Pask, G.- The Architectural Relevance of Cybernetics (Article-1969)
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sense as parrs
of
larger syste ms that include
human com?oocnts
and
the :1rchitect is pnm:irily
E
ARCHITECTURAL
concerned with these
larger
systems; th>
(not
just the
bricks
and
mo
rtar
pare) a rc
what
architects design. f shall dub this norion
architectural
'mutualism'
meaning mu tu:tlism
OF
ordon ask
is easy to argue char cybernetics is relevant
co
same
way
that
it relevant
a host
of
ocher professions; medicine,
or
law. PERT
programming, for
, is unequivocally a 'cybernetic'
and it is
commonly
employed in
nstruction scheduling.
Computer
assisted
is
a
'cybernetic'
method and
there are
e r a l instances of ics application to architcctute,
example, the \Xi'SCC's
planning
scheme in
the designer uses a
graphic
display
to
of
scrucrural modules
a grid and in
wh
ich the computer sum marizes
cost efforc consequences of a proposed
). Of these cases the first (PERT
is
a valuable
but quite
trivial
on
of
cybernetics; the second is
likely
have a far-reaching iniluencc
upon
But
neither
of
them
more than
a superficial
bond
between
and
archireccurc.
f
we leave the
then
archite cts di\"c into a
ic
bag
of cricks
and drnw
out chose
seem tC be
appropriate.
Thac
is
a perfectly
thing
co
do, of
course.
But cybernetics
architecture rcall}'
enjoy
a
much
more
relatio
nship;
they
share
a
common
losophy
of architecture
in the sense that
Beer has shown ic to be the philosophy
The
argument
rests upon
the
idea that .
and
foremost
system
designers
have been forced.
over
the last
roo y l · ~ r s
r so, co cake
an
increasing interest in
the
syste::n
of development, communication and
problems were
coped
with as
cropped up, but for
some
rime it has been,
vidcnc
that
an
underpinning and
unifying theor}'
s
required. Cybernetics is a discipline
which
the bill insofar as the abstract concepts of
(and,
where appropriate,
identi
fied with
architectural systems), co
form
a
lhtory
architectural cybernetics, che cybernetic
theory
architcccurc).
1
roots!
or before the early
1
Soos 'pure' architecture
as
an
abstraction
from
the
att of
Its rules were essentially
condensed
of what
could
be
observed
by
looking
c builders working on a site, and by
looking
t
buildings
constructed during
different periods
nd in different places. Architects added a
modicum
of engineering
practice and of hiscorical
r aeschecic sensibility
to their
discipline
and
created new
structures with
stability and sf.ylt.
On
the whole,
their structures were
judged,
within 'pure' archicecturc,
according
ro these
canons.
fa·cn in those days, of
course,
architects
were
asked
to
solve problems entail ing the
regulation and
accommodation of
human beings;
hence
ro
design
sysrcms.
But,
in a sense,
their
brief was quite narrow. The problems could all
l C
soh·ed by
the
judicious applicarion
of pure
~ r c u r a l rules. The form
of
the artefact
(house college
or
theatre)
was
largely determined
by the quite rigid codes of
architecture
(dictating,
for
example, ics acceptable whole part
relationships) and by the
conventions of
society
or the individual practitioner. Speaking
1cchoically there were well accepted
communica
tion
media for
conveying
instructions, direccives
: d
ideas (style manua ls
and
so
on). Further,
there was a
/ Jt/ala11g11agt for talking
about these
instructions, directives and ideas,
for comparing
chem, criticizing chem and e\·aluating them (as
in statements
of
stability
or
style).
Indeed,
when
interpreted, the
body
of
metalinguistic statements
formed the theory
of
pure architecture.
Consequently, architects did not need
co
sec
themse lves as systems designers, even though
they designed systems,
and the
evidence
suggests
that
they did
not
do so.
3
Instead the professional
image was chat
of
a sophisticated
house,
college
or
theatre builder.
In the
course of
the Victorian
era
new
techniques were developed too rapidly to be
assimilated inco pure
architecture
and
new
problems were posed and could no longer be
so
lved by
applying
the rules
of
pure architecture,
for
example,
make
a 'railway sration'
or make
a
'great
exhibition'.
The soluti on to such (in those
days) ou tla
ndish
problems clearly
depends upon
seeing
rhe required building as a pare of the
ecosystem
of
a
human
society. Of
cou
r
se
the
problems were solved and the novel t e c h n i q u e ~
were mustered
for
this
purpose (Temple
Meads,
the Tropical House at Kew,
the Crystal Palace).
To my own casce the
solutions are
exceptionally
beautiful.
1
Nevertheless, they
arc
individual and
idiosyncratic
solutions
because, in the
nc\\
'
context,
there was
no
way
of
carrying on a
general
and
critical discussion.
Let
us be
clear
about
this point.
There
obviously 11•a1
a great
deal of discussion over I. K. Brunel, D. Burton
and
J. Paxton's
use
of
glass and ironwork;
technical discussion
and
aesthetic discussion.
But nobody seems to have; appreciated the full
significance
of their
scructures in
the context
of
rhe
arch
itectural potentialities
of
the age,
i.e. as examples
of .J'Slt111
design.
The
reason is
fairly obvious. \Xfhercas the pure
architecture
of
the
ear
ly 1800s
had
a metalanguage,
albeit
a restrictive
one which
discouraged
innovation,
the new
(augmente
d) architecLUre
had
nor yet
developed
one. Another way of putting it is to
say there was
no theory of the
new
architecture.•
Architectural sub-theories
Tn place of a
general
theory there
were
sub
thcorics
dealing with
isolated facets
of the
field;
for example, theories
of
materials,
of symmetry,
of human commitment
and responsibility,
of
craftsmanship
and
the like. But (it is
probably
fair
to
say) these
sub-t
heories
developed more or
less independently during the late 1800s.
Naturally
enough,
each
sub-theory
fostered n
certain sort of
buildin
g or a certain sort of
socio-architectural dogma;
for
example, futurism.
I Towevcr, the point of immediate interest is that
many of
the
sub-theories were
system orientated;
although
they anticipated the
invention
of
the
word they were, in an
embryonic
sense,
'cybernetic'
theories
and the thinking behind
them made a valuable contribution to the
development of
cybernccics as a fo rmal science.
Architectural
functionalism
and mutualism
A structure exists chieAy to perform certain
functi
ons,
for example, to
shelter
its
occupants
or to provide them
with
services. Ac this level,
a
'functional' building
is
con
trasted with a
'decorative' building; it is an austere structure,
stripped of
excrescences.
Bu
t, the
concept of
functionalism can be usefully refined in an
humanistic direction. The functions,
after
all,
are performed
or
hum
an beings
or human
societies. It follows
that
a
building
cannot he
viewed simply in isolation.
It
is only meaningful
as a
human environment.
It
perpetually interacts
with
its inhabitants, on the one
hand
serving
chem and on the other hand controlling their
behaviour.
Io
other
words structures
make
between structures
and men or
societies.
One consequence o f functionalism a nd
mutualism is a shift o f emphasis t0wards the
form (rather
rhan rhc material constitutil)n)
of
structures;
materials
and meth
ods com
i; mm
prominence
quite late in che design
proc
ess.
Another consequence is chat
archit
c
ccs
arc
required
to design d •11an1ic rather t
han l
t
u
entities. Clearly, the human part of the sys
tem
is
dynamic.
But
it
is
equally
true
(
thou
gh
less
obvious) that the srrucrural parr muse bc
as continuall;•
regulating
its human
inh
abitants.
Architectural
holism
Once a
rudimcntarv
version of the fun criuna
mutualistic hypothesis has been accepted, rhc
integrity of
any single syste m is
questiona
ble
~ o s e human jsuucrural systems rely upon other
systems to which they are coupled via the
human componenrs. By hypothesis, rhcrc are
organizational wholes which cannot be mean
ingfully dissected into pares.
Holism
is
of
several types:
a
A
functionally
interpreted
building
can
only
be usefullv considered in the co ntext of a cit\
(notice
t h ~ t
rhe city
is
also functionally i m e r ~
pretcd
and, as a result, is a
dynamic
entity).
b
A
(functionally interpreted) s
tructur
e, either
a building or an entire city, can o nly be
meaningfully conceived in the co nrcxt of ics
temporal
extension, i.e. its
growth and
development.
c A
(functionally inrerprcccd) structure
exists as part
o
an intention, i.e.
;IS
one pro duct
of
a
plan.
If (assumed dogma)
man
should be
awar
e
of
bis
natural surroundings, then
buildings
should be wedded to o r arise
from
these
sn rrNtndings (\Xfright's
organic
Lhcsb).
It is a corollary of a, b and c that the structure
of a city is not just the carapace of society. On
the
contrary,
its
structure
acts as a
symb
olic
control
programme
on a par \\•ich the ritual
constraints which
arc known
to
regulat
e the
behaviour of various tribes and which render rh
' Very similar comments apply to engineering, since
engineers, llke architects, prescribe artefacts. Surely,
als
some engineers make use of a cybernetic theory. But
the requirement Is
not
so ubiquitous In engineering:
nor
Is the Impact of cybernetics
so
great because a
creditable body of engineering theory, a predictive and
explanatory theor
y
existed
long
before the cybernetic
concepts came along as daring Innovations. Moreover
whilst
all architects design systems that Interact closely
with human beings and societies,
most
engineers
(there are obvious exceptions) are
not
forced to do
so
.
Human Interaction is a
major
source of difficulties which
can
only
be overcome by cybernetic thinking.
• The choice of a historical origin Is somewhat arbitrary
and
depends upon the
author's
emphasis. For example,
Al exander, preoccupied with the
logic
of form, traces
essentially cybernetic concepts back
to
Lodoll and
Laugler.
In
the present article I am anxious to follow the
pragmatic development of cybernetic Ideas and
to
see
them emerging
In
the history of modern architecture.
•There are
two
Important
sorts
of exception:
(i) Architects
of genius,
with
a breadth of vision
that
impels them to
see th
i
ngs
in a systemic and Inter-
disciplinary fashion. T hey have existed over the
Sir Christopher Wren
and
Sir
John
Soane,
for
example
(ii)
Men llke John Nash, whose talents l
ay
In conceiving
an urban development as a functional and aesthetic
whole. But, within the tenets of the early
1800s such
men are probably
'or
ganizers with a vision', rather than
'architects'.
• I have chosen these examples partly because they are
well known In the textbooks
but
mainly because I am
Impressed by their systemic qualities and the way In
which they convey their designer's purpose
to
the
occupant.
Two
of them
still
exist. I
just
recall
the
Palac
Even
In Its tawdry reincarnation
It
was a remarkable
structure. Since It was
one of
the
first
Instances of
a
prefabricated building
It
also counts as a piece of
system design at the engineering leve
l.
•Lack of an adequate metalanguage was
not
the
only
factor. As Prof. Nicolaus Pevsner
points
out
the
engine
and the
artists
pursued divergent paths of developmen
more
or less
in
conflict
with one
another and this
accounted for at least some of the architectural
Idiosyncrasy. However,
II
a metalanguage
h d
existed,
then
the
synthesis of
the
present century could have
been achieved mJch earlier.
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behaviour homeostatic rather than divergent.
Hence, the architect is responsible for building
conventions and shaping the development
of
traditions (rhis comment simply elevates the idea
that a building concro ls its inhabitants to a
higher level
of
organization).
Evolutionary ideas in
architecture
Systems, notably cities, grow and develop and,
in
general
ev
olve. Clearly, this co ncept is
contingent
upon
the functionalist/mutualisc
hypothesis (without which
it
is difficult to see in
what sense the system itself
doe.r
grow) though the
dependency is often unstated. n immediate
practical consequence
of
the evolutionary
point
of view is that archfrectural designs should have
rules
for
evolution built into them i their
growth is to be healthy rather than cancerous.
In other words, a responsible architect must be
concerned with evolutionary properties; he
cannot
merely stand back and observe evolution
as something that happens to his structures. The
cvolu,tionary thesis is closely related to holism,
type
c,
but it is a carefully specialized version
of
c as manifest in the work
of
the Japanese.
Svm b
ol i
c en vironmen ts in arch ite
ctu
re
Many human activities are symbolic in character.
Us ing visual, verbal
or
tactile symbols, man
talks with his surroundings. These consist
in
other men, information systems such as
libraries, computers or works of art and also,
of
course, the
st r
u
ct
ures
around
him.
Buildings have always been classified s works of
art. The
novel
sub-theory is that structures
may be designed (as well s intuited) to foster a
productive and pleasurable dialogue. This way
of thinking is most clearly manifest in con
nection with the literary art forms, notably
surrealism
wh ich relics upon a variety (novelty)
produc
i
ng
juxtaposition of releas.ers and
supernormal
stimuli (evoking inbuilt emotive
responses)
within
a thematic matrix.
At the
architectuxal level, this type
of
design appears in
t.he vegetable surrealism of some of
the Art
Nouveau. But it reaches maturity in Gaudi s
work, especially the
Parque
Guell (right) which, at a
symbolic level, is one
of
the most cybernetic
structures in existence. As you explore the
piece, statements are made
in
terms
of
releasers,
your
exploration is
guided
by specially contrived
feedback,
and
variety (surprise value) is introduced
at
appropriate points to make you explore.
It
is interesting
that
Gaucli s
work
is
often
&ontrasted with functionalism. Systemically
it
is functionalism pure and simple, though
it
is
aimed
at
satisfying
only the
symbolic
and
informational needs of man.
6
he machinery of architectural production
Just as a functionally interpreted building
so
also the construction of
this building is a system. The new techniques
in the last century and the general
of production facilities led to
b-theories concerned with the achievement of
most important centred around the
) and these, in turn, restricted the forms
could
be
pr
o
duc
ed.
widening
brief
a result of these, essen tially cybernetic,
b-theoretical developments, many architects
co
design systems
but,
on the whole they
expected to
design buildings. To a l
arge
chis is still (quite reasonably) true.
All
the
there is a sense
in which
the brief given
to
architect has widened during the last decades.
In
part
this is
due to
a spate of problems for
no conventional solutio n exists (structures
industry,
entertainment, the use of oceans, etc.).
rbc architect is in much the same position
Victori
an
predecessor when asked to build
In part, however, the restraints
been relaxed because of the greater pre
of
system orientated thinking
amongst
It is, nowadays,
to enter the design process much
even for a convention l project. For
J n a/AO
Guadi s
Parq11e
G11ell- 011e o} lb
»l(JS/
r,;•bernetic
.rtrucl11ru
i
exiflt11ce.
Photographs: Leopoldo Pomes
Joan Prats and Joaquim Gomts
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e, it is commonplace to design
at least co plan) ciries as a w hole with
vision for their evolution. A University
not be conceived as a set of bu ildings
a cour tyard with li ving ac
co
mmodation
ecture thcarre. The educational system
ht in certain circumst:1nces, be spatially
ocalized. In any case,
s a rc positively encouraged w
ate trends such as the development of
ona l technology and to prm·ide for their
ct upon whateve r structure is erected. By
of
this the a rchi tect quite o ften comes into
picture at the time when a higher
onal system is being contemplated,
o
ut
commitment co whether o r noc
it
is
l
ed a university.
The
Fun
Palace project, by
Cedric Price, was
an
ear ly
pr
oject of this type in the field of
e
nt and
it is nor difficult to f ind
es in areas ranging from exhibition
ign to factory building.
he point I wish to establish is thar nowadays
is
a de a d for system oriencared thinking
in the past, there was only a more
or
esoteric
desire
fo r
it.
Decause
of
this demand,
s w o
rth
while collecting the isolated sub
together by forming a generalization
their common con
stituents.
As
we
hav
e
argued,
the comm
on constituents
ar
c
th
e
of concrol, communication and system.
the
generalization is no
more
nor less
abstract cybernetics inccrprctcd as
an
archi tectural theory.
would be
prematur
e to suggest t
hat
the
ssary interpretation :rnd consolidati
on
is
But a creditable start has been made
number
of people; citing only those with
I have personal contact, Christopher
Nicholas
Negr
oponce, many srudcms
ex-students from the AA School of
and from cwcasrle.
t us of t
he
n ew theory
common with the pu re architecture of the
,
cybernetics provides a metalanguage for
cal discussion. But the cybernetic theory is
an
extension of 'pure' architecture.
somewhat earlier, pure archirccturc
descriptive (a taxonomy of buildings
and
prescriptive (as in
the
preparation
plans) bu t it did little to predict or explain.
contra
st, the
cybernetic theory has
an
eciable predictive power.
7
Por example,
development can be modelled as self
system (a formal statement of
ideas in architecture
')
and in these
it
is possible to predict the extent to which
growth
of a ciry
will
be chao tic o r ordered
differentiation.
Even if
the necessary data
is unavailable we can,
at
least,
e and test rational hypothesis. Much the same
ents apply to predictions in which time is
of
primary .imporcancc; for instance, in
cting the influence of spatial and
e constraints upon the s tability of a
onally interpreted) s tructure.
cybernetic theory can also claim some
ory power insofar as
it
is possible to
certain aspects of a rchi tectural design by
al intelligence
computer programs
8
ovided, incidentally, that the program is able
earn about and f rom architects and by
t i n g in
the language
of
architects,
by explo ring plans, material specifications,
ensed versions
of
clients' comments, etc.).
rograms
are
clearly of value in their own
They are potential aids to design; acting
ntell igent extensions of the tool-like
at
the outset. Further, they
r a means for integrating the constructional
(the
'machinery of production') wich the
design process sinct..
it
is quite cas} tt•
the consrrainrs of current technology
part of rbe simulation. l l0\"1."Cver, J
these programs arc of far greater
as evidencing out theoretical
of
what
architecture is about. Insofar
program
can
be
wrirtcn, the cybernetic
Speculations
It seems
Likely
that rapid advances \\ill be made
in a t least live areas guided by
the
cybernetic
rhcory
of
architecture.
i
Va
rious computer-assisted
(or
even
computer-
di r
ccred) desi
gn
procedures will
be
developed into usefu l instruments.
z. Concepts
in ve
ry different disc iplines
(no rably social a
nthr
opology, psychology,
sociology, ecology and economics) will be
un ified with the concep ts
of
architecture to
yield an adequately broad view of such entities
as 'civilizarion', 'city '
or
'educational system'.
3. There will be a proper and systematic
formulation of chc sense in which archi tecture
acts as a social cont ro l (i.e. the germ of an idea,
mentioned under 'Ho lism', will be elaborated).
4. Th e high po int of functionalism is the
concept of a house as a 'machine fo r living in '.
But chc bias is towards a machine that aces as a
tool serving the inhabitant. This no tion will,
I belieYc, be relined inco the conce
pt
of an
cnvironmc
nc
1 ith which the inhabirnnc
cooperates and i which he can externalize his
mental processes, i.e. murualism will be
emp hasized as compared wirh mere
functional ism. For example, the machine for
Jiving in will re
li
eve the inhabitant o f th e need
co store informarion in memory and the need to
perform ca lculations as well as helping out with
more o bvious c hores like garbage disposal and
washing
up
dishes. Further,
it
will elicit his
interest as well as simply answering his enquiries.
5 Gaudi (intentionally
or
not) achieved a
dial
ogue
between his cnvironmenc and its
inhabitants. H e did
so
using physically static
structures ( the dynamic processes depending
upon the movement of people
or
shifts in their
attention).
Th
e dialo
gue
can
be
relined
and
extended with
ch
e a id
of
modern techniques
which allow us co weave the same parre
ro
in
terms of a reactive environment. If,
in
addition,
the
environment
is malleable
and
adaptive the
results can
be
very
potent
indeed. I have
experimented along these lines mysclf
9
but the
work
of Brodey and his group at the
environmental ecol
og
y laboracory is a project
on
a
much
more impressive scale.
As
a
br
oad
statement of what is going on, a computer
controls
th
e v isual
and
tactile
pr
o perties o f
env
ironmental materials (which arc available
in
sufficient
di
vcrsity for
most
architectural
purpo
ses) . These materials contain sensors,
tactile or visual as the case may be , which
return messages to the computer at several
levels of generality. lo the absence of a human
inhabitant, the feedback leads to stabilization
with respect co certain pre-programmed
invariants (for example, that a body of material
shall maintain mechanical stability and occupy
a prescribed value), and to a search process
in
which the mate rial actively looks for signs
of
a
human being in contact with it. If there ls a
human being in the environment, computer,
material and all , engages him in dial
og
ue and ,
within quite wide limits, is able to learn about
and adapt to his beba viour
pattern
. T here is thus
one sense in which the rcaccive environment is a
fo11Jro/ler
and ano ther in which
it
is con
tr
olled
by
its inhabita
nt
s.
A s
imple
cybernetic
de
sign
paradigm
In
th
e c
ontext
of a reactive and adapti ve
environment, architectural design takes place in
several
inte
rdependent stages.
i. Specification of the purpose or
goal
of the
system (with respect
to the
human inhabitants).
It
should be emphasized that che goal
may
be and
nearly always 11•i// be underspecified, 1e. the
architect will 110 more
know
the purpose of the
system than he rtt1//y knows Lhe purpose of a
convenrional house.
I
!is aim is
to pro\
ide a
s
of conscraints that allo\\
for
ccrtam,
presumably
dcsirahk,
modes of evolution.
ii. Choice of the basic environmental matcriah.
iii. SclccLion
of
the invariants "hich arc to be
programmed
into
the system.
Panly
:it this stage
and partly in ii above, the architect determines
what
propcnics
will be relevant in the man
iv. Specification of what the envir
onment
\\'ill
learn about and bow it will adapt.
v. Choice of a plan for adaptation and
development.
n
case the goal of the system is
de
r1pecified (as
in
i) the plan will chiefly consist
m a number of evolutionary principles.
Of course, this paradigm applies co systems
whi ch adapt over rath
er
short time interva ls
(mi nutes
or
hours).
In
contrast, the adaptation
in a project such as the Fun Palace system took
place over much longer cimc intervals (for
instance, an 8-hourly cycle and a weekly cycle
formed
part of
the proposal). Depending upon
the time consrraincs and the degree of
flex
ib ili ty required , it is more
or
less conveni ent
co use a
comput
er (fo r exa
mp
le, the weekly
cycle is
mor
e economica
ll
y
programmed
by a
llcxible o ffice procedure) .But exactly the s
am
e
principles a rc involved.
Urban planning usually extends over time
pe
riods of years o r d ecades
an
d, as
curr
ently
conceived, the plan is qui re an inflexible
spccific.'l
tion
. Ho wever, the a rgument just
pr
esented suggests that
it
need not be inflexible
and that urban development could, perhaps with
advantage, be governed by a process like that
in the dialogue of a reactive environment
(physical contact with chc inhabitants giving
place to ao awareness of their preferences and
predilections ; the inflexible plan to the e nv
ir
on -
mental computing machine).
If
so, the same
design paradigm applies, since in all of the cases
so far considered the p rimary decisions are
systemic in character, i.e. they amount
co
the
deline
ation
or
the
m
od
ification
of
a
control
program. This universality is typical of the
cybernetic approach.
One final manoeuvre will indicate the flavour
of a cybernetic theo ry. Lee us turn the design
paradigm in
up
on irsclf; let us apply
i t
to the
interac
tion be t
ween
th
e
de
sig
ner
and the
system he designs, rather than the interaction
between
th
e s ystem and
th
e
pe
ople
who
inhabit
it. The glove firs, almost perfectly
in
the case
when
the
designer uses a com
puter
as his
assistant. Jn oth
er
words, the relation
'co
ntrollrr
/ r.ontrollecl en riry' is preserved when
these omnibus words arc replaced either by
'designer/sys
tem
being designed' or by
'sys temic env
ironment
/ inhabitants' or by
'urban plan/cicy'. But notice the trick the
des igner is controlling chc construction of
contro
l systems and consequently design is
contro l o control, i.e. the designer docs much
the same job as bis system, b J be operates
at
a
higher level
in
the organizational hierarchy.
Further the design goal is nearly always
und erspecified and the 'controller' is no longe r th
authoritarian appararus which this purely
technical name commonly brings to mind. In
contrast the controller is an
odd
mixture of
catalyst, crutch , memory and arbiter. These, I
be lieve, are the dispositions a designer should
bring to bear upon his wo rk {when he
professionally plays the part of a controller) and
these are the qualities he should
embed
in the
systems (control systems) which be des igns.
10
0
• Clearly, In other respects, It would be
uncomfortably
prickly to
li
ve In.
1
The
I
mpact of
cybernetics upon architecture i s
considerable Just because the theory does have muc ll
more predicti
ve powe
r than pure arch itectu re had.
Cybernetics
did
relatively li ttle
to
alter the shape of
biochemistry for instance, because although these
concepts are bound up w
ith
everything from entyme
organltatlon to
mol
ecular
biology, the d iscipline
of
biochemistry already had
predlcl/ve
and
explanatory
theory of its own. I made the same
poi
nt for engineering
In an earlier footnote.
I have
the
work
of
N
egroponte s group
(see p. 509-514}
chiefly In mind, though there are other exemplars.
• For example,
the
colloquy
of
moblies project
and the
muslcolour
system.
A comment a c se history and
a
plan In Computer Art
Editor Jalsha Reichardt.
••The
cybernetic
notions
moo ted In this article, are
discussed In
An approach to cybernetics Hutchinson,
1961 (paperback 1968) and, In a lighter vein,
in
My
predictions
for
19
84
In
Prospect
Tho
Schweppes
Book
is explanatory.
environment dialogue
of
the
New Generation,
Hutchinson. London,
196
2
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