Transcript
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Philosophical Foundations of Agricultural and
Extension Education
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Philosophy is:
A search for meaning and truthThe general beliefs and attitudes of an individual or group
The body of principles underlying a branch of learning or major discipline
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Original Definition
“Love of Wisdom”
Definition was developed by Socrates
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Of What Value is theStudy of Philosophy
Provide clarification for what is or has been done by others
Provides a framework for life and our action
Can be useful in solving educational problems
A good mental activity
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Three Major Areas of Philosophy
Metaphysics - the nature of reality
Axiology - the nature of values
Epistemology - the nature of knowledge
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Metaphysics
Concerned with theories of the nature of reality.
Why does the earth exist?
How did it come into being?
Is mankind free?
Is there a God?
What is real?
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Metaphysics
Common terms used in metaphysics are: theology
creationism
evolution
spirit
free will
atheism
Metaphysics is the area many people think of when they hear the term philosophy.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Axiology
concerned with theories of value
Two major divisions of axiologyethics
• What is right and wrong?
• What is evil and good?
aesthetics • What is beautiful and ugly?
Some common terms used that relate to axiology are pessimism, optimism, hedonism, egoism, and altruism.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Epistemology
Concerned with theories of the nature of knowledgeEpistemological questions:
How do people learn? What knowledge is of utmost value? What are the different types of knowledge? What are the educational goals of agricultural education and extension?
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Philosophical Schools of Thought
Idealism
Realism
Pragmatism
Existentialism
Reconstructionism
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Idealism
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Idealism (Idea-ism)
Idealist believe that ideas are the only true reality.
The material world is characterized by change, instability, and uncertainty; some ideas are enduring
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Idealism
We should be concerned primarily with the search for truth. Since truth is perfect and eternal, it cannot be found in the world of matter that is both imperfect and constantly changing.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Methods of Idealism
Study the classics for universal truths
Mathematics (2+2=4 is an absolute truth)
Dialectic (critical discussion)The dialectic looks at both sides of an issue
Lecture is used to transmit known truths and to stimulate thinking.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
The Dialectic
Thesis“War is good”
Antithesis“War is
bad”
Synthesis
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Leaders of Idealism
Socrates (469-399 BC)
Plato (427-347 BC)
St. Augustine (350-4300
Descartes (1596-1650)
Berkeley (1685-1753)
Kant (1724-1804)
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Socrates
Regarded as the father of philosophy
Believed we learned through questioning (the Socratic method)
Wrote nothing, what we know of his views were written by his followers, most notably Plato
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Plato
A student of Socrates
Known as the father of idealism
Operated a school named the “Academy”
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Plato’s views toward education
The state must take an active role in educational mattersThe curriculum must lead bright students from a concern with concrete data toward abstract thinkingStudents with little ability for abstraction should go into the military, business and industry.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Plato
Those who demonstrate proficiency in the dialectic would continue their education and become philosophers in positions of power to lead the state toward the highest good (the Philosopher-King)
Believed both boys and girls should be educated and girls should be equals.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Augustine (354-430)
Born in North Africa (Roman citizen)Mother - Christian, Father - Pagan
Attended Roman Primary Schoolgrammar and literature emphasized
At 16 went to Carthage and studied:rhetoric, music, geometry, grammar, mathematics
During his younger days “He lied, he stole, he wenched.”
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Augustine. . .
Became a grammaticus in his native town
Taught rhetoric in Carthage, Rome, Milan
While in his 30’s was converted to Christianity, took his holy orders and became a great evangelist and priest.
Found great favor in the church andbecame a great religious leader.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Augustine
People do not create knowledge; God hasalready created it, but people can discover it through trying to find God.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Augustine’s Beliefs
Women were held in low regard (this view was incorporated into the church and held for a thousand years)
Only a few people possessed the mental ability to quest for the truth. Therefore most people should rely on the church for knowledge.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Augustine’s Beliefs
Augustine used Greek writings but began to have doubts how people who did not know God could write anything which could be of value to Christians.
In 401 the Church outlawed pagan writings such as Plato and Aristotle (even the church leaders were not allowed to read the ancient literature). This continued for 1000 years.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Augustine’s Beliefs about Teaching
Encouraged the use of summariesBelieved teachers should teach through persuasion and by leading impeccable lives.Teachers should not expect to increase their worldly stores through teaching.The “stick and fist” were needed to keep students in line since people were wicked (because of Adam).
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
The Church and Idealism
Idealism has exerted a great amount of influence on Christianity.For centuries the Christian church was the creator and protector of schooling. Generations educated in these schools were indoctrinated with the idealistpoint of view (including early American education).
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Descartes (1596-1650)
A renown mathematician
Wrestled with the question of what was real and did he really exist (perhaps he was a dream). He finally concluded:
“I think, therefore I am”
Thinking and ideas are the ultimate truth.
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George Berkeley (1685-1753)
Existence is dependent upon some mind to know it, and if there are no minds, nothing would exist unless it is perceived in the mind of God.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
“…the greatest and most difficult problem to which a man can devote himself is the problem of education…”
Education should teach students how to think according to principles - moral laws, moral ideals and moral imperatives
Enlightenment is the goal of education
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Educational Aims of Idealism
Develop the mind
Search for true ideas
Character development
Self-realization
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Educational Aims of Idealism
True education is concerned with ideas rather than matter.
The idealists wants to give students a broad understanding of the world in which they live.
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The Idealist and the Chair
To an idealist, the concept of “chair” is important. You could destroy all the chairs in the world but they would still exist in the mind. The idea of a chair is the ultimate truth.
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Realism
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Realism
Reality, knowledge and value exist independent of the human mind. Trees, sticks and stones exist whether or not there is a human mind to perceive them.
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Realism
Ideas must be subject to public verificationmust be proven through scientific experimentation
“Science for the sake of science”
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Realism
Universal properties of objects remain constant and never change, whereas particular components do change
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Realism
Need to study nature systematically
Deductive reasoning - truth is derived from generalizations
Earth is the center of the universe
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Leaders of Realism
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
John Locke (1632-1704)
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Ideas may be important but a proper study of matter could lead us to better and more distinct ideas.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Golden Mean - a path between extremes
Balance is key - body and mind operate together in a balanced whole
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Aquinas (1225-1274)
God created matter; therefore it must be ok to learn about it
This view helped lead civilization out of the dark ages, replaced the influence of Augustine
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Aquinas
Truth was passed from God to Humans by divine revelation, but God alsohas endowed humans withthe reasoning ability toseek out truth.
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Bacon (1561-1626)
Novum Organum - challenged Aristotelian logic
Science must be concerned with inquiry, pure and simple with no preconceived notions
We need to examine all previously accepted knowledge
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Bacon (1561-1626)
Need to rid our mind of “idols”Idol of the Den - we believe things because of limited experienceIdol of the Tribe - we believe things because many people believe themIdol of the Marketplace - we are mislead by languageIdol of the Theatre - Religion and philosophy may prevent us from see the world objectively
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Known as the father of inductive reasoningarrive at generalizations from systematic observations of particulars
Died as a result of the only experiment he performed - stuffed a dead chicken with snow to see if it would preserve the flesh, caught a cold and died
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
John Locke (1632-1704)
At birth, the mind is a blank sheet of paper - a tabla rasa
All ideas are derived from experience by way of sensation and reflection
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Realism and Education
Promotes the study of science and the scientific method
There are essential ideas and facts to be learned; therefore lecture and other formal methods of teaching are useful
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Realism and Education
Find specialization to be desirableLike structure
ringing bells, departments, daily lesson plans
If something exists, it can be measuredIQ, Effective teaching
Approve of competencies, performance-based teaching, accountability
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Realism and Education
Teacher should present material in a systematic, organized way and teach that there are clearly defined criteria for making judgements in art, economics, politics, etc.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
The Realist and the ChairTo a realist, the actuality of “chair” is important. A realist would measure the chair, weight it, examine the physical characteristics, etc. The fact that the chair exists is the ultimate truth.
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Pragmatism
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Pragmatism
The root of the word Pragmatism is a Greek word meaning “work”.It is primarily a 20th century philosophy developed by Americans.Truth is what works in the real world. We must keep the desired end in mind.Ideas should be applied to solving problems; including social problems.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Leaders in Pragmatism
Auguste Comte, 1798-1857 Not a pragmatist but emphasized using science to solve social problems
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Leaders in Pragmatism
Charles Darwin, 1809-1882Reality is not found in Being, but in Becoming
Reality is open-ended, in process, with no fixed end.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
American Pragmatists
Charles Sanders Peirce, 1839-1914Widely acknowledged as the father of pragmatismWrote an article on “How to make our Ideas Clear” in Popular Science Monthly that is regarded as the basis for pragmatism.True knowledge of anything depends upon verfication of our ideas in actual experience
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
American Pragmatists
William James, 1842-1910The truth of an idea is its “workability”
Truth is not absolute and immutable; rather it is made in actual, real-life
James called his philosophy “radical empericism”
James’s 1907 book “Pragmatism” did much to promote pragmatism.
Rufus Stimson, a leader in agricultural education, studied under James.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
American Pragmatists
John Dewey, 1859-1952Need to concentrate on real-life problems
Sought practical solutions for practical problems
How We Think• Felt Difficulty
• Define the problem
• Formulate possible solutions
• Examine & Evaluate possible solutions
• Accept or reject solutions
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Pragmatism and Education
Education should be preparation for lifeSolving problems is important; therefore use real-life situationsTeaching methods should be varied and flexible Education should be action orientedNeeds and interests of students should be considered
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Pragmatism and Education
Project approach to teaching is desirable
Curriculum is varied
A broad education is more desirable
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
The Pragmatist and the Chair
To a pragmatist, the use of the “chair” is important. What is the purpose of the chair and does it fulfil that purpose? The “workability” of a chair is the ultimate truth.
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Reconstructionism
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Reconstructionism
Society is in need of constant reconstruction
Such social change involves both a reconstruction of education and the use of education in reconstructing society
Problems are viewed holistically
Futuristic thinking (utopian thinking)
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Reconstructionism
Do not believe preparing students for the world as it exists today will be sufficient (too much emphasis on the status quo)
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Reconstuctionists want to:
link thought with action
theory with practice
intellect with activism
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Reconstructionism
The goal of education should be to emphasize the need for change
Students should be out in the real world
“World” curriculum
Technology is valuable in solving problems
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Noted Reconstructionists
George S. Counts
Theodore Brameld
Paole Freire
Karl Marx
Ivan Illich
John Dewey (he is also recognized as a pragmatist)
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The Reconstructionist and the Chair
To a reconstructionist, the redesign of the “chair” to better serve the needs of society is important. How can the chair be improved to prepare society for the future?
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Existentialism
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Existentialism
Received new emphasis in the 60s and 70sCivil rights
Women rights
Individual rights
Special needs
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Existentialism
In educationcurriculum was revamped to meet the needs (more accurately - demands) of individuals
mainstreaming
Pass or fail grade policies
extended drop deadlines in college
elimination of core courses
decline of corporal punishment
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Existentialism
In extension there was a focus on serving non-traditional clientele
Focus shifted toward the urban environment
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Existentialism
Traditional philosophies - consider questions about the nature of knowledge, truth and meaning but:
Existentialists are concerned with how these things are educationally significant within the lived experiences of individuals.
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Existentialism and Education
People come first, then ideasPeople create ideas
Emphasis on self discovery
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Existentialism and Schools
A good education emphasizes individuality
Students should take a positive role in shaping their schools
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Existentialism and Schools
Students shouldn’t have to:attend classes
take examinations
receive grades
There is no set curriculum
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Noted Existentialists
Soren Kierkegaard
Martin Heidigger
Martin Buber
Jean-Paul Sartre
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The Existentialist and the ChairTo an existentialist, the individuals use of “chair” is important. Whatever the individual wants to do with the chair is important. The experience of the individual with the chair is the ultimate truth.
Foundations of Agricultural and Extension EducationFoundations of Agricultural and Extension Education
Match the philosophyto the image
Idealism
Realism
Pragmatism
Reconstructionism
Existentialism
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