Research methodology

RESEARCH METHODOLOGYRESEARCH METHODOLOGY

A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKA CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Chandra P. Rijal, PhDChandra P. Rijal, PhD

Managing DirectorManaging Director

Edify International Pvt. Ltd.Edify International Pvt. Ltd.

rijal@edifyintl.org

Research MeansResearch Means

Systematic and objective Systematic and objective

investigation of a investigation of a subjectsubject or a or a

problemproblem in order to discover relevant in order to discover relevant

information.information.

2Doc5rijal@edifyintl.org

Investigation on a subject refers to … Establishing a conceptual, or theoretical

understanding about something to be promoted as part of disciplinary studies.

For example, development of a theory in public health.

Investigation on a problem refers to … Assessing, diagnosing, exploring, or evaluating

various facets pertaining to a management problem. For example, what percentage of first time

Bhatbhateni Superstores visitors come back again to this place for shopping?

Discovery of a relevant information refers to …

Establishing theoretical grounds for a

disciplinary study, or

Deducting problem solution under a

defined situation.

So, what does it mean by research in you opinion?

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Why is a research conducted?

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Types of Research

Basically, there are only two types of

research

a.Fundamental Research

b.Applied Research

Fundamental Research

Known as basic or pure research; seeks to

expand the boundaries of knowledge in the

given area.

For example, development of research

methods, propagation of new theories,

conduction of academic research studies.

Applied Research

Known as a decisional research Attempts to use existing knowledge for

resolving the current problem.

For example? What are the customer needs,

expectations, and problems associated to

our offerings? How did the general public like the

prevailing governance system?Doc5rijal@edifyintl.org

Lets repeat it again…

¤ A research may be considered as a systematic and objective investigation that involves systematic design, collection, preparation, interpretation and reporting of information needed to solve specific problems or promote a domain of learning.

Doc5rijal@edifyintl.org10

1.1. AssessmentAssessment

2.2. ExplorationExploration

3.3. EvaluationEvaluation

4.4. ExaminationExamination

5.5. Comparison Comparison

6.6. EstimationEstimation

7.7. PropagationPropagation

Levels

Nature of objective

Objective description

1.AssessmenAssessmen

To observe the situation and infer results

2.ExplorationExploration

To uncover the reality facing a problem

3.EvaluationEvaluation

To measure the level of existence

4.ExaminatioExaminatio

To test the existence

5.ComparisoCompariso

To compare and contrast between given variables

6.EstimationEstimation

To project probable level of happening

7.PropagatioPropagatio

To declare a concept, theory, system or model

Step 1Define the problem andresearch objectives

Step 2Design theresearch with plan for collecting data

Step 3Implementthe research - collect, prepare and analyze the data

Step 4Produce results, interpret , deduce inferences and report the findings

Specification of methods and procedures for obtaining the information needed

A plan or organizing framework for conducting the study and collecting data

Serves as the blueprint of the detailed procedures and rationales of a research project

An essential part of research methodology

What is the study all about? Why is the study being carried out? Where will the study be carried out? What tools and techniques of data collection

will be used? How will the issue of validity and reliability be

addressed? What type of data are required? How much time will the study require? What will be the sample design? What techniques of data collection will be

used ? How will the data be analyzed and

interpreted?Doc5rijal@edifyintl.org

Serves as a foundation to formulate and guide the research study

Supports in better planning & execution of the research methodology

Useful in the estimation of probable research errors and handling strategies

Maintains necessary control over the contents of the study

Makes the study more systematic, and effective

Determine the exploratory, descriptive, or causal phases of the research

Determine the information needed Specify the measurement and scaling procedures Construct and pretest appropriate forms of data

collection Specify sampling process and sample size Develop a plan of data analysis and presentation Develop a monitoring and control mechanism to

facilitate the overall research function

On the basis of the study techniques undertaken, research designs can primarily be categorized into TWO forms:

1. Exploratory Research Designs1. Exploratory Research Designs

2. Conclusive Research Designs2. Conclusive Research Designsa. Descriptive Research Designsb. Causal Research Designs

Observational ResearchGathering data by observing people, actions and situations(Exploratory)

Experimental ResearchUsing groups of people to determine cause and effectrelationships(Causal)

Survey ResearchAsking individuals about attitudes, preferences or behaviors (Descriptive)

Three Research Approaches

ExploratoryResearch

DescriptiveResearch

CausalResearchCausal

ResearchTest hypotheses about cause and effectrelationshipsX causes Y

Test hypotheses about cause and effectrelationshipsX causes Y

Gathers preliminary information to define the problem and suggest hypotheses Literature search, expert interviews, focus groups, case studies, company audits, qualitative research

Describes things as the market potential of a product, consumer demographics and attitudesSecondary data analysis, surveys, observations,panels, simulations

Step 1: Define the Research Problem

Step 2: Estimate the value of the information to be provided by the research

Step 3: Select the Data Collection Method

Step 4: Select the Measurement Techniques

Step 5: Select the Sample

Step 6: Select the Analytical Approach

Step 7: Evaluate the Ethics of the Research

Step 8: Specify the Time and Financial Cost

Step 9: Prepare the Research Proposal

1. Problem Definition

2. Study Approach and Designs

3. Population and Sampling Strategies

4. Sources of Data

5. Instrumentation

6. Mechanism for Research Administration

7. Mechanism for Data Processing and Analysis

8. Confirmation of the Expertise Involved

9. Timeframe of the Study

10. Cost of the Study

MeaningMeaning Known as a property of proposition Known as a property of proposition

being studiedbeing studied Also known as the constructs of a Also known as the constructs of a

propositionproposition

A symbol to which we assign numerals A symbol to which we assign numerals

or valuesor values

Numerical value assigned to a variable Numerical value assigned to a variable

is based on its propertiesis based on its propertiesDoc5rijal@edifyintl.org

Three General Examples of VariablesThree General Examples of Variables

1. Dichotomous Variables1. Dichotomous Variables These variables are so called because they These variables are so called because they

have TWO values, reflecting presence or have TWO values, reflecting presence or

absence of a property.absence of a property.

For exampleFor example: pass or fail, exists or does not : pass or fail, exists or does not

exist, employed - unemployed, male - female, exist, employed - unemployed, male - female,

yes - no. yes - no.

The dichotomous variables can be assigned The dichotomous variables can be assigned

with a numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis with a numerical value of ‘0’ or ‘1’ for analysis

purpose.purpose.Doc5rijal@edifyintl.org

2. Discrete Variables2. Discrete Variables These are categorical variables. These are categorical variables. For example, the demographic variables race For example, the demographic variables race

or religion are the examples of discrete or religion are the examples of discrete

variables. variables. Religion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain Religion: Hindu, Islam, Buddhism, and Jain

can be assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3, can be assigned numerical values of 1, 2, 3,

and 4 respectively.and 4 respectively. The numerical values assigned to these The numerical values assigned to these

variables will be of absolute nature; not like variables will be of absolute nature; not like

3.5, or 4.7.3.5, or 4.7.Doc5rijal@edifyintl.org

3. Continuous Variables3. Continuous Variables These variables take on values with a These variables take on values with a

given range or, in some cases, an infinite given range or, in some cases, an infinite

set. set.

For example, test scores may range from For example, test scores may range from

0 - 100, age may be 2.5 years, present 0 - 100, age may be 2.5 years, present

income of a person could be Rs. 15000, income of a person could be Rs. 15000,

you may disclose your property worth you may disclose your property worth

more than Rs. 500,000,000. more than Rs. 500,000,000. Doc5rijal@edifyintl.org

Sample vs. Population

Population = collection of ALL possible observations

Sample = subset of a population

Random Sample representative of a populationall observations have equal chance

of being selected

Cost Time Inaccessibility of the population Accuracy Destruction of the observations

Step 1: Define thePopulation of

Interest

Step 1: Define thePopulation of

Interest

Step 2: ChooseData Collection

Method

Step 2: ChooseData Collection

Method

Step 3: ChooseSampling FramesStep 3: Choose

Sampling Frames

Step 4: Select aSampling MethodStep 4: Select a

Sampling MethodStep 5: Determine

Sample SizeStep 5: Determine

Sample Size

Step 6: Develop andSpecify Operational

Step 7: ExecuteOperational Sampling

Probability vs. Nonprobability Probability

members in the population have a known chance (probability) of being selected into the sample

Nonprobability the probability of selecting members from the

population is not known

Define Population

Determine Sampling Frame

Determine Sampling Procedure

Probability Sampling Simple Random SamplingSystematic Random SamplingStratified SamplingCluster Sampling

Non-Probability SamplingConvenienceJudgmentalQuotaSnow-ball

Determine Appropriate Sample Size

Execute Sampling Design

Doc5rijal@edifyintl.org

SamplingMethodsSamplingMethods

ProbabilitySamples

SimpleRandomSimple

RandomClusterCluster

SystematicSystematic StratifiedStratified

Non-probability

QuotaQuotaJudgmentJudgment

ConvenienceConvenience SnowballSnowball

MeaningData are the units, or, numbers, or facts that are generated through observation.

Data can be qualitative as well as quantitative.

Considered as the backbone for the evidence of every findings and decision alternatives in the research.

Data ObjectivesData objectives are derived from the research objectives and comprise of what we have observed to be lacking in the example.

Their determination mainly rests on the researcher, to translate what the decision maker wants into a specific description of the needed data.

General Qualities Required

1.The measurement should be relevant and adequate to the problem faced to provide key guidance in decision making.

2.The data must be accurate in both --

i. Validity: Measure what they are supposed to, and

ii. Reliability: On repeating the same method, should

give the same results.

3. Data should be obtained quickly enough at an affordable cost.

Nature of Data1. Facts: Include the measurements of anything

that actually exists or has existed. Facts, generally describe tangible things,

they also can be intangibles. They generally originate as the

demographic, sociological, psychographic, or behavioral types.

2. Knowledge: That is what people know. The information true or false, exists or does not

exist, etc.ExampleConsumers awareness about a product or a brand.3. Opinion How people perceive something. What they believe about attitudes. The mental sets or predisposition to act in some

manner.ExampleConsumer perception regarding good or bad.

4. Intentions: The acts that people have in mind to do. The expectations of their behaviorExample: Consumer interest upon a certain

retailer.5. Motives: Internal forces that cause people to behave

as they do. Motives may be instrumental ideas for

identifying the subjects about which the people will speak freely.

Example: A certain consumer never liking wine.

Functions of Data1. Causation2. Pay off Here, ‘X’ is the causation and ‘Y’ is the pay

3. Description: Determination of causal variables in the sample. E.g.: How many of them are ‘X’.

4. Identification: Identification of the particular source.

e.g.: The name of person who took an interview, or made an observation, name, address, and locations of subjects, etc.

Y = f(X)‘X’ Causes ‘Y’

1. Primary Vs. SecondaryPrimary Data That originate from primary sources and are based on observation or investigation or direct questioning.* Observation Method* Interview Method* Questionnaires* Projective Techniques* Content Analysis

1. Primary Vs. SecondarySecondary DataThat originate from secondary sources.Data already available, collected and analyzed by someone else.* Publications* Books* Journals* Magazines and Newspapers* Reports* Collateral Materials* PR Messages

2. Qualitative Vs. Quantitative

Qualitative Data: Psychological, perceptual, or

conceptual data that is not counted in numbers,

rather coded as ‘good or bad’, ‘interesting or

boring’ etc.

Quantitative Data: Number based facts and figures.

Frequency of occurrence.

3. Personal Reporting

Data based on individual observation and reporting.

Can be qualitative as well as quantitative.

Can be primary/secondary

Always primary

1. InternalData developed or gathered, maintained, and preserved by the organization itself.

MIS is the best source for internal records.MIS comprises of FOUR major components; Management Research Systems (MRS), Internal Database Systems (IDS), Management Intelligence Systems (MIS), and Analytical Information Systems (AIS). Annual reports, collateral materials, press releases etc.

Primary

2. External* Data generated from the published reports of various bureaus, and public surveys.Example: EDIFY International conducting a salt consumption behavior research study in Nepal, and the same report findings to be used in other related future researches.

Use of CBS - Nepal reports for various research purposes.

Secondary

1. Literature Reviews* A secondary method of data collection.* Facts gathered in the basis of reviews of

various publications, articles, journals, books, collateral materials, reports, etc.

* Useful in providing the evidence to the results of the primary observation.

* Mostly used in understanding the theoretical phenomenon.

* Very essential in qualitative studies.

2. Census

* Census represents the study of universe.

* Mostly conducted by the governments in

long periodical basis.

* Each and every component of the

population is the subject of the study.

* Most costly approach of data collection.

3. Survey* An alternative to census.

* Sample based study; study/observation through population representation.

* Mostly used by the researchers.

* A primary method of data collection.

4. Focus Group Observation

* A approach of group observation.

* A source for primary data collection.

* Useful in perceptual studies.

* The groups may comprise of 6 to 10 people.

* The issues are discussed by cross questioning and sharing their views.

* Suitable in case of new product launch and testing.

Can be direct orindirect, structured

or unstructured

5. Experiments* A primary method of data collection.* Can be field or lab experiment based.* Mostly conducted by using the control

groups.* Most useful in new product testing.* May be very costly incase of wrong

selection of control groups.* Sometimes conducted by the help of

various physical tests; eye movements, pupil movements, skin stimuli etc.

6. Interviews* A popular method of primary data

collection.* Data collected in the basis of personal

interaction with the respondents.* Can be well-structured or less-structured.* Useful when small size of observation is

enough for data collection.* The individuals/subjects are the source of

study.

Data Reduction and AnalysisData Reduction ProcessStep I: Establishing field controls

Step II: Editing of dataStep III: Coding the data

Step IV: TranscribingStep V: Creating new variables

Step VI: Calculating and summarizing

statisticsData AnalysisDescriptive analysis

Bivariate analysisMultivariate analysis

Presentation of a Report I. Prefatory Part

Title PageSignatory PageCopy RightsAcknowledgementsExecutive SummaryTable of ContentsList of Tables and GraphsList of Abbreviations

II. Main Body IntroductionReview of LiteratureResearch MethodologyData Reduction, Presentation, and

AnalysisSummary of Key FindingsRecommendations and Conclusions

III. Supplementary PartBibliography or ReferencesAnnexturesAppendixes

Nature and Content of Ethical IssuesParticipant Treatment

Issues* Purpose shouldn't be to sell merchandise* Anonymity must be protected----------------------------Ultraviolet inkHidden tape recordersOne-way mirrorsFake long distance callsFake research firmRight to safetyRight to be informedRight to privacyRight to choice

Client TreatmentIssues

* Methods used and results should be accurately reported----------------------------

Confidentiality

Unqualified researcher

Proprietary information

Unnecessary research

Researcher Treatment Issues

* Should not disseminate conclusions that are inconsistent with data* Should not solicit designs and deliver to another for execution----------------------------Excessive requests

Reneging on promises

Availability of funds

Research methodology

research project

applied research

pure research

implementthe research

research meansresearch

guidethe research study

decisional research

conduction ofacademic

Education

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