice varietyis no longer able to resist pest infestations resistance is said to have broken down Rice varieties that can be widelygrown for many years in the presence of pests and retain their ability to withstand the pests are said to have durableresistance Mutants of popular rice varieties are regularly screened by plant breeders to discover new sources ofdurable resistance[98][96]

Major rice pests include the brown planthopper[99] the rice gall midge[100] the rice bug[94] the rice leafroller riceweevils stemborer[101] panicle rice mite rats[102] and the weed Echinochloa crusgali[103]

Major rice diseases include Rice ragged stunt Sheath Blight and tungro[104] Rice blast caused by the fungusMagnaporthe grisea is the most significant disease affecting rice cultivation There is also an ascomycete fungusCochliobolus miyabeanus that causes brown spot disease in rice[105][106]

Parasitic weedsRice is parasitized by the weed eudicot Striga hermonthica[107] This parasitic weed is a devastating pest on the cropIn Rwanda the national agriculture research institute (ISAR) seeks on a new variety of rice that can resist more topests and diseases in collaboration with national university of Rwanda at ruhande

Cultivars

Rice seed collection from IRRI

While most rice is bred for crop quality and productivity there arevarieties selected for characteristics such as texture smell andfirmness Cultivars exist that are adapted to deep flooding and theseare generally called floating rice[108]

There are four major categories of rice worldwide indica japonicaaromatic and glutinous The different varieties of rice are notconsidered interchangeable either in food preparation or agricultureso as a result each major variety is a completely separate market fromother varieties It is common for one variety of rice to rise in pricewhile another one drops in price[109]

The largest collection of rice cultivars is at the International RiceResearch Institute[110] in the Philippines with over 100000 riceaccessions[111] held in the International Rice Genebank[112] Ricecultivars are often classified by their grain shapes and texture Forexample Thai Jasmine rice is long-grain and relatively less sticky assome long-grain rice contains less amylopectin than short-graincultivars Chinese restaurants often serve long-grain as plain

Rice 18

unseasoned steamed rice though short-grain rice is common as well Japanese mochi rice and Chinese sticky rice areshort-grain Chinese people use sticky rice which is properly known as glutinous rice (note glutinous refer to theglue-like characteristic of rice does not refer to gluten) to make zongzi The Japanese table rice is a stickyshort-grain rice Japanese sake rice is another kind as well

Indian rice cultivars include long-grained and aromatic Basmati (ਬਾਸਮਤੀ) (grown in the North) long andmedium-grained Patna rice and in South India (Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka) short-grained Sona Masuri (alsocalled as Bangaru theegalu) In the state of Tamil Nadu the most prized cultivar is ponni which is primarily grown inthe delta regions of the Kaveri River Kaveri is also referred to as ponni in the South and the name reflects thegeographic region where it is grown In the Western Indian state of Maharashtra a short grain variety calledAmbemohar is very popular This rice has a characteristic fragrance of Mango blossom

Unpolished long-grain rice grains with bran

Polished Indian sona masuri rice grains

Aromatic rices have definite aromas and flavors the most notedcultivars are Thai fragrant rice Basmati Patna rice Vietnamesefragrant rice and a hybrid cultivar from America sold under the tradename Texmati Both Basmati and Texmati have a mild popcorn-likearoma and flavor In Indonesia there are also red and black cultivars

High-yield cultivars of rice suitable for cultivation in Africa and otherdry ecosystems called the new rice for Africa (NERICA) cultivarshave been developed It is hoped that their cultivation will improvefood security in West Africa

Draft genomes for the two most common rice cultivars indica andjaponica were published in April 2002 Rice was chosen as a modelorganism for the biology of grasses because of its relatively smallgenome (~430 megabase pairs) Rice was the first crop with a completegenome sequence[113]

On December 16 2002 the UN General Assembly declared the year2004 the International Year of Rice The declaration was sponsored bymore than 40 countries

Biotechnology

High-yielding varietiesThe high-yielding varieties are a group of crops created intentionally during the Green Revolution to increase globalfood production This project enabled labor markets in Asia to shift away from agriculture and into industrialsectors The first Rice Car IR8 was produced in 1966 at the International Rice Research Institute which is based inthe Philippines at the University of the Philippines Los Bantildeos site IR8 was created through a cross between anIndonesian variety named Peta and a Chinese variety named Dee Geo Woo Gen[114]

Scientists have identified and cloned many genes involved in the gibberellin signaling pathway including GAI1(Gibberellin Insensitive) and SLR1 (Slender Rice)[115] Disruption of gibberellin signaling can lead to significantlyreduced stem growth leading to a dwarf phenotype Photosynthetic investment in the stem is reduced dramatically asthe shorter plants are inherently more stable mechanically Assimilates become redirected to grain productionamplifying in particular the effect of chemical fertilizers on commercial yield In the presence of nitrogen fertilizersand intensive crop management these varieties increase their yield two to three times

Rice 19

Future potentialAs the UN Millennium Development project seeks to spread global economic development to Africa the GreenRevolution is cited as the model for economic development With the intent of replicating the successful Asianboom in agronomic productivity groups like the Earth Institute are doing research on African agricultural systemshoping to increase productivity An important way this can happen is the production of New Rices for Africa(NERICA) These rices selected to tolerate the low input and harsh growing conditions of African agriculture areproduced by the African Rice Center and billed as technology from Africa for Africa The NERICA haveappeared in The New York Times (October 10 2007) and International Herald Tribune (October 9 2007) trumpetedas miracle crops that will dramatically increase rice yield in Africa and enable an economic resurgence Ongoingresearch in China to develop perennial rice could result in enhanced sustainability and food security

Golden riceRice kernels do not contain vitamin A so people who obtain most of their calories from rice are at risk of vitamin Adeficiency German and Swiss researchers have genetically engineered rice to produce beta-carotene the precursor tovitamin A in the rice kernel The beta-carotene turns the processed (white) rice a gold color hence the namegolden rice The beta-carotene is converted to vitamin A in humans who consume the rice[116] Although some ricestrains produce beta-carotene in the hull no non-genetically engineered strains have been found that producebeta-carotene in the kernel despite the testing of thousands of strains Additional efforts are being made to improvethe quantity and quality of other nutrients in golden rice[117]

Expression of human proteinsVentria Bioscience has genetically modified rice to express lactoferrin lysozyme and human serum albumin whichare proteins usually found in breast milk These proteins have antiviral antibacterial and antifungal effects[118]

Rice containing these added proteins can be used as a component in oral rehydration solutions which are used to treatdiarrheal diseases thereby shortening their duration and reducing recurrence Such supplements may also helpreverse anemia[119]

References[1] ProdSTAT (http faostat fao org site 567 DesktopDefault aspx) FAOSTAT Retrieved December 26 2006[2] Smith Bruce D The Emergence of Agriculture Scientific American Library A Division of HPHLP New York 1998 ISBN 0-7167-6030-4[3] Why do people throw rice or birdseed as a newly married couple leaves the church (http ask yahoo com 20030626 html)

Askyahoocom (2003-06-26) Retrieved on 2012-05-13[4] International Rice Research Institute The Rice Plant and How it Grows (http www knowledgebank irri org riceIPM IPM_Information

PestEcologyBasics CropGrowthAndPestDamage RicePlantHowItGrows The_Rice_plant_and_How_it_Grows htm) Retrieved January 292008

[5] rice (http www etymonline com index phpterm=rice) Online Etymology Dictionary[6] rice (http oxforddictionaries com definition ricerskey=2B5J5Namp result=1m_en_gb0709840) Oxford Dictionaries[7] ὄρυζα (http www perseus tufts edu hopper textdoc=Perseustext1999 04 0057entry=o) ruza) Henry George Liddell Robert Scott

A Greek-English Lexicon on Perseus[8] Witzel Michael (1999) Substrate Languages in Old Indo-Aryan (http www ejvs laurasianacademy com ejvs0501 ejvs0501article

pdf) Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies 5 (1) 26 [9] Thorley John (1969) The development of trade between the Roman Empire and the East under Augustus Greece amp Rome 16 (2) 222

doi101017S001738350001706X JSTOR 642851[10] Risks of Talcum Powder (http www preventcancer com consumers cosmetics talc htm) Preventcancercom Retrieved on 2012-05-13[11] http www nal usda gov fnic foodcomp search[12] Jianguo G Wu Chunhai Shia and Xiaoming Zhanga (2003) Estimating the amino acid composition in milled rice by near-infrared

reflectance spectroscopy Field Crops Research 75 1 doi101016S0378-4290(02)00006-0[13][13] The latter method of using excess water is not desirable with enriched rice as much of the enrichment additives are flushed away when the

water is discarded[14][14] Watson p 15

Rice 20

[15] Shoichi Ito and Yukihiro Ishikawa Tottori University Japan (Marketing of Value-Added Rice Products in Japan Germinated Grown Riceand Rice Bread) (http www hatsuga com DOMER english en GBRRB html) Retrieved February 12 2004

[16] NHS Can reheating rice cause food poisoning (http www nhs uk chq Pages can-reheating-rice-cause-food-poisoningaspxCategoryID=51amp SubCategoryID=215)

[17] Rice is Life (http www fao org rice2004 en f-sheet factsheet3 pdf) Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations2004

[18] Bienvenido O Juliano (1993) Rice in human nutrition (http www fao org docrep T0567E T0567E00 htm) Food and AgriculturalOrganization of the United Nations

[19] Nutrition Info white rice cooked versus brown rice cooked (http skipthepie org cereal-grains-and-pastarice-white-long-grain-regular-cooked compared-to rice-brown-long-grain-cooked )

[20] Sungjoon Jang and Zhimin Xu (2009) Lipophilic and Hydrophilic Antioxidants and Their Antioxidant Activities in Purple Rice Bran(http pubs acs org doi abs 10 1021 jf803113c) Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 57 (3) 858ndash862 doi101021jf803113cPMID 19138081

[21] Ling WH Cheng QX Ma J Wang T (2001) Red and Black Rice Decrease Atherosclerotic Plaque Formation and Increase AntioxidantStatus in Rabbits (http jn nutrition org content 131 5 1421 short) Journal of Nutrition 131 (5) 1421ndash1426 PMID 11340093

[22] Nutrient data laboratory (http www nal usda gov fnic foodcomp Data SR18 sr18 html) United States Department of Agriculture [23] IRRI rice knowledge bank (http www knowledgebank irri org )[24] More rice with less water (http ciifad cornell edu sri extmats philmanual pdf) cornelledu Retrieved on 2012-05-13[25] Plants capable of surviving flooding (http www uu nl EN Current Pages Gewaarschuwdeplantenhoudenademinbijoverstroming

aspx) Uunl Retrieved on 2012-05-13[26] drought tolerance in upland rice (http stresstolerant blogspot com 2008 09 upland-rice-useful-genetic-resouce-for html)

Stresstolerantblogspotcom (2008-09-06) Retrieved on 2012-05-13[27] Vaughan Lu B Tomooka N (2008) The evolving story of rice evolution Plant Science 174 (4) 394ndash408

doi101016jplantsci200801016[28] Harris David R (1996) The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia Psychology Press p 565

ISBN 1-85728-538-7[29] MacNeish R S and Libby J eds (1995) Origins of Rice Agriculture Publications in Anthropology No 13[30] Worlds oldest rice found Dr David Whitehouse (http news bbc co uk 1 hi sci tech 3207552 stm) BBC News 2003-10-21

Retrieved April 30 2011[31] Kim Minkoo (2008) Habu Junko Fawcett Clare Matsunaga John M ed Evaluating multiple narratives Beyond nationalist colonialist

imperialist archaeologies New York Springer p 128 ISBN 978-0-387-76459-7 Most scholars were highly skeptical of Lees report []Most specialists agree that rice is not indigenous to the Korean peninsula The conventional perspective in East Asian archaelogy is that ricecultivation started along the banks of the Yangtze River in southern China and subsequently moved northward

[32] Kim Minkoo (2008) Multivocality Multifaceted Voices and Korean Archaeology Evaluating Multiple Narratives Beyond NationalistColonialist Imperialist Archaeologies New York Springer p 118 ISBN 978-0-387-76459-7

[33] Rices Origins Point to China Genome Researchers Conclude (http www sciencenewsline com biology 2011050313000047 html)ScienceNewsline Retrieved 13 December 2011

[34] Molina J Sikora M Garud N Flowers JM Rubinstein S Reynolds A Huang P Jackson S Schaal BA Bustamante CDBoyko AR Purugganan MD (2011) Molecular evidence for a single evolutionary origin of domesticated rice Proceedings of theNational Academy of Sciences 108 (20) 8351ndash8356 doi101073pnas1104686108

[35] Maddox Gregory [ed] (2006) Sub-Saharan Africa An Environmental History ABC-CLIO p 267 ISBN 1851095551[36] National Research Council (1996) African Rice (http books nap edu openbook phprecord_id=2305amp page=17) Lost Crops of

Africa Volume I Grains (http books nap edu openbook phprecord_id=2305) Lost Crops of Africa 1 National Academies PressISBN 978-0-309-04990-0 Retrieved July 18 2008

[37] Watson pp 17ndash18[38] HC Darby (1957) The face of Europe on the eve of the great discoveries The New Cambridge Modern History 1 p 32

doi101017CHOL9780521045414005[39][39] Conversion to Islam in the Balkans Kisve Bahası Petitions and Ottoman social life 1670-1730 page 46 2004[40] Rice and Slavery (http www slaveryinamerica org history hs_es_rice htm) Slavery in America Retrieved on 2012-05-13[41] Carney Judith Ann (2001) Black rice the African origins of rice cultivation in the Americas Cambridge Harvard University Press

ISBN 0-674-00452-3[42] Carolina Gold Rice Foundation (http www carolinagoldricefoundation org ) Carolina Gold Rice Foundation Retrieved on 2012-05-13[43] Farm Raised Crawfish (http www crawfish com farmed-crawfish-vs-wild-crawfish php) Crawfishcom Retrieved on 2012-05-13[44] Ching Lee (2005) Historic Richvale mdash the birthplace of California rice (http www cfbf com magazine MagazineStory cfmID=17amp

ck=70EFDF2EC9B086079795C442636B55FB) California Farm Bureau Federation Retrieved August 10 2007[45] Californias Rice Growing Region (http www calrice org e7b_cas_rice_growing_region htm) California Rice Commission

Retrieved August 10 2007[46] Daniel A Sumner Henrich Brunke (2003) The economic contributions of the California rice industry (http www calrice org

c3a_economic_impact htm) California Rice Commission Retrieved August 10 2007

Rice 21

[47] Medium Grain Varieties (http www calrice org b6a_medium htm) California Rice Commission Retrieved August 10 2007[48] States Department of Agriculture (http www usda gov wps portal usdahomecontentidonly=trueamp contentid=2006 08 0306

xml|United) August 2006 Release No 030606 US RICE STATISTICS[49] Wadham Sir Samuel Wilson R Kent and Wood Joyce Land Utilization in Australia Melbourne University Press (1957) p 246[50] Australian Bureau of Meteorology Climatic Atlas of Australia Rainfall Bureau of Meteorology Melbourne Victoria (2000)[51] faoorg (FAOSTAT) Countries by commodity (Rice paddy) (http faostat fao org site 339 default aspx) Retrieved May 26 2012[52] Sustainable rice production for food security (http www fao org DOCREP 006 Y4751E y4751e00 htm) Food and Agriculture

Organization of the United Nations 2003 [53] World Wheat Corn and Rice (http nue okstate edu crop_information world_wheat_production htm) Oklahoma State University

FAOSTAT [54] MISSING FOOD The Case of Postharvest Grain Losses in Sub-Saharan Africa (http siteresources worldbank org INTARD

Resources MissingFoods10_web pdf) The World Bank April 2011 [55] Basavaraja H Mahajanashetti SB Udagatti Naveen C Economic Analysis of Post-harvest Losses in Food Grains in India A Case

Study of Karnataka (http ageconsearch umn edu bitstream 47429 2 8 pdf) Agricultural Economics Research Review 20 117ndash126 [56][56] Shahidur Rashid Ashok Gulari and Ralph Cummings Jnr (eds) From Parastatals to Private Trade International Food Policy Research

Institute and Johns Hopkins University Press 2008 ISBN 0-8018-8815-8[57] World Rice Trade (http www fas usda gov psdonline psdreport aspxhidReportRetrievalName=BVSamp hidReportRetrievalID=677amp

hidReportRetrievalTemplateID=7) United States Department of Agriculture November 2011 [58] FAOSTAT Production-Crops 2010 data (http faostat fao org site 567 DesktopDefault aspxPageID=567ancor) Food and

Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2011 [59] LP Yuan (2010) A Scientistrsquos Perspective on Experience with SRI in CHINA for Raising the Yields of Super Hybrid Rice (http ciifad

cornell edu sri proc1 sri_06 pdf) [60] Indian farmer sets new world record in rice yield (http www philstar com Article aspxarticleId=759471) The Philippine Star

2011-12-18 [61] Grassroots heroes lead Bihars rural revolution (http indiatoday intoday in story grassroots-heroes-lead-rural-revolution-of-bihar 1

168028 html) India Today 2012-01-10 [62] System of Rice Intensification (http sri ciifad cornell edu ) Cornell University 2011 [63] Cyclone fuels rice price increase (http news bbc co uk 2 hi business 7387251 stm) BBC News May 7 2008[64] Mekong nations to form rice price-fixing cartel (http www radioaustralia net au news stories 200804 s2232076 htmtab=asia)

Radio Australia April 30 2008[65] PM floats idea of five-nation rice cartel (http www bangkokpost com News 01May2008_news07 php) Bangkok Post May 1 2008[66] Nationmastercom Agriculture Statistics gt Grains gt Rice consumption (most recent) by country (http www nationmaster com graph

agr_gra_ric_con-agriculture-grains-rice-consumption) Retrieved April 24 2008[67] http usda mannlib cornell edu MannUsda homepage do[68] Don Puckridge The Burning of the Rice (http sidharta com books index jspuid=67) Sidhartacom Retrieved on 2012-05-13[69] United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Economic Research Service Briefing Rooms Rice (http www ers usda gov

Briefing Rice ) Retrieved April 24 2008[70] Iowa State University (July 2005) Rice Consumption in the United States New Evidence from Food Consumption Surveys (http

publications iowa gov 2781 ) [71] Neue Heinz-Ulrich (1993) Methane emission from rice fields Wetland rice fields may make a major contribution to global warming

(http www ciesin org docs 004-032 004-032 html) BioScience 43 (7) 466ndash73 [72] report12pdf Virtual Water Trade ndash Proceedings of the International Expert Meeting on Virtual Water Trade (http www waterfootprint

org Reports Report12 pdf) p 108[73] IPCC Climate Change 2007 Synthesis Report (http www ipcc ch pdf assessment-report ar4 syr ar4_syr pdf) United Nations

Environment Programme 2007Ch5 8 and 10 IPCCch[74] Welch Jarrod R Vincent JR Auffhammer M Doberman A Moya P Dawe D (2010) Rice yields in tropicalsubtropical Asia

exhibit large but opposing sensitivities to minimum and maximum temperatures Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 107 (33) 14562ndash7doi101073pnas1001222107 PMC 2930450 PMID 20696908

[75] Black Richard Rice yields falling under global warming (http www bbc co uk news science-environment-10918591) BBC NewsScience amp Environment (2010-08-09) retrieved August 9 2010

[76] Gary C Jahn JA Litsinger Y Chen and A Barrion (2007) Integrated Pest Management of Rice Ecological Concepts In O Koul and GWCuperus Ecologically Based Integrated Pest Management CAB International pp 315ndash366 ISBN 978-1-84593-064-6

[77] Jahn Gary C Almazan Liberty P Pacia Jocelyn B (2005) Effect of Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Intrinsic Rate of Increase ofHysteroneurasetariae(Thomas) (Homoptera Aphididae) on Rice (Oryza sativaL) (http docserver esa catchword org deliver cw pdf esa freepdfs0046225x v34n4s26 pdf) Environmental Entomology 34 (4) 938 doi1016030046-225X-344938

[78] Douangboupha B K Khamphoukeo S Inthavong J Schiller and GC Jahn 2006 Pests and diseases of the rice production systems of Laos(http aciar gov au files node 756 Rice In Laos chapter 16-25 pdf) Chapter 17 pp 265ndash281 In JM Schiller MB Chanphengxay BLinquist and S Appa Rao editors Rice in Laos Los Bantildeos (Philippines) IRRIISBN 978-971-22-0211-7

Rice 22

[79] Jahn GC B Khiev C Pol N Chhorn S Pheng and V Preap 2001 Developing sustainable pest management for rice in Cambodia pp243ndash258 In S Suthipradit C Kuntha S Lorlowhakarn and J Rakngan [eds] Sustainable Agriculture Possibility and Direction Bangkok(Thailand) National Science and Technology Development Agency

[80] Savary S Horgan F Willocquet L Heong KL (2012) A review of principles for sustainable pest management in rice CropProtection 32 54 doi101016jcropro201110012

[81] Jahn GC S Pheng B Khiev and C Pol 1996 Farmersrsquo pest management and rice production practices in Cambodian lowland riceCambodia-IRRI-Australia Project (CIAP) Baseline Survey Report No 6 CIAP Phnom Penh Cambodia

[82] Bangladeshi farmers banish insecticides (http www scidev net Features index cfmfuseaction=readfeaturesamp itemid=306amplanguage=1) SCIDEVnet (2004-07-30) Retrieved on 2012-05-13

[83] IRRIorg (http www youtube com watchv=VKB-pg8EGMQ) Youtubecom (2006-11-20) Retrieved on 2012-05-13[84] Wang Li-Ping Shen Jun Ge Lin-Quan Wu Jin-Cai Yang Guo-Qin Jahn Gary C (2010) Insecticide-induced increase in the protein

content of male accessory glands and its effect on the fecundity of females in the brown planthopper Nilaparvata lugens Staringl (HemipteraDelphacidae) Crop Protection 29 (11) 1280 doi101016jcropro201007009

[85] Jahn GC (1992) Rice pest control and effects on predators in Thailand Insecticide amp Acaricide Tests 17 252ndash3[86] Cohen J E Schoenly K Heong K L Justo H Arida G Barrion A T amp Litsinger J A (1994) A Food-Web Approach to

Evaluating the Effect of Insecticide Spraying on Insect Pest Population-Dynamics in a Philippine Irrigated Rice Ecosystem (http wwwmendeley com researcha-foodweb-approach-to-evaluating-the-effect-of-insecticide-spraying-on-insect-pest-populationdynamics-in-a-philippine-irrigated-rice-ecosystem) Journal of Applied Ecology 31-issue=4 747ndash763

[87] (http irri org knowledge publications rice-today special-reports science-shorts the-pesticide-paradox)[88] lsquoThree Gains Three Reductionsrsquo (http ricehoppers net 2010 10

three-reduction-three-gains-a-factor-in-vietnamacircs-continuing-success-says-thai-report ) Ricehoppersnet (2010-10-12) Retrieved on2012-05-13

[89] lsquoNo Early Sprayrsquo (http ricehoppers net wp-content uploads 2010 04 Escalada-et-al-2009 pdf) ricehoppersnet (April 2010) Retrievedon 2012-05-13

[90] Xin Zhaojun Yu Zhaonan Erb Matthias Turlings Ted C J Wang Baohui Qi Jinfeng Liu Shengning Lou Yonggen (2012) Thebroad-leaf herbicide 24-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid turns rice into a living trap for a major insect pest and a parasitic wasp New Phytologist194 (2) 498ndash510 doi101111j1469-8137201204057x PMID 22313362

[91] Cheng Yao Shi Zhao-Peng Jiang Li-Ben Ge Lin-Quan Wu Jin-Cai Jahn Gary C (2012) Possible connection betweenimidacloprid-induced changes in rice gene transcription profiles and susceptibility to the brown plant hopper Nilaparvata lugens Staringl(Hemiptera Delphacidae) Pesticide Biochemistry and Physiology 102 (3) 213ndash219 doi101016jpestbp201201003 PMC 3334832PMID 22544984

[92] Yoshikatsu Suzuki Minoru Kurano Yasuaki Esumi Isamu Yamaguchi and Yoshiharu Doi (2003) Biosynthesis of 5-alkylresorcinol inrice incorporation of a putative fatty acid unit in the 5-alkylresorcinol carbon chain Bioorganic Chemistry 31 (6) 437ndash452doi101016jbioorg200308003 PMID 14613765

[93] Jahn GC C Pol B Khiev S Pheng and N Chhorn 1999 Farmerrsquos pest management and rice production practices in Cambodian upland anddeepwater rice Cambodia-IRRI-Australia Project Baseline Survey Rpt No 7

[94] Jahn GC Domingo I Almazan ML Pacia J Pacia Jocelyn (2004) Effect of rice bug Leptocorisa oratorius (Hemiptera Alydidae) onrice yield grain quality and seed viability Journal of economic entomology 97 (6) 1923ndash7 doi1016030022-0493-9761923PMID 15666746

[95] Khiev B Jahn GC Pol C Chhorn N (2000) Effects of simulated pest damage on rice yields (http www mendeley com researcheffects-of-simulated-pest-damage-on-rice-yields ) IRRN 25 (3) 27ndash8

[96] Sangha Jatinder Singh Chen Yolanda H Palchamy Kadirvel Jahn Gary C Maheswaran M Adalla Candida B Leung Hei (2008)Categories and Inheritance of Resistance toNilaparvata lugens(Hemiptera Delphacidae) in Mutants of Indica Rice IR64 Journal ofEconomic Entomology 101 (2) 575ndash83 doi1016030022-0493(2008)101[575CAIORT]20CO2 ISSN 0022-0493 PMID 18459427

[97] Kogan M Ortman EF (1978) Antixenosis a new term proposed to defined to describe Painters non-preference modality ofresistance Bull Entomol Soc Am 24 175ndash6

[98] Liu L Z Van Q Y Shu and M Maluszynski (2004) Officially released mutant varieties in China Mutat Breed Rev 14 (1) 64[99] V Preap MP Zalucki and GC Jahn (2006) Brown planthopper outbreaks and management (http www cardi org kh images stories

CJA Vol07-N01-Jan-Jun-2006 pdf) Cambodian Journal of Agriculture 7 (1) 17ndash25 [100][100] J Benett JS Bentur IC Pasula K Krishnaiah [eds] New approaches to gall midge resistance in rice International Rice Research Institute

and Indian Council of Agricultural Research[101] IRRI Rice insect pest factsheets (http www knowledgebank irri org ipm index php factsheets)[102] G Singleton L Hinds H Leirs and Zhibin Zhang [Eds] Ecologically-based rodent management ACIAR Canberra Ch 17 pp 358ndash371

ISBN 1-86320-262-5[103] Pheng S B Khiev C Pol and GC Jahn (2001) Response of two rice cultivars to the competition of Echinochloa crus-gali (L) P Beauv

(http ejournals ph index phpjournal=IRRNamp page=articleamp op=viewamp pathamp 91amp 93=4318) International Rice Research InstituteNotes (IRRN) 26 (2) 36ndash37

Rice 23

[104] IRRI Rice Diseases factsheets (http www knowledgebank irri org ipm index php diseases-crop-health-2733)Knowledgebankirriorg Retrieved on 2012-05-13

[105] Rice Brown Spot essential data (http www cbwinfo com Biological PlantPath CM html) CBWinfocom Retrieved on 2012-05-13[106] Cochliobolus (http www invasive org browse tax cfmfam=683amp genus=Cochliobolus) Invasiveorg (2010-05-04) Retrieved on

2012-05-13[107] Yoshida Satoko Maruyama Shinichiro Nozaki Hisayoshi (2010) Horizontal Gene Transfer by the Parasitic Plant Stiga hermanthica

Science 328 (5982) 1128 doi101126science1187145 PMID 20508124[108] Rice (http www cgiar org impact research rice html) Cgiarorg Retrieved on 2012-05-13[109] The US Rice Export Market (http www ers usda gov briefing Rice SpecialArticle USricemarket pdf) USDA November 2000 [110] http www irri org[111] IRRIorg (http www irri org media press press aspid=1)[112] Jackson MT (September 1997) Conservation of rice genetic resources the role of the International Rice Genebank at IRRI (http

www kluweronline com art pdfissn=0167-4412amp volume=35amp page=61) Plant Mol Biol 35 (1ndash2) 61ndash7doi101023A1005709332130 PMID 9291960

[113] Gillis Justing (2005-08-11) Rice Genome Fully Mapped (http www washingtonpost com wp-dyn content article 2005 08 10AR2005081001054 htmlreferrer=email) Washington Post

[114] Rice Varieties IRRI Knowledge Bank Accessed August 2006 (http www knowledgebank irri org regionalSites nepal RiceVarietieshtm)

[115] Yamaguchi S (2008) Gibberellin Metabolism and its Regulation Ann Rev Plant Biol 59 225ndash251doi101146annurevarplant59032607092804

[116] Researchers Determine That Golden Rice Is an Effective Source of Vitamin A (http www goldenrice org PDFs ASNonGR pdf)American Society for Nutrition 2009 Retrieved October 28 2010

[117] Grand Challenges in Global Health Engineering Rice for High Beta Carotene Vitamin E and Enhanced Fe and Zn Bioavailability (http www grandchallenges org ImproveNutrition Challenges NutrientRichPlants Pages Rice aspx) grandchallengesorg Accessed 14 April2012

[118] Emma Marris (2007-05-18) Rice with human proteins to take root in Kansas Nature doi101038news070514-17[119] Bethell DR Huang J (2004) Recombinant human lactoferrin treatment for global health issues iron deficiency and acute diarrhea

Biometals 17 (3) 337ndash42 doi101023BBIOM000002771456331b8 PMID 15222487

Bibliographybull Watson Andrew (1983) Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world Cambridge University Press ISBN

0-521-06883-5

External linksbull Rice (http www dmoz org Science Agriculture Field_Crops Cereals Rice ) at the Open Directory Projectbull International Rice Research Institute (http irri org )bull Rice latest trade data on ITC Trade Map (http www trademap org open_access Index aspxproceed=trueamp

product=1006)bull Global Rice Science Partnership (http irri org our-science global-rice-science-partnership-grisp)bull Rice Today magazine (http irri org ricetoday)bull Calories in rice (http thecaloriecounter net calories-in-rice html )bull Interviews with Pioneers of Rice Research (http archive irri org publications today Pioneer_Interviews asp)bull Rice Knowledge Bank (http irri org knowledge irri-training knowledge-bank)bull A Brief History of Rice (p 9 ndash p 12) (http www pub ac za resources docs

biotech_biodiv_module_gr11_2005 pdf)bull A Cuban Skirmish for Rice (http www havanatimes org p=25078) by Isbel Diaz Torres Havana Times

June 16 2010bull National Food Authority (http nfa gov ph )bull Philippine Rice Research Institute (http philrice gov ph )bull Safe Storage of Cooked Rice (http www abc net au health talkinghealth factbuster stories 2009 01 27

2475255 htm)bull Rice Research and Practice (http uark libguides com rice)

Article Sources and Contributors 24

Article Sources and ContributorsRice Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphpoldid=500911787 Contributors (jarbarf) - tSR - Nth Man 1234r00t 1297 1337n3rd 15lsoucy 28421u2232nfenfcenc 2lowteg 7 A suyashA-giau AM962 AAMiller ABF AVand Aaron headly Aaron north Aaron schultz Aaronbrick Abeg92 Abhilashkoushik6 Abluescarab Abu badali Acather96 Accurizer AchowatAdityagarg09 Adjaq Adpete Adrian J Hunter Aecis Agravier Agricmarketing Agrofe Ahoerstemeier Aika Ajandryan56 AjaxSmack Ajaxkroon Akairicecom Alan Joe Skarda AlancaAlansohn Aldaron Aleenf1 Alephlamedyud Alex Lin Alexmuller AlexGWU AlexandarTing AlexiusHoratius Alf Boggis Alnokta Alschwal Amaltheus Amartyabag AmiodaroneAnastrophe Andonic Andre Engels Andrew Dalby AndrewJMT Andrewpmk Andy N Andycjp Angela C AnimeJanai Animum Anna Frodesiak Anomalocaris AnonMoos AntandrusAnte Aikio Anthere AnthonyQBachler Anthonyrj Anujtaraori Anwar saadat Apocalyptic Destroyer ApostleVonColorado Appeltree1 Archon6812 Arie Arpingstone ArrkhalArsenalchampsleague Arteyu Arthena Arthysundaram Arturo57 Arunswarnaraj Aruton Arwel Parry Ashanda Ashawley Ashmoo Asjordan AstroHurricane001 Astronautics Asuka ReiAugurar Auntof6 Avenged Eightfold Avizan2 Avono Awickert Ayla Az1568 AznNiga BDD BRG Baa Babystef00 Badagnani Badseed Bagatelle Balok Banaticus Banes Barbiq123Barek BarkerJr Barneca Barticus88 Basharh Beetstra Beewaa Behnamnaderi Bekus Ben DeRoy Ben-Zin BenGuy Bennylin Berkeley Hunt Berlinerj Bgag Big Brother 1984 Bigt50Bkusmono Bkwyrm Bl00dyS0ulEater Blanchardb Blaxthos BlazerKnight Blehfu Bless sins Blissfulwriter Blossomceci BlueCaper Bluerasberry Bobcat7 Bobo192 Bobrayner Bobvila2Bonadea Bongwarrior BoomerAB Boothy443 Bootstoots BorgHunter BorgQueen Bornslippy Borriszinders Boston BostonMA Braincricket Brian Crawford Brianga BrimbaBritishWatcher Brotherbird Brunato Brutaldeluxe Bryan Derksen Bsadowski1 Bucketsofg Buddy F Buffcat Bullmoosebell Burschik CFred CFang CGameProgrammer CONzooCallidior Calliopejen1 Calmer Waters Caltas Calu2000 CalumH93 Calvin 1998 Cant sleep clown will eat me Cana mperontza CanisRufus CapitalR Carambola CarbonX CardinalDanCaseychina11 Casmith 789 Cate Catgut Cbr2702 Ccrazymann Cenarium Censusdata Cessator Ceyockey Chad Cheng Chaipau ChaosData Chaser Chatriwala Chazchaz101 Che090572Cheeseyj Chensiyuan Chirag155 Chorrocks Chowbok Chris 73 Chris Buckey Chris G Chrislk02 Chrisrbarker Chriswaterguy Chun-hian Chzz CiteCop Cjmazzanti Ckatz ClamDipClasqm Clawson Closedmouth Coconino CodeWeasel Cold Season Colonies Chris Coloringdrag Colostomyexplosion CommonsDelinker Comp25 ConcernedVancouverite ConeslayerConnormah Conny Cool Blue Cooleye101 Coolrohan Corpx Corruptresearcher Corsarius Corz0770 Courcelles Cpl Syx CrazyChemGuy Creidieki Cretog8 Crown Cryptic C62 Cst17Cubsfan333 Cybercobra Cyclonenim Cyrius D D-Rock DAJF DARTH SIDIOUS 2 DFS454 DHR DVD R W DVdm Da Stressor DagnyB Dalahaumlst Dale Arnett DamianFinol DanMSDancing Lion Dancter Dane Sorensen Daniel Mietchen DanielVonEhren Dankd DannyWilde Danski14 Darkspots Das Baz Dav2008 Davehi1 Davewho2 Davewild DavidMonniauxDawgkulap Dawidl Dbtfz Dcandeto DeadEyeArrow Decidedly so Dekimasu Dekisugi Delfer Delldot DeltaQuad Demicx Denisarona Dennis Brown Dennisen Deor DerHexerDerechoReguerraz Derek Ross Derfel73 Derschueler Dforest Dfrgmsc Dhuynh88 Dialectric Dijan Dina Discospinster Divoc Djlayton4 Dmytro Doc2015 DocWatson42 Docu DogcowDogen Zenji Dolphine77 Dondegroovily Dosman Doubleyouyou Doug Dpkipling Dpmuk Dr Blofeld Dr Dan Dragon4054 DragonTiger23 Dragonfire75 DragonflySixtyseven DrakeWilson Drawat123 Dreamyshade Dunferr Dungodung Dunkelfalke Dv82matt Dveej Dycedarg Dysepsion Dysprosia E Wing E0steven ENeville ERcheck ESkog Earth Ebeno2Ebethron Ebizur Ed EddyH Editor540 Editorofearth Eequor El C Elemesh Elephantmanyay Eliav Elliskev Ellmist Em 123-- Emc2 Emmens-- Emmett5 Enchanter Epbr123 EranbEraserhead Erianna Eric Kvaalen Eric-Wester EricPlays Ericwinny Erik9 ErikNY ErinNik Esanchez7587 Escape Orbit Esperant Esprit15d Euku Eurleif Euske Evercat EveryguyEveryking EvilZak Evlekis Ewulp Excirial FF2010 Fabiform Falcon8765 Falkonry Fanghong Fat Lui Favonian Fayenatic london Fedallah Femto Fenevad Fergalicious92 FerkelparadeFestermunk Feydey Fg2 Fh1 Fieldday-sunday Figma Finell Fir0002 Firebreeze FisherQueen FlagSteward Flamebroil FlamingSilmaril Floretmedia Food22 Foxj FreakofnurtureFrecklefoot Free thinker Freedomlinux FreplySpang Freq32 Fryed-peach Furrykef Fuzheado GB fan GDonato GILDog Gabbe Gaius Cornelius Galaxy250 Garfield226 Gary CzikoGavinperch Gbinal Gdr Geekdiva Geekybroad Gene Nygaard Gentgeen Get the Wookiee Getofffry11 Ghjbvs2 Giftlite Gigemag76 Gilliam Ginsengbomb Gioto Givegains GjahnGkeen9 Glacialfox Glane23 Glenlarson Glenn Gmerritt Gogo Dodo Gogogo2234 GoingBatty Goldenglove Gotyear Gozar Greenman Greyhood Grick Griffenhaven12 GrosschaGrouchyDan Grty123eee Grunt Grunty Thraveswain Gruzd Gsandi Gsklee Guettarda Gullbrekken Gunkarta Gurch Guy M Gwen Gale Gwickwire Gzli888 HJ Mitchell Haakey HadalHadoooookin Hamad1994 HamburgerRadio Hamiltonstone Hankwang Hans yulun lai Harry Wood Hayleygemma72 Heightwatcher Heimstern Henningklevjer Herbertxu HermajaHermant patel Heron HertzaHaeon Hesperian HexaChord Hmains Honeydew Hoplon HorsePunchKid Hotcrocodile Hraefen Hu12 Humortueio HurricaneWilson HvguilAVV Hvn0413Hydrargyrum Ian Pitchford IceDragon64 Icestorm815 Ideogram Idleguy Idont Havaname Ihatelouis Ilya Imc Imeisel Imortaliti ImperatorExercitus Imsoclever Indeed123 IndiedudeInklein Int21h Interiot Interlingual Interwiki gl Irguywhogont33chul3sson Iridescent IrisKawling Ismith It Is Me Here It334 Itwastuan Izhamwong Jdelanoy J04n JDP90 JForgetJFreeman JHMM13 JIP JPG-GR JSR JWS JaGa Jaappleby Jabadie JackHolster Jagged 85 Jahnavisatyan Jaiprakashsingh JakeVortex Jambolik JamesAM JamesBWatson JanuaryJanuary2007 Jauerback Jauhienij Javert Jdkoenig Jeepday JefferyKevin Jefferythegreat Jeffmcneill Jenneralization Jerky duude Jeshii Jeyles Jezzsmith JialiangGao Jim1138 JimfbleakJimmyboy777 JinJian Jj137 Jjw001 Jklamo Jkp1187 Jlau333 Jlau555 Jmundo Jncraton JodyB Joe Schmedley Joechao Johan1298 Johanna-Hypatia John John Elson JohnnyAlbert10Johnnyfuga Johnpdempsey1978 Jojhutton Jojit fb Jon Ascton Jon513 Jonkerz Jorvis Jose77 Joseph Solis in Australia Joshua47 Jourdy288 Joyciepoycie Joyous Jpatokal JpmauryaJrwelch1 Jsc83 JuJube Jugurtha3 Jujutacular Juliancolton Junes JuniperBoy Jusdafax KVinod Kumar Kaiwen1 Kaly99 Kamaldevjhalli Kanatonian Kanesue Kansaisamurai KareekachaKarlticehurst KathrynLybarger Katimawan2005 Kaveh Kazvorpal Kbh3rd Keilana Kembangraps Kennethtennyson Kent Wang Kerowyn Kevin W Kezyxes Khalid Mahmood KhargasKhazar Khg86 Kieran Plouffe Kingsleyj Kintetsubuffalo Kipala Kizor Kleomarlo KnowledgeOfSelf KogeJoe Kotra Kowey Kowloonese Krawi Kresadlo Kribbeh Kriel150 Krish DulalKrnpunk123 Kuebie Kukini Kungming2 Kuru Kwertii Kyle1278 L Kensington Lvivianrichard LDHan LINK3155 Lavateraguy Lawrencekhoo Leafyplant Leahxsb LedgendGamerLensim Lesnail Leuko Lightmouse Ligulem Liquidluck Little juggler of the big circus LittleOldMe Living Dragon Liz elwes of london Llywrch Lokicarbis Longhair Looxix LordAmethLordFoppington LorenzoB Lotje Lovelyinfoforyou LuK3 Luchky7 Lucyin Luk Lukobe Luna Santin Lupin MER-C MJ94 MPF Mac Macaddct1984 Macedonian MadchesterMagicman426 Magioladitis Mailer diablo Mailseth Malbear Malick78 Malinaccier Malo Manager0916 Mandarax Mandel Maqsarian Mar4d Marasek Marcelo1229 Marcopolo112233Marcovandenberg Marek69 Mariamendoza3 Mark91 Markaci Markfifton Marknesbitt Markrosenrosen MarsRover Marshman Mashiah Davidson Materialscientist Matt CryptoMattgbakker Matthew R Dunn Mays Mbc362 McDogm McSly Meldor Meno25 Mentifisto Menwith Meotrangden Merbabu Mercredi-Soir Merovingian MesmericOne Mets501Mgiganteus1 MichealH Miguel raul Mikael Haumlggstroumlm Mikaey Mike Lawn Mike Rosoft MikeLynch MikeRS Mikeo Mild Bill Hiccup Minimac Miquonranger03 Miracle dreamMitchdubey Mkdw Mkweise Mmxx Molly-in-md Momo san Monkeyjunk ooo Monkeyjunk1001 Monkeyjunk10011 Monsterparty Montrealais Moo222 Moonbus1 Moreschi MorwenMourt4444 Mowplsu Moyogo Mr Anon515 MrClown Mschel MuZemike Muffffffffffinman Muhandes Mulder416 Mushroom Mwtoews Mxn Mygerardromance N5iln NHRHS2010Najoj Nakon Namazu-tron Naniwako Nantennis Nard the Bard Natalya NatureA16 NawlinWiki Ndkartik Nehrams2020 NeilN Neitherday Neko-chan NeonSoldierX NewsaholicNguyễn Thanh Quang Nicolasconnault Niduzzi Niemeyerstein en Nik42 Nimur Ninety9nine9 Nivetitha Nivix Nixeagle Nk Noah Salzman Nono64 Noosphere NotWith NotedgrantNpnkumar Nposs Nubiatech Nufy8 Nukleon Nuttycoconut Nvcatgut Nvram Nwbeeson Nyxaus OOOP7 Obli Ocaasi Octane Oda Mari Odie5533 OfTheGreen Ohnoitsjamie OkapiOlivier Omicronpersei8 Omnibus Onorem Oobyduby Orbitalwow Oren0 Oreo Priest Oroso Ospalh OverlordQ Oxydo Oxymoron83 PBFerrer PDH PONDHEEPANKAR PaalappooPablo Hemingway PandaName Pastorphilvandam Patrick Pattirelli Paul Erik Paul Gard Paul Pogonyshev Pawyilee Pdcook Pearle PedroDeGalles Pekinensis Penguin Provision PersianPoet Gal Peruvianllama Peter Isotalo Petrichor Pgan002 Pganas Pgk Phaedrus86 Pharaoh of the Wizards Phemp PhilKnight Philip Trueman Philu Phoebe Phoenix56 Piano non troppoPierreAbbat Pieter Kuiper Pilano1 Pinethicket Pinkadelica Pinkboats Pip2andahalf PipingHotSoup Plarpco Plindenbaum Poindexter Propellerhead Pol098 Pol430 Pollinator PostcardpigsPradhankk PrestonH ProfXY Proofreader77 ProteinGod Pseudomonas Puchiko PurplePower46 PuzzletChung Qirex Quantumobserver Quidam65 Quintote Quoth Quuxplusone QwertyBinary Qwfp RnB RDBrown RJaguar3 RSido RUL3R Radon210 Rahlgd Raja Hussain Rajaramraok Rama RaminusFalcon RandomXYZb Randomcheesecakeinbalti RayfieldRaymondluxuryacht Razandmatt Rcsprinter123 Rdfox 76 Reallpw Realm of Shadows Reconsider the static Recycledjack Red dwarf Redwoodseed Reeks125 Reign of Toads ReinydayRenato Caniatti RepublicanJacobite Res2216firestar Revth RexNL Rexparry sydney Riceshortage Ricesinsonsay Rich Farmbrough Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ) Richarddr1234Richfisher1978 Rjanag Rjwilmsi Rkitko Rklawton Rlaferla Rling Rmhermen RoadToDawnX Roadrunner RobertG Robinh Rocastelo Roche-Kerr Rockies77 RodC Rog1121 RogerDavies Rogwan RolandR RollingRage Ronhjones Ronkonkaman Rosswasere08 Rosyaraur Roundtheworld Roux-HG Royalguard11 Roygitonga Rppeabody Rrburke Rssaddict RudipuRyan Postlethwaite Ryan cubitt Ryancriswell Rydra Wong Ryecatcher773 SDC SIMVHA SMC89 Saceq7 Sake-simon Saluyot Salvio giuliano Sam in berkeley Sander Saumlde Sanjay achSannse Sarvagnya Sarvagyana guru Sasquatch Satyam E Jayate Saugat22 Savitr Sbrockway Sbugs Scarface348 Sceneshock Scetoaux SchfiftyThree Schizo-landy Schluumlggell ScootyScottSteiner Sean ODuibher SeanMack Seb az86556 SebastianHelm SelfStudyBuddy Selket Serlin Serpicozaure Shadow requiem Shadowjams Shakher59 Shallowhands ShambalalaShanes Shardsofmetal Sharraleigh Shawynho Shesacadillac Shinkolobwe Shirik Shruti14 Simley234 SimonP Simonmtl SineWave Sinn SivaKumar Sjakkalle Sjschen Sjouml SkyWalkerSlakr Slashem Slastic Slimejs Smackmeup Smalljim Smartse Smithbrenon Snori SoCalSuperEagle Solitude Somanypeople Some jerk on the Internet Someguy1221 Sommers SouthBay SovietCanuck Sovkor SpaceFlight89 Sparkie82 SparrowsWing Spettro9 Spider430 Spolloman Squash Squeezeweasel Srikeit Starlet1234 Starlord Stealth500 Stephan LeedsStephen Stephenb Sterry2607 Steven Zhang StudlyZupaman StylishIrish92 Subdolous Sudsak Sumanch SunCountryGuy01 Supahchalupa Supasheep Super sped 2 SuperHamsterSurgunatro Swabjob Swampgator94 Sweetness46 Swestray SylviaStanley Symane System Operator 2008 TYelliot Tadju Takeaway Takowl Tamorlan Tannin Tbhotch TeaDrinkerTechgeist Techman224 Tedickey Tempodivalse TestPilot Tgeairn That Guy From That Show The Ogre The Thing That Should Not Be The sock that should not be ThebadnickThePedanticPrick Theda Thedjatclubrock Thehelpfulone Thejadefalcon Thericegiver Thericeguy Thingg Thinking Stone ThreeUs Apps Thrice93 Tianyamm2 TicketMan Tide rolls Tills(usurped) TimR Timrox Tjic Tmopkisn TomGreen Tomchiukc Tommy2010 Tonesmaybe Tony1 Torsmo TracySurya Treehugger65432 Treisijs Trevor MacInnis Tricklin Trumpet9999Ttwaring Tuesday1234 Tuntis Tuspm TutterMouse Tvsinha Tweisbach Twin Bird UdayanBanerjee Ukabia Ukexpat Una Smith Uncle Dick Uncle Milty Unitfloat Upbeat007Usefmohamed User-green Utc-100 Utcursch Uthantofburma UtherSRG Valipopa Vamooom Vanka5 Vargenau Varttik Vegetator Veinor Velella Velho Venura herath Verne EquinoxVersageek Versus22 Veteropinguis Vicenarian Vicki Rosenzweig VictorianMutant Vijethnbharadwaj Viskonsas Vizcaya33 Vndragon Vonfraginoff Vrenator Vssun Vuong Ngan HaVyzasatya WAS 4250 Waggers Walkerboy538 Wangond Warut Wavelength Wayward Webstaff2 Weetoddid Wendal Westerness Westonmr Wetman Wexcan Whisky drinkerWhisperToMe Whizzkidextreme Whkoh Whpq Whyisitdone Wiki alf Wikidan829 Wikipelli Wikiyiki Will74205 Will789456123 William Avery William Ortiz Williesgay WilltronWimt Wisdom Like Silence Wj32 Wknight94 Woohookitty Wootness23 Wowzax Wrs1864 Wuhwuzdat Wyatt915 Wyattmenhinick Xarqi Xbrittanyisavampirex Xenobiologista XezbethXrid09 Yadyn Yashiv YellowMonkey Yellowdesk Yerpo Yidisheryid Yosri Yossiea YourEyesOnly Yuhter Yurivict ZERO Zaahidshah Zachorious Zachwoo ZahavaM Zakir2012Zappa711 Zeiden Zeimusu Zfr ZhongHan Zocky Zollerriia Zondor Zykan Zzorse Zzuuzz Zaeligren Moslashck 5 کاشف عقیل נהג מרכבה 大 西 洋 鲑 리듬 2351 anonymous edits

Image Sources Licenses and Contributors 25

Image Sources Licenses and ContributorsFileKoeh-232jpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileKoeh-232jpg License unknown Contributors -FileNihonbashi bridge in Edojpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileNihonbashi_bridge_in_Edojpg License Public Domain Contributors Petrusbarbygere Red devil666 Tokorokoko Zolo 1 anonymous editsFileWatermill at Ondenjpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileWatermill_at_Ondenjpg License Public Domain Contributors Anna reg Petrusbarbygere Red devil 666Tetris L Tokorokoko Zolo 立 花 左 近 1 anonymous editsFileRice plantation in Javajpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileRice_plantation_in_Javajpg License Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 30 ContributorsGunkarta Gunawan KartapranataFileRice 02jpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileRice_02jpg License Creative Commons Attribution 20 Contributors Fg2 Gryffindor Mattes Ranveig SpollomanTwoWings Vmenkov 1 anonymous editsFileRice p1160004jpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileRice_p1160004jpg License Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 30 Unported ContributorsUserDavidMonniauxFileChinese Chawal in Basmatijpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileChinese_Chawal_in_Basmatijpg License Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 30 Unported Contributors Khalid MahmoodFileRiceandcerealJPG Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileRiceandcerealJPG License Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 30 Contributors Jon Ascton atenwikipediaFileKomeJPG Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileKomeJPG License GNU Free Documentation License Contributors JackyR Kri Maksim Namazu-tron ト ト ト 1anonymous editsFileJapanreisJPG Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileJapanreisJPG License GNU Free Documentation License Contributors OkapiFileRiceStemcs400x1jpg Source httpenwikipediaorgwindexphptitle=FileRiceStemcs400x1jpg License Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors John Alan ElsonFileRice Animationgif Source 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