Transcript
RESEARCH DESIGN
Research Design
Research Design is a blue print for collection, measurement and analysis of data
Research Design can be divided in to
1. Sampling design-deals with the method of selecting items for the study
2. Observational design-relates to the conditions under which the observations are made.
3. Statistical design-deals with how information and data are to be analysed.
4. Operational design-deals with techniques by which the procedures specified in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.
Important concepts relating to Research Design
1. Variable2. Control3. Confounded relationship4. Experimental and Non-Experimental hypothesis testing
research5. Experimental and Control Groups
6. Treatment and Experiment
The definition of a variable:
A phenomenon or a situation that can take different quantitative values and can be measured.
A variable is something that can be changed, such as a characteristic or value. Variables are generally used to determine if changes to one thing result in changes to another.
Continuous variable – Phenomena which can take quantitatively different values, even decimals. Eg: Age
Non-Continuous variable or Discrete Variable – Only expressed in integers. Eg: No. of Men
The difference between a concept and a variable
Concepts are mental images or perceptions and therefore their meaning varies markedly from individual to individual. It cannot be measured
Variable can be subjected to measurement by subjective /objective units of measurement.
e.g.- Satisfation ,Domestic violence Concepts___>Indicators_____>Variables
indicators- a set of criteria reflective of the concept which can then be converted into variables.
Types of variables:
1. Independent variables – the cause supposed to be responsible for the bringing about change in a phenomenon or situation.
2. Dependent variables – the outcome of change/effect brought about by change in the independent variable
Eg: Height depends on age/individual sex(Height – DV)
3. Extraneous variable –IV’s that are not related to the purpose of the study but affects DV
1.Intervening variable – a variable whose existence is inferred but cannot be manipulated or controlled
2.Moderator variable – a variable that may or may not be controlled but has an effect on the research situation/phenomenon.
For example:
• Does a commitment to ethics among media practitioners depend on their educational or professional training?
1. Independent variable: educational attainment of journalist.
2. Dependent variables: ethical behavior, knowledge of Code of Ethics
3. Intervening variable: newsroom policies
4. Moderator variables: civil status, age, years of work experience
2. Control
Controlled- The concept of control implies that, in exploring causality in relation to two variables, the study is set up in such a way that it minimizes the effect of extraneous variable
This can be achieved to a large extent in the physical sciences (cookery, bakery), as most of the research is done in a laboratory.
However, in the social sciences (Hospitality and Tourism) it is extremely difficult as research is carried out on issues related to human beings living in society, where such controls are not possible.
Therefore in Hospitality and Tourism, as you cannot control external factors, you attempt to quantify their impact.
3. Confounded Relationship
When the DV is not free from the influence of EV, the relationship between DV and IV is said to be confounded by an EV
4.Experimental and Non-Experimental hypothesis testing research
Research in which IV is manipulated is termed as hypothesis testing research
Research in which IV is not manipulated is termed as Non-Experimental hypothesis testing research
5. Experimental and Control Groups
In an Experimental hypothesis testing research, when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is called control group but when exposed to special conditions, it is called experimental group.
6.Treatment and Experiment
Treatment – The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put is called a treatment
Experiment – The process of statistical testing of hypothesis is called experiment
The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some research problem, is known as an Experiment.
E.g.:-
we can conduct an Experiment to examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug.
Types of Research
TYPES OF RESEARCHTYPES OF RESEARCHDescriptive vs Analytical ResearchDescriptive vs Analytical Research
1.1. Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research is a fact finding investigation is a fact finding investigation which is aimed at describing the characteristics of an which is aimed at describing the characteristics of an individual, situation or a group (or) describing the individual, situation or a group (or) describing the state of affairs as it exists at present. state of affairs as it exists at present.
Descriptive research studies deal with collecting Descriptive research studies deal with collecting datadata
and answering questions through asking questions and answering questions through asking questions from individuals in the situation (through from individuals in the situation (through questionnaires or interviews) or by observation questionnaires or interviews) or by observation (Survey type research).(Survey type research).
Descriptive Research (Example)Describe the characteristics of relevant groups
Internet usersWho buys our products?Where do they buy it?
2. Analytical Research is primarily concerned with testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships, by analyzing the facts or information already available. (Cause-Effect)
Analytical/Explanatory
Applied vs Fundamental ResearchApplied vs Fundamental ResearchApplied ResearchApplied Research or Action Research is or Action Research is
carried out to find solution to a real life problem carried out to find solution to a real life problem requiring an action or policy decision a society or requiring an action or policy decision a society or business faces.business faces.
Goal: To improve human condition (i.e., improve the Goal: To improve human condition (i.e., improve the world) (e.g., how to cure cancers?)world) (e.g., how to cure cancers?)
Driven by practical needsDriven by practical needs High impact examples: computers, transistors, High impact examples: computers, transistors,
vaccinations, …vaccinations, … The boundary is vague; distinction isn’t importantThe boundary is vague; distinction isn’t important
Fundamental Research which is also known as basic or pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in practice.
It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity and is not necessarily problem-oriented.
Goal: Expand man’s knowledge (e.g., which genes control social behavior of human beings? )
Often driven by curiosity (but not always) High impact examples: relativity theory, DNA, …
Quantitative vs Qualitative ResearchQuantitative vs Qualitative Research
Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research Research is based on the measurement of quantity or Research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount. To camount. To collect and analyze data to explain, ollect and analyze data to explain, predict, or control phenomena of interestpredict, or control phenomena of interest
1.1. Describe current conditionsDescribe current conditions2.2. Investigate relationshipsInvestigate relationships3.3. Study causes and effectsStudy causes and effects
Basic designs Descriptive Correlational Causal-comparative Experimental
Obj. 3.7
1.Descriptive Purpose – to describe the current status of a
variable of interest to the researcher Example-Peter O. Peretti and Kris G. Majecen
(1992) interviewed 58 elderly individuals, from 68 to 87 years of age, using a structured interview to investigate the variables that affect emotional abuse among the elderly.
• As a result of the interviews, they found 9 variables are common to elderly abuse, including lack of affection, threats of violence and confinement.
Obj. 3.7 & 4.1
2. CorrelationalPurpose – to ascertain the extent to which
two or more variables are statistically related
To ascertain the impact of training on employee retention.
To compare the effectiveness of different loyalty programmes on repeat clientele.
Obj. 3.7 & 4.1
3.CAUSAL-COMPARATIVE/EX-POST FACTO STUDIES Purpose – to explore relationships among variables that
cannot be actively manipulated or controlled by the researcher
Conducted to identify cause-and-effect relationships
Obj. 3.7 & 4.1
4.Experimental Purpose – to establish cause and effect
relationships between variables The important characteristics are that there is
greater control over the research environment and the researcher manipulates the independent variable and controls unrelated variables
Some of the examples of an independent variables could be: temperature, pressure, chemical concentration, type of material and conductivity.
Obj. 3.7 & 4.1
Pure Qualitative ResearchPure Qualitative Research is a non- is a non-quantitative type of analysis which is aimed quantitative type of analysis which is aimed at finding out the quality/kind of a particular at finding out the quality/kind of a particular phenomenon. Help taken from experimental phenomenon. Help taken from experimental psychologists.psychologists.
General purpose To probe deeply into the research setting to obtain in-depth
understandings about the way things are, why they are like that, and how participants perceive them
Assumptions of the researcher All meaning is situated in a particular perspective or
context ,Different people and groups often have different perspectives and contexts, so there are many different meanings in the world
Obj. 3.8 & 5.1
Conceptual vs. Empirical Research Conceptual vs. Empirical Research /Experimental/Experimental
Conceptual ResearchConceptual Research is generally used is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or ideas to reinterpret existing ones.or ideas to reinterpret existing ones.
Empirical ResearchEmpirical Research is a is a data based data based researchresearch which depends on experience or observation which depends on experience or observation alone. It is a data based research with verifiable alone. It is a data based research with verifiable conclusions. conclusions. The important characteristics are that The important characteristics are that there is greater control over the research environment there is greater control over the research environment and the researcher manipulates the independent and the researcher manipulates the independent variable and controls unrelated variables.variable and controls unrelated variables.
Some other types of research..Some other types of research.. One-time ResearchOne-time Research – Research confined to a single – Research confined to a single
time period.time period. Longitudinal ResearchLongitudinal Research – Research carried on over – Research carried on over
several time periods.several time periods. Diagnostic ResearchDiagnostic Research – It is also called clinical research – It is also called clinical research
which aims at identifying the causes of a problem, which aims at identifying the causes of a problem, frequency with which it occurs and the possible frequency with which it occurs and the possible solutions for it.solutions for it.
Exploratory ResearchExploratory Research – It is the preliminary study of – It is the preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is aimed little or no knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity to gain familiarity with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise formulation of the problem. precise formulation of the problem. Hence it is also Hence it is also known as formulative research. known as formulative research.
Historical ResearchHistorical Research – – • The purpose of historical • The purpose of historical research is to research is to arrive at conclusions concerning trends, arrive at conclusions concerning trends, causes or effects of past occurrencescauses or effects of past occurrences. This may help in . This may help in explaining present events and anticipating future explaining present events and anticipating future events.events.• • The data are not gathered by administering The data are not gathered by administering
instruments to individuals, but by collecting them instruments to individuals, but by collecting them from original documents or by interviewing the eye-from original documents or by interviewing the eye-witnesses (primary source of information).witnesses (primary source of information).
Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research
Qualitative ResearchQualitative Research is a non-quantitative type of is a non-quantitative type of
analysis which is aimed at finding out the analysis which is aimed at finding out the
quality/kind of a particular phenomenonquality/kind of a particular phenomenon
‘Qualitative Research…involves finding out what
people think, and how they feel - or at any rate, what
they say they think and how they say they feel. This
kind of information is subjective. It involves feelings
and impressions, rather than numbers’
Example: Smoking and lung cancer Research has established the association b/t
smoking and lung cancer Qualitative methodology helps to explain:
The power of tobacco companies and advertising
Reasons why people continue to smoke despite the evidence
Social meaning of smoking (eg among women and the youth)
Qualitative Research as a Process
Theoretical Approach Method
Analysis
Theoretical ApproachDeductive
Deductive Theoretical Approach
Seek to use existing theory to shape the
approach which you adopt to the qualitative
research process and to aspects of data
analysis
Inductive Approach
Inductive Theoretical Approach
Seek to build up a theory which is adequately
grounded in a number of relevant cases.
Referred to as Interpretative and Grounded
Theory
Method/Types of qualitative research
The case study Ethnography Grounded theory Phenomenology
1. The Case Study
Interest is in an individual case of a person or an event, a group, or an institution rather than in a method of inquiry
Data may be quantitative or qualitative Focus on what can be learned from the
individual case Eg: Dhirubhai Ambani, Wipro
2. Ethnography
Ethno = people Graphy = describing something Focuses on the sociology of meaning through close
field observation of socio-cultural phenomena.
Role of the observer Complete observer Complete participant (identity not revealed) Observer as participant (spectator) Participant as observer (reveal your purpose and
gain trust of the group)
For example, a business can use ethnographers and their ethnographies to better understand the wants and needs of a customer base
Ethnography at Intel initially focused on new markets. The company had provided products only for the workplace, but in 1995 managers wondered whether users at home would become a distinct market. Ethnographic research showed so much potential that Intel set up a business unit to concentrate on processors and platforms for home use.
3. Grounded Theory
Theory is developed inductively from data that is systematically collected and analysed by a participant-observer.
grounded theory research in business and management is used to develop new concepts and theories of business-related phenomena, innovation etc.
4. Phenomenology
Rooted in philosophy and describes the structures of experience as they present themselves to consciousness, without recourse to theory, deduction, or assumptions from other disciplines
Central question: what is the meaning, structure, and essence of the lived experience of this phenomenon for this person/group of people?
Researching entrepreneurship through phenomenological inquiry: philosophical and methodological issues
Analysis of Qualitative Data: An Approach
Categorisation Unitising data Recognising relationships and developing the
categories you are using to facilitate this Developing and testing hypotheses to reach
conclusion
Qualitative v.'s Quantitative
QualitativeResearch
QuantitativeResearch
Type of questions Probing Limited probing
Sample Size small large
Info. Perrespondent
much varies
Admin Requires skilledresearcher
Fewer specialistskills required
Type of Analysis Subjective,interpretative
Statistical
Type of research Exploratory Descriptive orcausal
Different research design
In case of In case of ExploratoryExploratory research studyresearch studyUnaware of ProblemUnaware of Problem
In case of In case of ExploratoryExploratory research studyresearch studyUnaware of ProblemUnaware of Problem
in case of descriptive in case of descriptive and diagnostic and diagnostic researchresearch
Aware of ProblemAware of Problem
in case of descriptive in case of descriptive and diagnostic and diagnostic researchresearch
Aware of ProblemAware of Problem
In case of hypothesis-In case of hypothesis-testing research testing research studiesstudies
Problem clearly definedProblem clearly defined
In case of hypothesis-In case of hypothesis-testing research testing research studiesstudies
Problem clearly definedProblem clearly defined
Research design in case of Exploratory research design
It is the study of an unfamiliar problem, It is the study of an unfamiliar problem, about which the researcher has little or no about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It is aimed knowledge. It is aimed to gain familiarity to gain familiarity with the problem, to generate new ideas or with the problem, to generate new ideas or to make a precise formulation of the to make a precise formulation of the problem.problem. Hence it is also known as Hence it is also known as formulative research. formulative research.
Three methods are1. The survey of concerning literature2. The experience survey 3. The analysis of ‘inside-stimulating
1.The survey of concerning literature
Hypothesis stated by earlier workers is reviewed and their usefulness can be evaluated as a basis for further research.
2. The experience survey
The experience survey means the survey of people who had practical experience .
The objective is to obtain new ideas relating to the research problem.
3.The analysis of ‘inside-stimulating
This method consists of intensive study of the selected instances of the phenomenon of interest to the researcher
Eg. of insight stimulating cases- reaction of a group, the behaviour of consumers
In case of descriptive and diagnostic research
In case of descriptive research study –describing the characteristics of a particular individual , or a group.
In diagnostic research study, it determines the frequency with which some thing occurs
Difference between Exploratory/formulative and descriptive/ diagnostic Flexible design
Judgmental sampling
No pre-determined design for analysis
No fixed decision about the operational procedures
No flexibility Random sampling Pre-determined
design for analysis Advanced decisions
In case of hypothesis-testing research studies
Hypothesis-testing research studies known as experimental studies are those where the researcher tests the hypothesis of casual relationship between variables.
Exploratory Research Descriptive Research Causal Research(Unaware of Problem)(Aware of Problem) (Problem Clearly Defined)
“Our sales are declining and “What kind of people are buying “Will buyers purchase more of we don’t know why.” our product? Who buys our our products in a new package?
competitor’s product?” “Would people be interested “Which of two advertising in our new product idea?” “What features do buyers prefer campaigns is more effective?”
in our product?”
Degree of Problem Definitionpo
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