Transcript
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Editorial Board
Mr. Altaf M. Saleem Chairman
Dr. Shahid Afghan Editor-in-Chief
Dr. Iftikhar Ahmed Member
Dr. Muhammad Zubair Member
Dr. Javed Iqbal Member
Dr. Aamir Ali Member
Mr. Aamir Shahzad Editor
Ms. Tooba Rauf Malik Associate Editor
Ms. Asia Naheed Associate Editor
Subscription
Aamir Shahzad
Shakarganj Sugar Research Institute
Toba Road, JHANG
Ph: +92 47 763 1001-5 Ext. 603, 604
Email: aamir.shahzad@shakarganj.com.pk
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Pakistan PKR 1,000/-
OVERSEAS US$ 50/-
Recognized by
Higher Education Commission (HEC) Pakistan
Cited by
Asia Net Pakistan (Factiva International)
Commonwealth Agriculture & Biology International
(CABI-UK)
ISSN 1028-1193
Panel of Referees
Dr. P. Jackson: Principal Scientist, CSIRO, Australia
Dr. Raul O. Castillo: Director General, Research Station
EI Triunfo, Ecuador
Dr. Benjamin Legendre: Interim Director, Audubon
Sugar Institute, USA
Dr. Yong-Bao Pan: Research Plant Molecular
Geneticist, USDA-ARS, USA
Dr. Jack C. Comstock: Research Leader, ARS USDA,
Canal Point Florida, USA
Dr. Sizuo Matsuoka: Director, Canavialis SA, Brazil
Dr. Niranjan Baisakh: Assistant Professor, - SPESS, LSU USA
Dr. Abdul Rauf: Prof. & Chairman Plant Pathology PMAS
Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi
Dr. Asif Tanvir: Professor, Dept. of Agronomy, UAF
Dr. Muhammad Umer Chattha: Assistant Professor,
Dept. of Agronomy, UAF
CONTENTS 02
Obituary: Dr. Douglas Macdonald Hogarth AM
ISSCT Honorary Life Member
04 Boiler economizer calculations
Muhammad Yousuf Khan
07 Maximum Economic Return through Intercropping of
Different Crops in September Sown Sugarcane
(Saccharum officinarum L.)
Abdul Rehman, Aamir Ali, Zafar Iqbal, Rafi Qamar,
Shahid Afghan and Abdul Majid
16 Loss of resistance in HSF-240 against whip smut of
sugarcane over consecutive ratoons
M. Asad Farooq, Awais Rasool, M. Zubair, Sagheer
Ahmad and Shahid Afghan
19 Sugar leaf “Stevia”
Muhammad Asad, Syed Zia ul Hussnain, & Aamir
Shahzad
21 Sugar Industry Abstracts
26 International Events Calendar
27 Social Action Program of SML
Annual Prize & Certificate Distribution Ceremony –
Fashion Designing & Fine Arts Classes
29 Sugar and Addiction
World Sugar Research Organization (WSRO) Position
Statement
35 Story of Sweets
Donuts
Chinese Egg Custard Tarts
36 Guidelines for Authors
PAKISTAN SUGAR JOURNAL
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
Obituary
Dr. Douglas Macdonald Hogarth AM
ISSCT Honorary Life Member
Mac was born Queensland Australia on 12
September 1942. He married Tricia Ward in 1973
and they have three daughters (Susan, Julia and
Annabelle) and eight grandchildren – twins being
born shortly before his death.
Mac was educated at a one-teacher school
outside nearby Jandowae before joining the
Toowoomba Boys Prep School and then finally to
The Southport School as a boarder. He attended
the University of Queensland in 1960 and gained a
Bachelor of Agricultural Science in 1963. He was
granted a scholarship from the Bureau of Sugar
Experiment Stations to obtain a Master‟s degree at
the University of Sydney, where he specialized in
Biometrics and Quantitative Genetics.
His first posting was to BSES, Meringa, where he
commenced his career with the plant breeding
group. He was transferred to Brisbane in 1969 to be
the first bio-metrician in BSES and obtained his PhD
from the University of Queensland in 1973 for his
thesis Methods of Selection and Estimation of
Genetic Variances in Population of Sugar Cane. In
1985, he was transferred to BSES, Bundaberg, to
lead the plant breeding group in southern
Queensland during the industry‟s recovery from an
outbreak of Fiji leaf gall virus. In 1990, he returned to
Brisbane to lead the BSES plant breeding group
and was part of the Executive Team. He retired
from BSES in 2002.
His major research contributions were in
quantitative genetics, the establishment of
databases and statistical programs to improve the
efficiency of the plant breeding program, and the
establishment of the biometrics unit in BSES. He is
acknowledged as a world leader in these areas
and also developed and selected many important
Q cultivars. After retirement, Mac was appointed
as a Director of the Sugar Research and
Development Corporation for six years, where he
played an important role in guiding the direction if
investments of funds for the industry and
government RD&E. In 2010, he was invited to join a
Scientific Advisory Group set up by the European
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
Union to oversee projects funded by the EU in
developing countries that sell sugar to the EU.
The English language was always a thing of beauty
to Mac and something not to be misused. Some
might call him pedantic, but his skills shone in his
editing reports, manuscripts, and proceedings and
supervision of higher-degree students. His skills are
well reflected in his co-editorship of the 2000
edition of the Manual of Cane Growing published
for the 100th anniversary of BSES.
Mac was actively involved in Australian Society of
Sugar Cane Technologists over the span of his
career. He served terms as Secretary and
Chairman of the Agricultural Section in 1988 and
1989 and was President of the Society in 2002. He
was the Editor from 1998 to 2006, was awarded a
President‟s Medal and was made a Life Member in
2003. Likewise he was passionate about the
International Society of Sugar Cane Technologists,
serving as its Editor from 2001 to 2013, and editing
his fifth proceedings for the XXVIII Congress in São
Paulo. He was honored to be made a Life Member
of ISSCT in 2007. Mac was always willing to be
„unpopular‟ by saying the things that needed to be
said but at the same time still genuinely accepting
collective decisions for the greater good. It is
because of great people like Mac that we can
affectionately refer to the ISSCT „family‟.
Mac‟s significant contribution to the sugar industry
and to the Australian community was recognized
when he was made a Member of the Order of
Australia in 2006 for “service to the sugar industry
through research and development of sugar cane
breeding programs”- an award that was well
deserved. This was followed with recognition from
the wider agricultural community by being made a
Fellow of the Ag Institute Australia and being
presented with a 2012 Service Award to the Sugar
Industry.
To his family Mac was a devoted husband, father,
father-in-law and grandfather. To the people at
the ISSCT he was a friend, a colleague, a mentor.
He was always open and honest, but also positive
and constructive in his manner. He was generous
with his time and energy in providing experienced
and valuable advice to many scientists, breeders
and extension officers, with particular support and
encouragement to younger staff. He was deeply
respected, not just because of his technical
expertise, but also because he was a man of great
integrity and dependability.
Mac‟s death on 12 March 2014 represents a very
sad landmark for the international community of
sugar cane breeders and researchers. His presence
at many events and forums will be very sadly
missed and fondly remembered. He will continue
to be an inspiring role model, in many ways, for
those who had the great pleasure and honor of
knowing and working with him.
As a referee of international panel for the Pakistan
Sugar Journal, Dr. Mac Hogarth made significant
contributions from 2008 until his death (5 years). The
Chair and members of PSJ editorial board and
readers of the journal offer heartfelt condolence
with deep sorrow on the sad demise of Dr. Mac
Hogarth. May God keep his soul in eternal peace.
May God comfort Tricia and her family with Peace
and Strength now and in the days to come. May
the love of friends sustain them in these difficult
days.
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BOILER ECONOMIZER CALCULATIONS
Muhammad Yousuf Khan
General Manager, Matiari Sugar Mills
Tube size selection & coil element placement
• Tube Layout
– Tubes of 63.5 mm diameter in reasonably good
condition were available as a result of tube
bank replacement. It was decided to use these
tubes.
Tube size selection & coil element placement
• Tube Placement
– Economizer elements, when placed such that
the inlet & outlet header are both on top, cause
some moisture to be left in the element when
the boiler is drained down. Moreover, in this
direction the element depth is limited to the
space available in the duct. (Refer to slide #4)
– Thus the number of bends has to be increased
to get a higher heating surface area. The
advantage of a complete counter flow is also
not achieved. Thus the design of placing the
inlet header on the bottom & the outlet header
on top was selected. (Refer to slide #5)
Tube size selection & coil element placement
Tube Layout
Tube size selection & coil element placement
Tube Placement
Cross-sectional area for gas passage
The criteria fixed for gas passage was:
• Cross-sectional area available for gas passage
should not be less than the cross sectional area
of the Air heater through which the same gasses
already pass. This is 3.16m2.
• Area of the air duct is 9.4m2. Exposed area of the
economizer coils is 4.3 m2.
• Area available for gas passage through the
economizer is 9.4 – 4.3 = 5.1 m2
Heating surface of economizer
• Coil Length (L)=76.77 m:
• No. of coils (N) =18:
• Total Tube Length= 1381.86 meter
• Diameter of tube (D)= 63.5 mm
• Heating surface of the economizer = π*D*L*N =
3.14*.063*76.74*18= 273m2
Available Data
• Rated Capacity of boiler (p) = 50 T.P.H.
• Working Pressure= 24 kg/cm2: @320oC
• Moisture in Bagasse (w) = 52.1%
• Sugar in Bagasse (s) = 2.1%
• Excess air ratio (m)-= 1.5
• Inlet Feed Water temperature (to) = 98 oC
• Economizer out let Feed water temperature (t)
= ?
• Temperature of gasses leaving the Dust
collector (To) = 325 oC
• Temperature of gasses leaving the economizer
(T) = ?
• Heating surface of economizer = 273m2
• Un-burnt Gas coefficient (α)- (from Hugot) =
0.95
• Heat transfer coefficient (K) = 30 kcal/oC/ m2/h
• Feed water temperature = 98 oC
• Specific heat of water (c) = 1 kcal/kg oC
• Specific heat of gasses (c) = 0.285 kcal/kg oC
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Weight of bagasse to be burnt
• B=p/2.1
• B=50,000/2.1=23,809.5kg/hr
Weight of gas produced
• Pg=5.76(1-w)m+1
• Pg=5.76(1-0.521)1.5+1
• Pg=5.138kg/kg of bagasse
• Total weight of gasses
• P=Pg*B
• P=5.138*23809.5
• P=122,346kg/hr
Ratio Heat of gasses to heat of Water through
Economizer
• R = α*P*C/pc
• R=0.95*122346*0.285/50000*1
• R= 0.662 ----------------(A)
• R= (t-to)/(To-T)
• R= (t-98)/(325-T)
• 0.662=(t-98)/(325-T)-----from (A) above
Upon simplification we get the equation 313.31-
0.662T = t--------------equation 1
Heating Surface (S) for the economizer
• S = {[(α*P*C)]/[k(1-r)]} ln[(To-t)/(T-to)]
• S= 273 = {[(0.95* 122346* 0.285)}/[30(1-0.662)]}
ln[(325-t)/(T-98)]
• Upon simplification we get the equation
1.087T+t-431.4=0.-----------equation 2
Temperature of the gasses leaving the economizer
• From simultaneous solution of equation 1 & 2
• T=278 0C (Temperature of gasses leaving the
economizer)
Temperature of Feed Water leaving Economizer
• Substituting the Value of T into equation 1
• t=129 0C (Economizer out let Feed water
temperature)
Energy & Fuel Saving
• Energy saved due to rise in feed water
temperature = 31*100000 = 3,100,000 kcal/h
• Fuel saving = energy saving/NCV= 3,100,000/
1698 = 1835 kg/h = 44 TPD = 4400 tons/ 100days
Return on Investment
• Bagasse saved @ Rs 2,500/ton is equivalent to =
Rs. 11 Million.
• Cost of economizer with used tubes = Rs. 6
Million.
• Saving in first season = Rs. 5 Million.
• Saving in subsequent seasons = Rs.11Million
each season.
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MAXIMUM ECONOMIC RETURN THROUGH
INTERCROPPING OF DIFFERENT CROPS IN SEPTEMBER
SOWN SUGARCANE (SACCHARUM OFFICINARUM L.)
*Abdul Rehman, **Aamir Ali, *Zafar Iqbal, *Rafi Qamar, ***Shahid Afghan and **Abdul Majid
*Deptt. of Agronomy, University College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha
**Department of Biological Sciences, University of Sargodha
***Shakarganj Sugarcane Research Institute, Toba Road Jhang
*Corresponding author’s email: drabdulrehman18@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Sugarcane has a great value as the major source of sugar to more than half of the global population.
World population is increasing day-by-day and cultivated land is decreasing rapidly due to urbanization,
road construction, and land deterioration. This crisis demands alternate research to increase productivity
and maximum economic returns per acre to feed the gigantic population. Intercropping in sugarcane has
received much attention due to long duration and late return from sugarcane crop and may become
popular among farmers, if it is properly managed. Intercropping has the potential to encourage the
farmers to get maximum economic return per acre per annum. For intercropping, wheat, gram, soybean,
and potato was used as intercrops in the September-sown sugarcane. Triple row strip planting geometry of
sugarcane with four intercropped (SC+ Wheat, SC+ Gram, SC+ Soybean, and SC+ Potato) and check with
sole SC was used. Sugarcane was planted during September 2011-12 at the research area of the University
College of Agriculture, University of Sargodha, Pakistan. Randomized complete block design with three
replications was used. Results showed that number of millable cane, cane diameter; unstripped and
stripped cane yield and crop growth rate was higher in sole sugarcane than different inter-crop
treatments. The results also showed that intercrops gave higher land equivalent ratio and net return/net
income over the sole sugarcane planted, while sole sugarcane gave maximum benefit cost ratio.
Keywords: world population stress, sugarcane, intercropping, economic return, and benefit cost ratio.
Abbreviations: SC = Sugarcane; CGR = Crop growth rate; LER = Land equivalent ratio; BCR = Benefit cost
ratio.
INTRODUCTION
Sugarcane (Saccharum
officinarum L.) is the biggest
source of revenue in Pakistan
after cotton and rice. It has
central position in the growth of
sugar industries and economic
development. It is a source of
providing raw material to many
allied industries and employment
(Akbar et al., 2011). Sugarcane
contributes 3.2 % to the value
added products in agriculture
and 0.7 % to gross domestic
production (Govt. of Pakistan,
2012-13). Currently, the area
under sugarcane is 1.12 million
hectares and total production is
62.4 million tons with an average
yield of 55.58 metric ton ha-1
(Govt. of Pakistan, 2012-13).
Despite a higher yield potential,
average stripped cane yield of
sugarcane in Pakistan is well
below than in most of the
sugarcane producing countries
of the world (Ali et al., 2009).
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There are several factors
involved in yield stagnant at
farmer‟s field while conventional
planting method/ geometry is
the main factor (Ehsanullah et
al., 2011).
To encourage the stripped cane
yield, different planting
techniques have been
developed. Conventionally,
sugarcane is planted in 60 to 75
cm apart single rows strip which
may result enhanced millable
cane per unit area and striped
cane yield but hinders different
cultural practices necessary for
good crop stand and hence,
restricting the cane yield to a
substantial extent (Ehsanullah et
al., 2011).
Triple row planting may be
suitable and efficient planting
system in saving water and
decreasing lodging due to
easiness in intercultural practice
and earthing-up operations
(Malik et al., 1996). Triple row strip
planting plays significant role in
increasing plant population and
stripped cane yield (Sarwar et
al., 1996). Sugarcane yield and
yield attributes like tillers, plant
height, number of millable canes
and stripped cane yield
produced by 120 cm apart triple
row trench planting was higher
than 60 cm apart single row
trenches (Chattha et al., 2007).
A triple row spacing of 120 cm
produced more total dry matter
and stripped cane yield over
single row and double row
spacing 60 and 90 cm but cane
quality were alike with different
row spacing (Raskar and Bhoi,
2005). A triple row planting
sugarcane with recommended
seed rate gave maximum net
income/ economic returns than
conventional method of
planting (Bhullar et al., 2008).
Day-by day the population is
rapidly increasing which
decreasing the area under crop
production. The prerequisite is to
increase the production and
income per unit area by
developing such planting
techniques and practices, which
may help in maintaining proper
plant population and
intercropping (Hussain et al.,
2008). Intercropping has been
known as a tremendous
practice to increase stripped
cane yield, maximum net
returns, and better resources
utilization and fulfill the demand
of diversified farms. The gross
monetary returns have been
recognized as the highest
economic benefit earned from
intercropping cane with potato
and lowest from pure cane
(Misra et al., 1989). Intercropping
produced superior quality cane
juice (Jayabal et al., 1990a) and
gave higher net field benefits
than sole sugarcane (Rana et
al., 2006). The conventional
methods of planting cane do
not permit the intercrops to grow
well due to shading and
competition effect. The
popularity of intercropping
systems on small growers in the
developing countries and the
demand for more food has
required intensive research on
intercropping (Rana et al., 2006).
The contradictory yield results of
different intercrops were found
in different studies (Li et al., 2013;
Kannappan et al., 1990;
Razzaque et al., 1978).
Pakistan being a subtropical
country with best growing
conditions can easily exploit the
potentials of growing more than
two crops in a year through
intercropping, which is
considered as an appropriate
method for increasing
production per unit land area
with suitable farm management
practices. There are not much
reported studies available on
the different intercrops in
sugarcane growing areas in
Pakistan. The present study was
conducted with the following
objective: To explore the yield
feasibility of sugarcane yield
under different intercrops and its
economics
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental site
The study regarding
intercropping in spring planted
sugarcane was conducted for
one year during 2011-12 on a
loam soil at research area
University College of Agriculture,
University of Sargodha, (32o.04‟
N, 72o.67‟ E), Pakistan. The
climate of the region is
subtropical semi-arid with
annual average rainfall of 400+5
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
mm, and more than 70% of the
rainfall occurs during June-Sept.
(Source: Agro-Metrological Lab,
University of Sargodha). Mean
monthly minimum temperature
is 10˚C in January and maximum
temperature is 40˚C in July. The
soil is the Hafizabad series (Fine-
silty, mixed, hyperthermic typic
calciargids) and the soil texture
is loam and heavy loam (Khan,
1986). Selected chemical and
physical characteristics were
done before sowing: pH 7.8±0.1,
electrical conductivity 2.18±0.3
dSm-1, soil organic matter
content 0.70%, total N 0.05%,
available phosphorus 60 mg kg-1
and exchangeable potassium
80 mg kg-1.
Layout and the experimental
design
The experiment was laid out
according to triplicate
randomized complete block
design using three replications.
Net plot size was 4.2 m × 8.0 m
for 120 cm spaced strips. The
treatments comprised; sole
sugarcane, SC + Wheat, SC+
Gram, SC + Soybean and SC +
Potato (within 120 cm apart).
Trenches were made with the
help of tractor drawn ridger.
Crop husbandry
Sugarcane variety HSF-240 with
seed rate of 75,000 double
budded setts per hectare was
sown in September during 2011-
12. Fertilizer was applied at the
rate of 175, 115 and 115 kg NPK
ha-1.
Data recording
Number of millable canes was
counted from the two strips in
each plot at final harvest and
was converted to millable canes
per square meter. At the time of
harvest, diameter of ten
randomly selected stripped
canes from the base, middle
and top was measured (cm)
and averaged. Crop was
harvested at maturity by taking
an area of two strips x 8.0 m from
each plot and stripped cane
yield ha-1 was estimated. Crop
growth rate was worked out as
proposed by Hunt (1978).
CGR = (gm-2 d-1) = (W2-W1)
(T2- T1)
Where W1 and W2 are the total
dry weights harvested at times T1
and T2, respectively
Land equivalent ratio (LER) was
computed according to the
methods as suggested by
Crookston and Hill (1979) using
the following formula:
LER = Yield of a in mixture
Sole crop yield of a
+
Yield of b in mixture
Sole crop yield of b
Where a = Sugarcane
b = Intercrops
Net return was determined by
subtracting the total cost of
production from the gross
income of each treatment
(CIMMYT, 1988).
Net income = Gross income –
Cost of production
Benefit-cost ratio was
calculated by dividing the gross
income with the total cost of
production.
Gross income
BCR = --------------------
Total cost
Statistical analysis
Data were analyzed statistically
using SAS (SAS Institute 2008).
The effects of intercropping was
evaluated by the least
significant difference (LSD) test
at p<0.05 unless otherwise
mentioned. The computer
package MS-Excel was used to
prepare the graphs.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Different intercrops effect
sugarcane yield and land
equivalent ratio
Sole SC and different intercrops
in SC had a significant impact
on all yield parameters (Table 1).
Sole SC had (14.3 m-2) that was 8
% higher millable cane
compared than SC + Potato. In
case of intercrops, SC + Gram
gave significantly 3 %, 4 %, and 5
% higher millable cane SC +
Wheat, SC + Soybean and SC +
Potato. Sole SC produced
significantly 6 % higher cane
diameter than SC + Wheat.
Among intercrops treatments,
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
SC + Potato had significantly
higher cane diameter than SC +
Gram, SC + Soybean and SC +
Wheat. Significantly, higher
unstripped cane yield (121.8 t
ha-1) was noted in sole SC
compared than SC + Wheat
(113.57 t ha-1). Among intercrops
treatment, SC + Gram had 1 %, 2
% and 4 % higher than SC +
Potato, SC + Soybean and SC +
Wheat. Trend was same in case
of stripped cane yield and
significantly higher stripped cane
yield (102.43 t ha-1) was noted in
sole SC than in the intercropped
SC + Wheat (95.30 t ha-1). SC +
Gram produced significantly 2
%, 3 % and 4 % higher stripped
cane yield than SC + Potato, SC
+ Soybean and SC + Wheat. The
data relating to land equivalent
ratio (LER) of sole SC and
different intercrops in SC are
presented in Table 1. The LER of
different intercrops were in
range between 1.53 and 1.61. In
other words, the intercrops yield
advantages varied from 53 to 61
% respectively. It could be
inferred, that advantage due to
intercrops per hectare yields
were equal to sole SC yields
obtained from 1.53 to 1.61
hectares. The highest LER of 1.61
was recorded for SC + Wheat
intercrop geometry. The lowest
LER of 1.53 was observed in SC+
Potato intercrop treatment.
All yield parameters number of
millable cane, cane diameter,
unstripped and striped cane
yield were noted to be
significantly higher in sole SC
compared than different
intercrops in SC. Significantly
higher yield attributes in sole SC
was due to availability of
sufficient soil nutrients and no
crop competition (Malik et al.,
1993; Li et al., 2013). Among the
intercrops, higher number of
millable cane in gram was due
to restorative in nature and
lower number of millable cane
was noted in potato (Rana et
al., 2006). The difference in cane
diameter among different
intercrops was attributed to
nature of intercrops and
available size of spacing area
(Cheema et al., 2002). Raskar
and Bhoi, (2005) also observed
same trend due to variation in
cane diameter with different
intercrops. Significantly, higher
un-stripped and stripped cane
yield was recorded in SC+ Gram
rather than in other intercrops,
which was due to the uptake
and availability of residual
nutrients done by the plants
roots (Cabangon et al., 2002)
and row spacing (Bashir et al.,
2005). The LER of different
intercrops as compared to their
sole SC was found to be higher.
This showed that different
intercrops geometries were
biologically more efficient as
compared to their sole SC. It
revealed that to produce the
combined mixture yield by
growing sole stands would need
53-61 % more land. Our results
supported the findings of
Sherma et al., (1993), Li et al.,
(2011).
Different intercrops effects on
sugarcane growth
Crop growth rate (CGR) shows
the rate of dry matter
accumulation per unit area per
day. Sole SC and different
intercrops had significant effect
on CGR during the study (Fig. 1).
Early in the growing season, crop
growth rate was low because of
less expansion of leaves. Crop
growth rate (Fig. 1) increased
and attained maximum level at
210 DAS. After 210 days, it
gradually decreased to 240 DAS
then sharply declined to 270
DAS. After 270 days, CGR
decreased but comparatively at
lower rate. Maximum crop
growth rate was obtained at 5th-
harvest while minimum crop
growth rate was recorded at
final harvest in all the treatments
(Fig.1). Sole SC had significantly
maximum crop growth rate (22.9
g m-2 d-1) than intercrops. While
in case of intercrops, significantly
maximum CGR (22.0 g m-2 d-1)
was noted in SC + Gram and
minimum CGR (19.8 g m-2 d-1)
was recorded in SC+ Wheat.
Significantly higher crop growth
rate in sole SC was due to no
crop competition, nutrients,
space availability, which
resulted well-developed root
system. Deep root system
enhanced the availability of
sufficient moisture and nutrients
for plant growth and
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
development (Zang et al., 2008).
Pammenter and Allison, (2002)
and Nazir et al., (1988) reported
higher crop growth rate of sole
SC planted at triple row spacing
than intercrops.
Different intercrops effects on
sugarcane economics
The economic benefits got from
different intercrops SC planting
was compared with the sole SC
(Table. 2). The data presented in
Table. 2 revealed that all the
intercrop treatments increased
the net return from sole SC. The
highest net return (Rs. 450244 ha-
1) was obtained from SC +
Potato. The next highest net
return (Rs. 433763 ha-1) and (Rs.
431924 ha-1) were given by the
intercrops of SC + Wheat and SC
+ Gram, respectively. The lowest
net return (Rs. 365121 ha-1) was
noted at sole SC. During study,
maximum benefit cost ratio
(5.40) was noted at sole SC while
minimum benefit cost ratio in SC
+ Soybean (5.17) was observed.
The sole SC produced 2-4 %
greater BCR than different
intercrops.
The net return from different
treatments was calculated by
subtracting the total cost of
production for each treatment
from its gross income. Higher
values of net returns/net income
was obtained from different
intercrops than sole SC. Benefit
cost ratio is another important
economic parameter in which
farmers are interested to see the
gain in net returns with a given
increase in total costs. Our
findings supported the results of
Rana et al., (2006) who reported
that all the intercrops gave
higher net return and lower
benefit cost ratio compared
than sole SC.
CONCLUSION
Sugarcane is an important cash
crop of Pakistan. It has pivotal
role in the growth of sugar
industry, uplifting the socio-
economic conditions of farmers,
and contributing in the
economic development.
Intercropping has been
recognized an excellent and
alternative way to future crop
production under threat of land,
population and high monetary
returns. The present study
revealed that the sole SC gave
more than 6 % and 13 % higher
stripped cane yield and CGR
than all intercrop treatments.
Higher values of LER was noted
in SC + Wheat than other
treatments. Maximum net return
was obtained in SC + Potato as
compared with other intercrops
and sole SC, while maximum
BCR was noted in sole SC. Based
on economics, it is
recommended that resource
poor farmers grow only sole
sugarcane while resource rich
farmers prefer to grow SC +
Potato due to high returns.
REFERENCE
Akbar, N., K. Ehsanullah, Jabran
and M. A. Ali. 2011. Weed
management improves yield
and quality of direct seeded
rice. Aust. J. Crop Sci. 5: 688-694.
Ali, M. A., S. Niaz, A. Abbas, W.
Sabir and K. Jabran. 2009.
Genetic diversity and
assessment of drought tolerant
sorghum landraces based on
morph-physiological traits at
different growth stages. Plant
Omics 2: 214-227.
Bashir, S., A. Ali and M. Yasin.
2005. Sugarcane varieties and
row spacing effect on
sugarcane traits. Pak. Sug. J. 20:
18-20.
Bhullar, M.S., K.S. Thind, S.K.
Uppal and K. Singh. 2008.
Productivity, profitability and
quality of sugarcane
(Saccharumspp.) plant-ratoon
system in relation to planting
methods and seeding rate. Ind.
J. Agron. 53: 195-199.
Cabangon, R.J., T.P. Tuong and
N.B. Abdullah. 2002. Comparing
water input and water
productivity of transplanted and
direct-seeded rice production
systems. Agric. Water Mgt. 57:11-
31.
Chattha, M. U., A. Ali and M.
Bilal. 2007. Influence of planting
techniques on growth and yield
12 | P a g e
April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
of spring planted sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.). Pak. J. Agric. Sci. 44: 452-456.
Cheema, I. A., M. Ayub and A. Jabbar. 2002. Bio economic efficiency of spring planted sugarcane as
influenced by spatial arrangement and nutrient management. Pak. Sug. J. 17: 62-68.
CIMMYT. 1988. From Agronomic Data to Farmers Recommendations: An Economics Training Manual.
Completely revised edition. Mexico. D. F.
Crookston, R.R. and D. S. Hill. 1979. Grain yield and land equivalent ratios from intercropping corn and
soybean in Minnesota. Agron. J. 71: 41-44.
Ehsanullah, K. Jabran, M. Jamil and A. Ghaffar. 2011. Optimizing the sugarcane row spacing and seeding
density to improve its yield and quality. Crop Environ. 2: 1-5.
Govt. of Pakistan. 2012-13. Economic Survey of Pakistan. Finance Division Economic Advisor‟s Wing,
Islamabad.
Hunt, R. 1978. Plant Growth Analysis. Edward Arnold, U.K: 26-38.
Hussain, M., M. Farooq, K. Jabran and H. Rehman. 2008. Exogenous glycine betaine application improves
yield under water limited conditions in hybrid sunflower. Arch. Agron. Soil Sci. 54: 557-567.
Jayabal, V., N. Sankaran and S. Chockalingam. 1990a. Effect of intercrops and nitrogen levels on the
quality of sugarcane. Ind. Sugar. 40: 113-115.
Kannappan, K., J. Karamathullah, P. Manickasundaram and K. Kumaraswamy. 1990. Studies on the effect
of intercropping on yield and quality of sugarcane. Cooperative Sugar. 21: 489-490.
Khan, G. S. 1986. Need for international crosschecking and correlation in soil analysis for international
classification systems. In Proceedings of the Twelfth International Forum on Soil Taxonomy and Agro-
Technology Transfer: Soil Survey of Pakistan, vol. 1, 276–293. Lahore, Pakistan: Director General, Soil Survey
of Pakistan.
Li, Z.X., J.W. Wang, W.T. Yang, Y.H. Shu, Q. Du, L.L. Liu and L. Shu. 2011. Effects of reduced nitrogen
application on the yield, quality, and economic benefit of sugarcane intercropped with soybean. Ying
Yong Sheng Tai XueBao. 22: 713-719.
Li, X., Y. Mu, Y. Cheng, X. Liu and H. Nian. 2013. Effects of intercropping sugarcane and soybean on growth,
rhizosphere soil microbes, nitrogen and phosphorus availability. Acta Physio. Planta. 35: 1113-1119.
Malik, K.B., F.G. Ali and A. Khaliq. 1996. Effect of plant population and row spacing on cane yield of spring-
planted cane. J. Agric. Res. 34: 389-395.
Malik, M.A., S. Afghan, I. Ahmad and R.A. Mahmood. 1993. Response of sugarcane cultivars to different
doses of NPK fertilizers in Somalia. Pak. Sugar. J. 7: 7-9.
Misra, S.R., R.S. Ram, S. Kishan and K. Singh. 1989. Effect of intercrops on dispersal of smut (Ustilago
scitaminea) spores in sugarcane field. Ind. J. Agric. Sci. 59: 144-117.
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Nazir, M.S., B. Bijlani, G. Ali and R. Ahmad. 1988. Sugarcane response to NPK application and geometry of
planting on a sandy loam soil. Pak. J. Agric. Sci 24: 183-189.
Pammenter, N. W. and J. C. S. Allison. 2002. Effects of treatments potentially influencing the supply of
assimilate on its partitioning in sugarcane. Exp. Bot. 53: 123-129.
Rana, N.S., K. Sanjay, S. K. Saini and G.S. Panwar. 2006. Production potential and profitability of autumn
sugarcane-based intercropping systems as influenced by intercrops and row spacing. Ind. J. Agron. 51: 31-
33.
Raskar, B.S. and P.G. Bhoi. 2005. Dry matter accumulation and yield performance of pre-seasonal
sugarcane Co 86032 with intra-row spacing, fertilizer levels and planting materials. J. Maharashtra Agric.
Univ. 30: 150-153.
Razzaque, M. A., M. A. Mannan, S. A. Azam and A. Ali. 1978. Mixed cropping. Ind. J. agric. Sci. 48: 324-327.
Sarwar, M., M. A. Gill and K. B. Malik. 1996. Comparison of pit and trench planting of sugarcane at different
fertilizer levels. Pak. Sug. J. 10: 11-13.
SAS Institute: 2008. SAS online doc 9.13. SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC.
Sharma, R.K., K.S. Bangar, S.R. Sharma, H.B. Gwal and H.D. Verma. 1993. Studies on intercropping of pules in
spring planted sugarcane. Ind. J. Pulses Res. 6: 161-164.
Zhang, S., L. Lovdahl, H. Grip, Y. Tong, X. Yang and Q. Wang. 2008. Effects of mulching and catch cropping
on soil temperature, soil moisture and wheat yield on the Loess Plateau of China. Soil and Till. Res. 102: 78-
96.
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Figure-1: Periodic changes in crop growth rate of sugarcane in response of different intercropping
Table-1: Effect of different intercrops on growth and yield of triple row strip sugarcane
Intercropping
Number of
millable canes
(m-2)
Cane stem
diameter
(cm)
Un-stripped
cane yield
(t ha-1)
Stripped
cane
yield (t ha-1)
Land
equivalent
ratio
Sole SC 14.3 a 2.08 a 121.8 a 102.4 a 1.0
SC + Wheat 13.4 c 1.96 e 113.6 e 96.3 e 1.61
SC + Gram 13.9 b 1.99 c 118.5 b 99.7 b 1.56
SC + Soybean 13.3 d 1.97 d 116.1 d 96.5 d 1.55
SC + Potato 13.2 e 2.01 b 116.9 c 98.1 c 1.53
LSD p≤0.05 0.014 0.001 0.021 0.027
SC = Sugarcane. SC + Wheat = Sugarcane-wheat intercropping. SC + Gram = Sugarcane-gram
intercropping. SC + Soybean = Sugarcane-soybean intercropping. SC + Potato = Sugarcane-potato
intercropping.
Table-2: Economics of various intercrop combination in September sown sugarcane
Intercropping Gross income
(Rs. ha-1)
Total Cost
(Rs. ha-1)
Net Returns
(Rs. ha-1)
Benefit cost
ratio
Sole SC 448175 83054 365121 5.40
SC + Wheat 537335 103572 433763 5.18
SC + Gram 532823 100899 431924 5.28
SC + Soyabean 508199 98120 410079 5.17
SC + Potato 556021 105777 450244 5.25
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
LOSS OF RESISTANCE IN HSF-240 AGAINST WHIP SMUT
OF SUGARCANE OVER CONSECUTIVE RATOONS
*M. Asad Farooq, *Awais Rasool, *M. Zubair, **Ali Bahadar, *Sagheer Ahmad and ***Shahid Afghan
*Sugar Crops Res. Program, Crop Sciences Instt., National Agric. Res. Centre, Islamabad
**Department of Agronomy, PMAS Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi
***Shakarganj Sugar Research Institute, Shakarganj Sugar Mills Ltd., Toba Road, Jhang
ABSTRACT
HSF-240, one of the elite sugarcane varieties, was
observed for its reaction with sugarcane smut over
three consecutive years under natural conditions.
The study includes plant crop, first year ratoon and
second year ratoon crops. The data revealed that
in plant crop only 4.25 % stools were infected with
smut and crop proved to be resistant during that
year. In first year ratoon 18.39 % stools were
infected with the disease and crop stood tolerant
against the disease. However in second year
ratoon the disease infected up to 38.19 % of stools
rendering the crop severely susceptible to this
disease. This suggests a swift replacement of HSF-
240 with new and promising varieties, dejection of
this variety in future as a plant crop as well as a
ban on keeping ratoon of this variety.
Keywords: Sugarcane, ratoon, HSF-240, disease
reaction, whip smut
INTRODUCTION
Sugarcane smut caused by the fungus Ustilago
scitanninea Sydow is becoming a more important
problem in many cane growing areas of the world.
The disease is referred to as “culmicolous” smut of
sugarcane because it affects the stalk of the cane.
Smut may remain unnoticed for years, then quickly
devastate large areas of susceptible varieties.
Hence, the disease has been called the dread
disease of sugarcane by some and a trivial disease
with exaggerated yield losses by others. The smut
pathogen usually infects the cane plant through
the buds and the infection of the buds of seed
cane at or shortly after planting is likely to be an
important factor in the development of epidemics
Infection ranges from 30-40% in plant crops and
even up to 70% in ratoons. Sucrose content of
infected cane is reduced to 3-7% (Bock, 1964).
Yield losses may be 39-56% in planted crop and 52-
73 % in ratoon crop (Mohan and Praksam, 1956).
High temperature 25-30oC favors the development
of the disease (Agnihotri, 1990). The affected
canes produce long, black whip-like and coiled or
curved shoots, which are covered with a thin silvery
membrane, containing masses of chlamydospores
of the fungus. Later on that membrane ruptures
and releases a multitude of spores, which
contaminate soil and the standing crop. Whips
begin emerging from infected cane by 2-4 months
of age with peak whip growth occurring at the 6th
or 7th month. The diseased plants are unfit for use.
Primary spread of the disease is through infected
setts and the secondary spread is through wind
borne teliospores. The smut is prevalent in all
sugarcane growing countries of the world. Similarly
in Pakistan all the cane growing regions are
affected by the disease. The susceptible varieties
show considerable losses due to secondary
infection, intensive cultivation and poor
management practices. Smut disease of
sugarcane was successfully controlled in the plant
crop when seed cane was treated with the
solution of Triademefon. The lowest smut infection
(4.4%) and the highest yield of 153 t/ha was
recorded in the sett treatment and foliar spray of
Triadimefon 0.1% at 30, 45 and 60 DAP. The highest
smut infection of 20.0% and the lowest yield of 113
t/ha was observed in the control (Meena and
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
Ramyabharathi, 2012). The most satisfactory and
economical method to control the disease is the
use of resistant varieties. The resistant germplasm of
sugarcane plays a leading role for evaluation of
resistant varieties through breeding program
(Begum et al., 2007). Resistance of a variety lasts
only for a few years. A variety resistant previously
pertaining race may become susceptible to the
new physiological race (Khan et al., 2009).
Sugarcane variety HSF-240 was developed and
released in 2002 locally by the collaboration of
Sugarcane Research Institute, AARI, Faisalabad
and Habib Sugar Mills, District Shaheed
Benazirabad for whole Punjab. Average yield of
this variety is 95.0 tha-1 while its yield potential was
claimed up to 150.0 tha-1. Its quality trait like sugar
recovery up to 11.70%, resistant to major biotic and
abiotic stresses and excellent rationing ability
ranked this variety among one of the elite, and
perhaps the best, sugarcane varieties of the
country over the past decade. Unfortunately, such
a promising variety is losing its grounds against whip
smut; one of the most devastating diseases of
sugarcane, for last few years. So this study was
planned to determine incidence and severity of
whip smut in HSF-240 under natural conditions for
three consecutive years to establish the resistance
potential of this variety against whip smut
particularly in ratoon crop.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The research studies were conducted during the
months of May-June, 2013 at research field of
Sugar Crops Research Program, National
Agricultural Research Centre, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Sugarcane variety HSF-240 planted in September,
2009 and kept in field for three years i.e. plant crop
(2009-10), first year ratoon (2010-11) and second
year ratoon (2011-12). The crop was planted
maintaining 120cm row to rows distance, with a
seed rate of 40,000 three budded setts ha-1 on an
area of one acre. Fertilizer was applied @ 168 kg N,
112 kg P2O5, and 112 kg K2O per hectare in the
form of urea, single super phosphate, and sulphate
of potash, respectively. The whole P, K, and 1/3rd
of N was applied as a basal dose while remaining
N was applied in two splits, 1/3rd at completion of
germination and 1/3rd at the completion of tillering
by side dressing. Observations were made on
number of stools per hectare, stalks per stool and
smut disease incidence. The percentage of smut
infection was recorded following the Hawaiian
smut rating scheme (Holder, 1981) described as
follows:
The Hawaiian Smut Rating Scheme
Stools Infected (%) Smut Grade Reaction
Plant Ratoon
0-3 0-6 1 Resistant
4-6 7-12 2
7-9 13-16 3 Tolerant
10-12 17-20 4
13-25 21-23 5 Intermediate
26-35 31-40 6
Susceptible 36-50 41-60 7
51-75 61-80 8
70-10 81-100 9
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of three years observations are
presented in Table 1. Results showed an increasing
loss of resistance against smut every year from 4.25
% in plant crop to 18.39 % in first year ratoon and
38.19% in second year ratoon. Increasing loss of
resistance against whip smut resulting in increasing
infection percentage in ratoon crops of sugarcane
has also been reported by Mohan & Praksam
(1956) and Bock (1964). The loss in resistance may
possibly be due advent of new physiological races
of the pathogen (Khan et al., 2009). Being an
extraordinary variety in all other respects HSF-240
may and should be subject to genetic
transformation for resistance against new races of
whip smut, so that the rest of the potential traits of
this variety may be fully exploited.
REFERENCES
Agnihotri, V.P. 1990. Diseases of Sugarcane, revised
edition. Pages: 73-76.
Begum, F., M. I. Talukdar, and M. Iqbal. 2007.
Performance of various promising lines for
resistance to sugarcane smut (Ustilago scitaminea
Sydow). Pak. Sugar J. 22(6): 16-18.
Bock, K.R. 1964. Studies on sugarcane smut
(Ustilago scitaminea) in Kenya. Trans. Br. Mycol.
Soc., 47: 403-417.
Holder, D.G. 1981. Screening for sugarcane smut
resistance in Florida - third report. Proceedings
American Society of Sugar Cane Technologists
meeting held in 1979. 9: 37-39.
Khan, H. M. W. A., A. A. Chattha, M. Munir and A.
Zia. 2009. Evaluation of resistance in sugarcane
promising lines against whip smut. Pak. J.
Phytopathol. 21(1): 92-93.
Meena, B. and S.A. Ramyabharathi. 2012. Effect of
fungicides and biocontrol agents in the
management of sugarcane smut disease. J.
Today‟s Biol. Sci. 1(1): 6-103.
Mohan, R.N.V., and P. Praksam. 1956. Studies on
sugarcane smut. Proc. Intern. Soc. Sugarcane
Technol, 9th Congress, 1048-1057.
Table-1: Three Years of Whip Smut Infection in HSF-240
Crop Season Stools/ha Infected Stools/ha % Stools infected Smut Grade Reaction
Plant 21612 918.51 4.25 2 R
1st Ratoon 14709 2704.98 18.39 4 T
2nd Ratoon 10224 3904.55 38.19 6 S
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
SUGAR LEAF “STEVIA”
Muhammad Asad*, Syed Zia-ul-Hussnain, & Aamir Shahzad
Shakarganj Sugar Research Institute Jhang
*Corresponding author e-mail: asadagronomist@gmail.com
Botanical Description: Sugar leaf, botanically
known as “Stevia Rebaudiana,” belongs to the
sunflower family asteraceae. Sugar leaf is basically
a day neutral, morphologically branched bushy
shrub and medicinal sweet plant.
Importance: Stevia rebaudiana is commonly
known as sweet leaf, sugar leaf, honey leaf or
simply stevia. Sugar leaf is a naturally sweet herb; its
leaves are 20 times sweeter while stevioside and
rebaudioside A are 200-300 times sweeter than
table sugar. However, its calorific value is
negligible, hence has more attraction for diabetic
patients. Sugar leaf is a medically valuable plant,
having notable calcium quantity that is quite
helpful in bone formation in women and children
and in teeth disease. It also has the ability to
control Rota virus, blood pressure as well as
cholesterol level. The leaf has good antiseptic
ability, helps in lowering stomach acidity and is
useful in digestion as well as in preventing stomach
ulcer.
Climate & Soil: Sugar leaf is basically an exotic
plant and native to Paraguay. It is a semi-humid,
tropical and subtropical plant. It can grow in
temperature range between 4-48 0C; frost free
conditions and daily temperature between 20-24 oC was observed the best for its growth. Stevia
plants do best in a rich, sandy loam to loam soil
Photo (a) – Healthy Sugar Leaf Plant
Photo (b) – Sugar Leaf at Flowering
Photo (c) – Stevia Fully Developed Leaves (Above 10 cm Length)
(a)
(b)
(c)
20 | P a g e
April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
having pH below 7.8. Saline and water logged soil
should be avoided for Stevia cultivation.
Nursery preparation: The plantation of stevia crop
by vegetative multiplied cuttings is excellent. For
nursery propagation, stem cuttings of 15 cm length
from tender shoot of fresh planted crop were used
and gave better growth and early root
development. The cutting will be ready for
transplantation in 25-30 days at 15-20 oC under a
polythene sheet in air tight and controlled
temperature conditions.
Nursery transplantation: Stevia crop gives two
harvests annually. Nursery can be transplanted in
the field after 15 January and in August in frost free
conditions. In case of flat sowing, plants should be
transplanted 22.5 cm apart and rows 30 cm apart.
In bed sowing, plants should be transplanted 30
cm apart and bed width should be 45 cm apart.
Agronomic practices: Sugar leaf is sensitive to
moisture and under irrigation will restrict plant
growth; while over irrigation results in stem and root
rotting. In case of high temperature frequent
irrigation should be applied. Drip irrigation to sugar
leaf crop is a more appropriate method for its
better cultivation.
Fertilizer should be applied @ 1 bag urea, 1 bag
DAP and 0.5 bag SOP per acre. Farm yard manure
or compost application to crop results in better
crop growth and yield instead of depending upon
totally inorganic source.
Manual weeding should be done at an early stage
when crop has grown to 15-20 cm height; in case
of late hoeing chances of crop damage increase.
Crop protection: Insect pest pressures other than
cutworms and sucking insect are minimal. The
reported insects or pests are: fruit fly, aphid, jassid,
leaf minor, thrips and cutworms. Insecticide should
only be applied at economic injury level using
Imidachlopride @ 125g per acre.
Disease pressure is also negligible, only stem and
root rotting is reported on stevia crop and this can
be controlled by using Nativo @ 15g per acre.
Harvesting: Crop should be harvested before
flowering when leaf gained maximum size (up to
10cm). January planted crop should be harvested
in April while August planted crop in December
before frost starting. The harvested leaves should
be dried under shade and stored under hygienic
moisture free conditions.
Ratoon: Sugar leaf is a perennial crop and
successfully gives 3-4 year ratoon. In-case of ratoon
crop leaves about 4 inches of stem at the base
during harvesting.
Acknowledgment: I would like to acknowledge
and appreciate contributions of the Punjab
Agriculture Research Board, Lahore, in terms of its
financial support for the introduction and
development of sugar leaf production technology
in the agro ecological conditions of Punjab.
Nursery Plantation in Cups Plants (hardened & well rooted)
Stevia plant (Above 3 ft. height) Drip Irrigation in Stevia Crop
21 | P a g e
April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
SUGAR INDUSTRY ABSTRACTS
Monitoring Nitrogen Fertilisation Recommendations for Sugarcane Plantations in Cuba
P. Pablos, A. Menendez, I. Cabrera, N. Lora, M. De Leon, E. Pineda, J González and R. Barbosa
Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol., Vol. 28, 2013
Sugarcane fertilisation recommendations in Cuba are provided by the Service of Fertilizer Recommendations and
Amendments (SERFE). This service established control plots (CP) in order to study the effectiveness of fertilizer
recommendations. Each CP involved two treatments (the recommended rates by SERFE and a twofold rate) plus a
control without fertilizer, distributed in six rows each in one of the Cuban commercial areas. This work summarises the
results of 305 harvests of CPs located throughout Cuba, primarily in ratoon crops (95%) and Calcic Haplustept soils
(43.8%). The analysis of harvest data showed: a) efficiency (economic responses) and effectiveness (sites with adequate
SERFE rates) of SERFE recommendations which were 74 and 38% respectively; b) nitrogen rates for high yield fields were
underestimated, and for low yield fields the rates were overestimated and; c) the yield criterion to estimate nitrogen
rates was carried out without technical bases which made the estimates unreliable.
Analytical functions were obtained to estimate yield response to fertilizer and optimum nitrogen rates when nitrogen
fertilizer was applied. A model for Net Present Value (NPV) calculation was obtained for different soil-cultivation
conditions. The calculated NPV was higher for the estimated optimum nitrogen rate. This study indicated that SERFE
fertilizer recommendations were not high enough to reach optimum sugarcane yields or maximize NPV. Adjustments to
SERFE recommendations are required to achieve higher efficiencies in the Cuban sugar industry.
Remote Estimation of Canopy Chlorophyll Content in Sugarcane Using Hyper-Spectral Data
P.J. Murillo, F. Muñoz and J.A. Carbonell
Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol., Vol. 28, 2013
The adequate estimation of biophysical parameters in sugarcane is important to detect anomalies and monitoring of
crop performance. Remote sensing is a way to indirectly estimate several biophysical parameters but it is necessary to
identify the best wavelengths specifically for sugarcane in the field. In this study spectral measurements were obtained in
the sugarcane canopy using an APOGEE PAR-NIR spectro-radiometer, in order to estimate the canopy chlorophyll
content (CCC). The results show differences in the sugarcane canopy between the sources and rates of nitrogen
applied and the control without nitrogen application. Spectral differences were found for CCC among sources of urea
and ammonium nitrate applied at rates of 100 and 200 kg N/ha. The detection of spectral bands to estimate CCC was
performed using the NRI index and PLS regression techniques.
The results suggest similarities between both methods, highlighting the regions 710–850, 550–560 and 419–450 nm by their
greater weight and value of R2 to build PLSR models. The red-edge between 693 and 710 nm was the most important for
spectral discrimination and the index CI-SC (Chlorophyll Index Sugarcane) had the best relationship to estimate the
canopy chlorophyll content with R2= 0.67, RMSE = 0.19 g/m2 and RE% = 19%. The wavelengths and vegetation index can
be calculated using multispectral aerial cameras to estimate and validate the spatial distribution of CCC at a
commercial scale.
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
New Applications through Drip Systems Enable Environmentally-Friendly Sugarcane Growing Techniques
Y. Krontal
Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol., Vol. 28, 2013
Subsurface drip irrigation has been in use in sugarcane for more than twenty years. The first generation was for irrigation
only, the second generation started soon after with the application of fertilizers through the drip system. This work
presents the third generation of subsurface drip used for delivering a wide range of materials directly to the root system's
environment. The aim of this work was to evaluate new environmentally safe application methods for various agricultural
practices utilising the drip irrigation system. Among the new applications is the use of drip as a delivery system for pest
control; a trial conducted in Alagoas State, Brazil, evaluated the efficiency of controlling the population of the Giant
Borer, Telchinlicus, with the application of bio insecticides, Beauveriabassiana. The bio insecticide control efficiency,
based on B. bassiana, resulted in up to 81.8% reduction of the Giant Borer population and, as a result, increased
sugarcane yield.
Another potential application through drip irrigation is the dissemination of inoculation units of a symbiotic fungus,
Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (AM). AM fungi form a beneficial association with a variety of crops, including sugarcane. Trials
conducted to find the most uniform method for dispersal of AM inoculation units through the drip irrigation system define
the diatomic carrier as an efficient distribution method. An additional use for drip is the application of the sugar mill
effluent from ethanol production called vinasse. A trial conducted in Sao Paulo State, Brazil, evaluated the constant
application of vinasse at a rate of 5%, replacing the application of chemical fertilizer.
Effects of Exogenous Abscisic Acid on Cell Membrane and Endogenous Hormone Contents In Leaves of
Sugarcane Seedlings under Cold Stress
Xing Huang, Ming-Hui Chen, Li-Tao Yang and Yang-Rui Li
Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol., Vol. 28, 2013
This experiment investigated the interrelationship between low temperature induced abscisic acid (ABA) biosynthesis
and endogenous hormone balance using the sugarcane variety GT 28, which exhibits strong cold resistance and
sugarcane variety YL 6, which exhibits weak cold resistance. Plants were sprayed with ABA 12 h before cold treatment as
opposed to the control group, where no additional substances were added. When the plants in the control group were
exposed to cold stress, plant cell membranes were injured, and the GA3 (Gibberelin 3) decreased, while the relative
electrical conductance (REC), MDA (Malon-di-aldehyde), ABA, the ratio of ABA/GA3, ratio of ABA/IAA (Indole acetic
acid), and the ratio of ABA/ZR (Seating Ribosome) all increased under the cold stress.
In the ABA treatment, the cell membrane injuries were effectively alleviated and the contents of MDA and GA3
decreased, but the contents of proline, ABA, and the ratio of ABA/GA3 increased. The decreasing contents of MDA and
GA3, in contrast with the increasing contents of proline, ABA, and ratio of ABA/GA3 in sugarcane leaves from the ABA
treatment groups, were important factors that can effectively increase cold stress tolerance in sugarcane plants.
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The effect of vinasse application on the soil was an increase in soil K levels, with no effect on drip system performance
or on yield. The results of the trials show that the success in the use of drip as a delivery system depends on meeting
such factors as timing of application (e.g. applying B. bassiana when the adults lay their eggs in the soil) and the
properties of the product to be delivered. It may be necessary to develop special carriers (as in the case of mycorrhiza)
or to take special measures to ensure environmental safety (such as dilution of vinasse over an extended period to
reduce leaching and salinisation risks).
Sugarcane Yield Response to Elemental Sulfur on High pH Organic Soils
J.M. Mccray and R.W. Rice
Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol., Vol. 28, 2013
Micronutrient deficiencies are often important factors limiting plant growth in alkaline soils. With subsidence of organic
soils in the Everglades Agricultural Area, these soils are becoming shallower, with generally increased pH as more Ca
carbonate from the underlying limestone is incorporated into the root zone. Elemental S has been recommended as a
banded pre-plant application in the furrow at 560 kg S/ha at pH>6.6 to reduce soil pH, but this recommendation has not
been considered cost-effective. The objective of this study was to determine sugarcane yield response to banded
elemental S application on high pH organic soils. These experiments are part of a larger study designed to update
University of Florida recommendations for elemental S application. Two strip-plot studies were established on organic soils
using randomized complete block designs with four replications at each location. Elemental S materials included 90% S
and three formulations of STM5 (80% S + 5% Mn). STM5 rates of 560 kg/ha were compared to no S at one location and
280 and 560 kg/ha rates of 90% S and STM5 were compared with no S at the second location. Elemental S reduced pH in
the banded zone at each location.
There were strong sugarcane yield responses to elemental S at each location, but there were no differences in yield
responses among granular S materials tested. There was a strong relationship b materials tested. There was a strong
relationship between sucrose yield and soil pH, with yield being reduced at pH>7.1. Substantial yield reductions were
determined at pH>7.5, with reduced sugarcane yields associated with leaf Mn deficiency occurring at high pH.
How to Manage Sugarcane in the Field and Factory Following Damaging Freezes
B. Legendre, G. Eggleston, H. Birkett1, M. Mrini, M. Zehuaf, S. Chabaa, M. Assarrar and H. Mounir
Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol., Vol. 28, 2013
Exposure of sugarcane to damaging frosts occurs in approximately 25% of the sugarcane producing countries world-
wide. A series of damaging freezes, –2.6, –3.3 and –2.1 °C, occurred in Morocco on 4, 5 and 13 February 2012,
respectively, only 2 weeks after the commencement of the harvest season. Furthermore, the sugarcane had not
reached maturity with factory sugar recovery yields under 8.0%. The use of pH (litmus) paper in the field is considered a
good indicator of possible deterioration of the juice when the pH is 5.0 or less, and can be used to define the level of
topping to remove the deteriorated portion of the stalk prior to milling. In all, thirty fields of the three leading varieties, CP
70-321, CP 66-346, and L 62-96, were inspected. Only 13% of the fields had a juice pH of 5.0 or less which was generally
limited to the uppermost internodes. The worst damage occurred in fields with cane yields of < 40 t/ha, regardless of
variety, and which had received no irrigation water and were harvested after June 2011, the previous year.
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Evaluation of APSIM-Sugar and DSSAT-Canegro for a Widely Grown Brazilian Sugarcane Cultivar
F.R. Marin, P.J. Thorburn, D.S.P. Nassif, L.G. Costa, R.S. Rezende and A.S. Andrade Junior
Proc. Int. Soc. Sugar Cane Technol., Vol. 28, 2013
Crop modeling has provided useful insights into managing many aspects of agricultural production, including
sugarcane. Crop models make it possible to generalise experimental results to new conditions, compare strategies, and
also predict plant growth and production. However, they have an important drawback: the models are only
approximations of reality and so there is uncertainty in their predictions. Crop model comparisons have been used to
address this uncertainty. Comprehensive datasets that would allow model comparisons are scarce and, in most cases
have already been utilised in model development and/or refinement. Independent field datasets would be useful to
compare model performance in simulating plant processes (e.g. phenology, biomass partitioning, water use and stress).
In addition, differences in stalk fresh mass (SFM) predictions between models could be used as an indication of simulation
uncertainty.
This study evaluated the performance of DSSAT-Canegro (DC) and APSIM-Sugarcane (AS) models as SFM predictors
using data from six field experiments using the cultivar RB86-7515 in Coruripe-AL, União-PI, Aparecida do Taboado-MS,
Colina-SP and Olimpia-SP, Brazil. This cultivar was selected as it accounts for nearly 30% (or 3 Mha) of Brazil‟s sugarcane
area. Cultivar parameters were determined by qualitative fitting to minimise the root mean square error (RMSE) for SFM
and leaf area index (LAI). Both models had phenology, canopy structure, and partitioning parameters modified from
their respective standard cultivars (NCo376 for DC and Q117 for AS). The radiation use efficiency parameter was only
adjusted for DC. Predictions from DC compared well with observed data, having R2=0.96 and 0.35; and RMSE=17.8 t/ha
and 1.0 respectively for SFM and LAI. The AS model also performed well, with R2=0.94 and 0.63, and RMSE=16.7 t/ha and
0.9 for SFM and LAI, respectively. Prediction errors for both models were consistent between sites despite climate and soil
differences. The average of simulations from both models gave the best predictions of SFM and LAI. Despite differences
in model predictions for some plant processes, both DC and AS models can be used for SFM predictions in Brazil.
Confidence in these predictions is greatest when the simulations from both models are similar.
Concentrations of mannitol and/or dextran in the juice are much more reliable indicators of sugarcane Leuconostoc
deterioration. Because of high levels of brown leaves (>10%) in delivered cane, there were high levels of polysaccharide
found in the juice that contributed to the measurement of high haze dextran levels; however, the absence of mannitol
confirmed little or no deterioration had occurred from the growth of Leuconostoc. The key to success in reducing
significant losses through deterioration when freezes occur are good management and close cooperation between
growers and processors. Final recommendations on how to manage a freeze in both the field and factory are described.
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
INTERNATIONAL EVENTS CALENDAR – 2014
June 2-3 & 16-17 McGinnis Institute of Beet Sugar Technology (MIBST), Beet Process School (beet end), Denver, Colorado State,
USA aimee@bsdf-assbt.org
June 18-20 Joint Florida & Louisiana Division ASSCT (The American Society of Sugar Cane Technologists), Bonita Springs,
Florida, USA www.assct.org
July 1-3 74th 11RB (Robert Benjamin) Congress, Dresden, Germany aimee@bsdassbt.org
June 23 – July 13 Raw Cane Sugar Manufactures' Institute, Nicholls State University, Thibodaux, LA USA mccurry@nicholls.edu
May 18-21 Sugar Industry Technologists Meeting, Toronto, Canada www.sucrose.com
July 21-August 01 Cane Sugar Refiners' Institute, Nicholls State University, Thibodaux, LA USA
August 1-6 74th 11RB (Robert Benjamin) Congress, Dresden, Germany www.sugaralliance.org/symposium
August 20-22 87th SASTA Congress, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa
August 26-29 FENASUCRO (International Fair of Sugar cane Industry), Sertãozinho, S.P (Sao Paulo), Brazil
www.fenasucro.com.br
August 31-September 03 Sugar Processing Research Institute Conference, Sertãozinho, S.P (Sao Paulo), Brazil www.spriinc.org
September 3-5 ICUMSA (International Commission for Uniform Methods of Sugar Analysis) Conference, Sertãozinho, S.P (Sao
Paulo), Brazil
www.icumsa.org
October 19-24 Latin American Sugar Technologist Meeting (ATALAC), Olinda, Pernambucco, Brazil
September 4-5 Latin American Cane Show, Playa Blanca, Panama
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
SML SOCIAL ACTION PROGRAM: ANNUAL PRIZE &
CERTIFICATE DISTRIBUTION CEREMONY Fashion Designing and Fine Arts Classes (2012-2013)
The School of Calligraphy and Art (Jhang Art Gallery) was established for skill development and poverty
alleviation program. Two courses, namely Fine Arts, Dress and Fashion Designing were initiated for
female students who have done their matriculation. The objective of the program was to empower
women by giving them a chance to earn their livelihood in parallel to looking after their families at
home.
Gallery Visit
The guests visited the gallery where the students‟
handmade work was exhibited, and were quite impressed
with the display of hand embroidery, gift packs, baby
cloths, mirror work, dresses and gift pieces, all the work of
students from the Dress and Fashion Designing class.
Students of Fine Arts also had various pictures, portraits and
sketch books displayed at the gallery.
Certificate Distribution Ceremony
An annual prize and certificate distribution ceremony is scheduled at the end of the course for each
batch to recognize hardworking students and to encourage others to perform well. Last year, the
ceremony was held on January 26, 2013, where Mrs. Nasreen Abdullah, Deputy District Education Officer
Jhang was invited as the Chief Guest. Other dignitaries at the ceremony were Mr. Muhammad Pervez
Akhtar, Senior Executive Vice President of Shakarganj Mills Limited and Mrs. Naheed, Assistant Education
Officer, Jhang.
The ceremony started off with a recitation from the Holy
Quran and Naat-e-Rasool Maqbool (PBUH), subsequent to
which the welcoming note was delivered by Ms. Samra
Ashraf, Manager Social Action Program. She gave a brief
overview of the activities under the Social Action Program
and introduced Ms. Sadia, a brilliant student of the Gallery
who was awarded the first prize, on a provincial level, in the
Punjab Youth Festival‟s Dress Making Competition. She
congratulated all the successful students on completion of
the course.
Mr. Muhammad Pervez Akhtar Senior Executive Vice President Shakaragnj Mills Limited urges that
Shakarganj will always help and support the promising youth talent; he was of the view that students
should always keep their spirits up and play their role in the society.
Speaking at the occasion, the chief guest, Mrs. Nasreen Abdullah highlighted the influence of fashion in
our lives. She urged the students to use art as a forum for safe expression, communication, imagination,
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
and to understand our country‟s cultural history. In the end,
she thanked the Shakarganj Foundation for enabling
students to pursue this field and also for conducting such
fruitful programs for the community. Moreover, she promised
to facilitate the Foundation by all available means through
the District Education Office.
Names of students were announced and certificates and
prizes were distributed among them by the chief guest. The
ceremony was concluded with prayers for prosperity of the
country and Shakarganj Mills Limited.
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
SUGAR AND ADDICTION World Sugar Research Organization (WSRO) Position
Statements
Sugar and Cardiovascular
Disease
Background
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is
an overarching term for a
number of diseases affecting the
circulatory system, including:
atherosclerotic disease,
coronary heart disease (CHD),
cerebrovascular disease (stroke),
hypertension, peripheral artery
disease, rheumatic heart
disease, congenital heart
disease and heart failure. The
main influence of diet is on
atherosclerotic disease which in
turn, leads to CHD, and to
hypertension and stroke. An
„unhealthy diet‟ is thus cited as
one of the major modifiable
causes of CVD, the others being
tobacco use and physical
inactivity (WHO, 2011).
However, the relative influence
of diet is uncertain. Reducing
CVD mortality is an important
public health priority as CVD is
the largest single cause of death
worldwide (WHO, 2004).
Although, mortality rates due to
CVD are falling in industrialized
countries (Roger et al., 2011), the
disease increasingly affects
those in middle and low-income
countries (WHO, 2011). An
„unhealthy diet‟ may affect risk
of CVD as a consequence of
alterations in blood lipids, raised
blood pressure, and obesity, or
via other diseases, especially
diabetes and metabolic
syndrome.
Current Dietary
Recommendations
The main aim of dietary
intervention is to treat dyslipid
aemia by reducing elevated
LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides
(TG). Current advice to reduce
risk of CVD is to eat a healthy
balanced diet, low in fat,
particularly saturated fat and
high in carbohydrate, and
undertake the recommended
amount of daily physical activity
for health (WHO/FAO, 2003). Ad-
libitum or calorie-reduced, low-
fat diets, particularly when
accompanied by exercise, have
been shown to consistently lower
total cholesterol (TC), LDL
cholesterol, TG and the TC: HDL
cholesterol ratio (Yu-Poth et al.,
1999). It is noteworthy that the
diet recommended under the US
National Cholesterol Education
Programme that has proved
successful in delivering improved
cardiovascular blood lipid
profiles (Yu Poth et al., 1999) is
low in saturated fat and total fat
and high in carbohydrates.
Sugar and Cardiovascular
Disease
A number of International
Agencies have reviewed the
evidence on sugar and CVD.
The FAO/WHO expert
consultation on Carbohydrates
in Human Nutrition (1997), and
the WHO/FAO Report 916 (2003)
found no evidence for a causal
role of sucrose in the etiology of
CVD. Similarly, the Institute of
Medicine (IOM, 2002) and
European Food Safety Authority
(EFSA, 2010) have not
recommended limits on sugar
intake in relation to CVD.
There is also no persuasive
evidence for any link between
the overall consumption of sugar
and risk of diabetes and/or
obesity, both conditions
associated with an 2 increased
risk of CVD (see for example,
WHO, 2003). (These topics have
their own position statements:
see „Sugar and Diabetes‟ and
„Sugar and Obesity‟).
Although no universally
accepted definition of
metabolic syndrome exists, it is
typically considered to consist of
obesity (particularly abdominal
obesity), dyslipid aemia
(particularly raised TG and low
HDL cholesterol), hypertension
and insulin resistance. Ruxton et
al., (2010) did not find adverse
effects of sugar, particularly in
longer duration studies, on
metabolic syndrome
components. This was despite a
high intake of sugar (40 – 50%
energy) in some studies. These
reviews have shown that in
controlled iso-caloric feeding
studies, LF-HC diets have been
associated with marginally
reduced HDL (although often
improved TC:HDL ratio), and
slightly increased TG. Although,
one large long term study found
no adverse effect on blood lipid
levels from a diet that included
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
as much as 30% energy from
sucrose (Saris et al., 2000).
Conclusion
A low-fat (particularly low
saturated fat) high-
carbohydrate diet, with
adequate physical activity/
cardiorespiratory fitness, and
abstinence from tobacco use
are current recommendations to
reduce risk from CVD. Although
changing to a high
carbohydrate diet may increase
blood TG, the CVD risk
implications of this in isolation are
unknown, and the outcome is
moderated by many factors
which require further study.
There is currently inadequate
evidence to conclude that
sugar directly or indirectly
increase the risk of CVD. 3
STATEMENT
WSRO, in agreement with many
reviews undertaken by
international bodies, does not
consider that there is convincing
evidence of any relationship
between sugar intake and direct
or indirect risk of CVD. The CVD
risk implications of raised blood
TG which might be induced by a
high sugar intake, particularly
when accompanied by
concomitant reductions in other
risk factors, is currently unknown.
References
Blair, S. N., Y. Cheng, and Holder,
J. S. 2001. Is physical activity or
physical fitness more important in defining health benefits? Med
Sci. Sports Exerc. 33, S379- 99;
discussion S419-20.
Dolan, L. C., S. M. Potter and G.
A. Burdock. 2010a Evidence-
based review on the effect of
normal dietary consumption of
fructose on blood lipids and
body weight of overweight and
obese individuals. Crit. Rev. Food
Sci. Nutr. 50: 889- 918.
Dolan, L. C., S. M. Potter, and G.
A. Burdock. 2010b Evidence-
based review on the effect of
normal dietary consumption of
fructose on development of
hyperlipidemia and obesity in
healthy, normal weight
individuals. Crit. Rev. Food Sci.
Nutr. 50: 53-84.
EFSA 2010 Scientific Opinion on
Dietary Reference Values for
carbohydrates and dietary fibre.
EFSA Journal, 8: 1462.
FAO/WHO, 1997 Carbohydrates
in human nutrition (FAO Food
and Nutrition Paper - 66)
Fogelholm, M. 2010 Physical
activity, fitness and fatness:
relations to mortality, morbidity
and disease risk factors. A
systematic review. Obes Rev, 11,
202- 21.
Fried, S. K. and S. P. Rao, 2003
Sugars, hypertriglyceridemia,
and cardiovascular disease. Am
J. Clin. Nutr. 78: 873S-880S.
Gill, J. M. and D. Malkova, 2006
Physical activity, fitness and
cardiovascular disease risk in
adults: interactions with insulin
resistance and obesity. Clin. Sci.
(Lond.), 110, 409-25.
Hellerstein, M. K. 2002
Carbohydrate-induced
hypertriglyceridemia: modifying
factors and implications for
cardiovascular risk. Curr. Opin.
Lipidol. 13: 33-40.
IOM, 2002. Dietary reference
intakes for energy,
carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty
acids, cholesterol, proteins and
amino acids.
Parks, E. J. and M. K. Hellerstein.
2000. Carbohydrate-induced
hyper triacyl glycerolemia:
historical perspective and review
of biological mechanisms. Am. J.
Clin. Nutr. 71: 412-33.
Pedersen, B. K. 2007. Body mass
index-independent effect of
fitness and physical activity for
all-cause mortality. Scand J.
Med. Sci. Sports, 17, 196-204.
Roger, V. L., A. S. Go., D. M.
Lloyd-Jones. 2011. Heart disease
and stroke statistics--2011
update: a report from the
American Heart Association.
Circulation, 123: 18-209.
Ruxton, C. H., E. J. Gardner, and
H. M. McNulty, 2010. Is sugar
consumption detrimental to
health? A review of the
evidence 1995-2006. Crit Rev
Food Sci. Nutr. 50: 1-19. 4
Saris, W. H., A. Astrup, A. M.
Prentice, 2000. Randomized
controlled trial of changes in
dietary carbohydrate/fat ratio
and simple vs complex
carbohydrates on body weight
and blood lipids: the CARMEN
study. The Carbohydrate Ratio
Management in European
National diets. Int. J. Obes. Relat.
Metab. Disord. 24: 1310-8.
Surwit, R. S., M. N. Feinglos, C. C.
McCaskill, 1997. Metabolic and
behavioral effects of a high-
sucrose diet during weight loss.
Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 65: 908-15.
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
WHO (2004) Global strategy on
diet, physical activity and
health. WHO, 2011.
Cardiovascular Diseases. Fact
Sheet No. 317.
<http://www.who.int/mediacent
re/factsheets/fs317/en/index.ht
ml Accessed May 2011.
Accessed May 2011
WHO/FAO, 2003. Diet, nutrition
and the prevention of chronic
diseases.
Yu-Poth, S., G. Zhao., T. Etherton,
1999. Effects of the National
Cholesterol Education Program's
Step I and Step II dietary
intervention programs on
cardiovascular disease risk
factors: a meta-analysis. Am. J.
Clin. Nutr., 69, 632- 46.
Sugar and Cancer
Background
Associations between diet and
cancer risk have been studied
intensively since the 1975 paper
of Armstrong and Doll, who
estimated the proportion of
cancers attributable to diet
ranged between 35% and 75%
of the total. More recent reviews
by expert committees have
made lower estimates of the
proportion of cancers
attributable to diet at ca. 20% in
developing countries and ca.
30% in industrialized countries
(WHO/FAO, 2003) Reviews of the
evidence It would be unethical
for randomized controlled trials
(RCTs) to investigate putative
positive links between diet and
cancer risk. Therefore, most RCTs
have focused on the possible
protective effects of dietary
constituents against cancer.
Positive associations between
diet and cancer risk have
therefore had to rely on
methodologies such as case-
control and prospective studies,
or ecological comparisons. All
study types have their
shortcomings (see „Sugar and
Health: Judging the Evidence‟).
In particular, the non-RCT
designs all produce, at best,
evidence of an association
between a dietary component
and the risk of cancer.
Associations, however consistent
between different studies, are
inadequate evidence of
causality.
A number of expert committees
have reviewed the evidence on
diet in general, and on specific
dietary components, including
sugar, and both risk and
prevention of cancer. Relevant
panels have been convened by
the World Health Organization
(WHO, 1990, 2003) and the Food
and Agriculture Organization
(FAO/WHO, 1997), the Institute of
Medicine (IOM, 2002), the
Committee on Medical Aspects
of Food Policy (COMA, 1989,
1998), the National Health and
Medical Research Council
(NHMRC, 2003), and the World
Cancer Research Fund (WCRF,
1997, 2007).
Sugar and Obesity
Since obesity has been reported
to be associated with risk of a
number of cancers (WCRF/AICR,
2007) it has been speculated
that sugar might be associated
with cancer risk indirectly, as a
result of an influence on the risk
of obesity. However, while some
have attempted to argue that
sugar contributes to the risk of
obesity, numerous reviews of the
evidence have failed to support
this suggestion, including FAO
(1997), IOM (2002), WHO (2003)
and COMA (COMA, 1989) (see
Position Statement on „Sugar
and Obesity‟ for more details).
A recent editorial (Cairns et al.,
2011) compared the cancer risks
arising from obesity with other
risk factors such as smoking,
and/or the burden of other
diseases including diabetes and
cardiovascular diseases. Sugar in
drinks* A number of studies have
claimed a specific role for sugars
in drinks in causing obesity. This
has led some (WCRF/AICR, 2007)
to suggest that drinks containing
sugars might have an indirect
link with cancer, in light of the
association between obesity
and some cancers. However,
the evidence that these drinks
have any specific role in causing
obesity is limited and
contentious (see Position
Statement on „Sugar and
Obesity‟ for more details).
Conclusion
The evidence available at the
present time does not
demonstrate that sugar has any
direct influence, either in
increasing or decreasing the risk
of cancer at any site. In addition
the putative role of sugar or
sugar-containing drinks in
encouraging obesity, and thus
influencing cancer risk indirectly,
lacks clear evidential support.
STATEMENT
WSRO, in agreement with many
reviews undertaken by
international bodies, does not
consider the evidence to
support a convincing direct or
indirect relationship between
sugar and cancer risk at any site.
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
In North America the majority of
caloric sweetened beverages
contain high-fructose corn syrup
(HFCS) and not sugar.
Furthermore, „sports‟ or „energy‟
drinks, which are often included
in studies on „sugar sweetened
beverages‟, contain a variety of
carbohydrates as a source of
energy and/or sweetness. Much
of the literature regarding
caloric beverage consumption
emanates from North America,
and, as yet, it is not possible to
disentangle the results of drinks
sweetened with sugar from
those containing HFCS or other
carbohydrates.
References
Burley, V. J. 1997. Sugar
consumption and cancers of the
digestive tract. Eur. J. Cancer
Prev. 6, 422-34.
Burley, V. J. 1998. Sugar
consumption and human
cancer in sites other than the
digestive tract. Eur. J. Cancer
Prev. 7: 253-77.
Cairns, B. J., T. Y. Yang., and V.
Beral, 2011. That rising obesity
levels will greatly add to the
burden of cancer:
misconceptions I. Br J Cancer,
104, 4-5. 3
COMA, 1989. Dietary Sugars and
Human Disease. Report on
Health and Social Subjects No
37. IN HEALTH, D. O. (Ed.).
London, HMSO.
COMA, 1998. Nutritional Aspects
of the Development of Cancer.
Report on Health and Social
Subjects No. 48. IN HEALTH, D. O.
(Ed.). London, the Stationery
Office.
FAO/WHO, 1997. Carbohydrates
in human nutrition (FAO Food
and Nutrition Paper - 66). FAO,
Rome
Hill, M. J. and C. P. Caygill, 1999.
Sugar intake and the risk of
colorectal cancer. Eur J Cancer
Prev, 8, 465-8.
IOM, 2002. Dietary reference
intakes for energy,
carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty
acids, cholesterol, proteins, and
amino acids The National
Academies Press. Washington,
D. C.
H. G. Mulholland., L. J. Murray.,
C. R. Cardwell, 2009. Glycemic
index, glycemic load, and risk of
digestive tract neoplasms: a
systematic review and meta-
analysis. Am J. Clin. Nutr. 89: 568-
76.
NHMRC, 2003. Dietary Guidelines
for Australian Adults NHMRC
(2005) Guidelines for the
Prevention, Early Detection and
Management of Colorectal
Cancer. Australian Cancer
Network Colorectal Cancer
Guidelines Revision Committee.
Sydney
WCRF, 1997. Food, Nutrition and
the Prevention of Cancer: a
global perspective AICR,
Washington WCRF/AICR (2007)
Food, Nutrition, Physical Activity,
and the Prevention of Cancer: a
Global Perspective. Washington
D. C., AICR.
WCRF/AICR, 2011. Continuous
Update Project Interim Report
Summary, Food, Nutrition,
Physical Activity, and the
Prevention of Colorectal Cancer
WHO, 1990. Diet, nutrition, and
the prevention of chronic
disease. Report of a WHO Study
Group. Technical Report Series
916. ORGANIZATION, W. H.,
Geneva
WHO/FAO, 2003. Diet, nutrition
and the prevention of chronic
diseases: Report of a Joint
WHO/FAO Expert Consultation.
WHO Technical Report Series
916. World Health Organization.
Geneva.
Sugar, Diabetes and Insulin
Resistance
Background
Diabetes mellitus (DM), more
commonly referred to as
diabetes, is a metabolic disorder
characterized by raised blood
glucose levels. Diabetes occurs
when the pancreas fails to
produce enough of the
hormone insulin, or the body fails
to respond adequately to the
amount of insulin released.
Insulin is a hormone produced
by the β-cells of the pancreas
mainly in response to raised
blood glucose from ingestion
and absorption of dietary
carbohydrates, but also to
ingestion and absorption of
other nutrients such as amino
acids from dietary protein.
Insulin increases glucose uptake
into skeletal muscle and adipose
tissue, increases glycogen
formation, fat storage and
amino acid uptake into cells,
and decreases glucose release
from the liver. Diabetes often
follows a period of insulin
resistance, in which the body
fails to respond adequately to
normal levels of insulin, resulting
in excessively high insulin release
for a given increase in blood
glucose, and ultimately failure in
blood glucose control. Insulin
resistance is one of the
characteristics of the metabolic
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April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
syndrome which, together with
diabetes, carries increased risk of
cardiovascular disease (CVD).
There are 2 main types of
diabetes, Types 1 and 2. Type 1
DM typically occurs in young
people, and in this case the
insulin producing cells of the
pancreas have been destroyed
by the body‟s own immune
system. It is treated with regular
injections of insulin and an
appropriate diet. No nutrition
recommendations can be made
for preventing Type 1 DM (Bantle
et al., 2008) but careful control
of the diet is essential to the
management of the condition.
Type 2 DM typically occurs in
older adults (occasionally in
younger people) and is
characteristically observed in
sedentary and overweight
people. However, it should be
noted that not people with Type
2 diabetes are overweight
(unexplained rapid weight loss is
a symptom of untreated Type 2
diabetes). This type of DM is
treated by diet, a combination
of diet and blood glucose
lowering medication or insulin
injections, together with
increased physical activity
levels.
The risk of insulin resistance and
Type 2 DM is associated with
obesity, particularly central
obesity (where fat is deposited
at subcutaneous and intra-
abdominal sites), and physical
inactivity. Since DM is
associated with obesity, and
people with diabetes need to
control blood sugar (glucose)
levels, it is often assumed that
dietary sugar intake is important
in either the prevention or
management of the condition.
Sugar and risk of Type 2 Diabetes
The notion that sugar directly
causes diabetes was dismissed in
the 1980‟s in the Report of the
Food and Drug Administration‟s
Sugars Task Force (Glinsmann et
al., 1986) and by the UK
Government‟s COMA
Committee (1989). In addition,
there is no evidence that sugar
uniquely contributes to obesity
(see Position Statement on
„Sugar and Obesity‟) and thus
indirectly causes diabetes. The
most current national evidence-
based recommendations for
prevention of Type 2 DM in high-
risk groups from Diabetes UK and
the American Diabetes
Association comprise lifestyle
interventions of energy
restriction, a low fat diet and
increased physical activity
(Bantle et al., 2008, Dyson et al.,
2011). Studies in animals have
suggested that very high doses
of sugar, often within a
hypercaloric diet, predispose to
insulin resistance (Storlien et al.,
2000). However, intervention
studies in humans employing
more palatable doses of sugar
for relatively short durations (up
to 6 weeks) within isocaloric diets
have shown more variable
results. These studies have either
reported no effect upon (Black
et al., 2006, Dunnigan et al.,
1970) or improved indices of
insulin resistance (Anderson et
al., 1973, Brynes et al., 2003,
Mann and Truswell, 1972, Raben
et al., 2001). Only one study has
reported results, requiring
independent corroboration,
suggesting reduced insulin
sensitivity in subjects who were
hyper triglyceridaemic or
potentially carbohydrate
sensitive at the start of the study
(Reiser et al., 1979).
Sugar and management of Type
1 Diabetes There is no particular
evidence that people with Type
1 DM should avoid sugar in their
diet. The focus of blood glucose
management in this condition is
balancing carbohydrate intake
with insulin treatment (Dyson et
al., 2011).
Sugar and management of Type
2 Diabetes
The main purpose of
management of Type 2 DM is to
improve glycaemic control, and
reduce risk of diabetic
complications and risk factors for
CVD. For overweight or obese
persons with Type 2 DM, the
main nutrition strategy is weight
management, with the focus on
total energy intake, together
with regular physical activity. In
addition, a low glycaemic diet
(GI) may be beneficial (Bantle et
al., 2008, Dyson et al., 2011). It
should be noted that contrary to
popular belief sucrose is only of
moderate GI. Although older
recommendations advised
moderate intake of free sugars
for people with diabetes (where
free sugars were defined as all
added mono- and
disaccharides, plus sugars
naturally present in honey, syrups
and fruit juices) (EFSA, 2004),
more recent recommendations
suggest there is no evidence
that sucrose or sucrose-
containing foods should be
avoided by people with Type II
DM (Bantle et al., 2008).
Sugar in Drinks
Increased consumption of sugar-
sweetened beverages (SSBs) has
been suggested to contribute to
the increased risk of DM. A
number of prospective cohort
studies employing food
34 | P a g e
April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
frequency questionnaires have
examined the association
between SSB consumption and
risk of subsequent DM, which
were reviewed in a recent meta-
analysis by Malik et al., (2010).
The review reported a 26%
greater risk (4 of the 8 studies
were significant) of developing
Type 2 DM in the highest
compared to lowest quartile of
SSB intake. However, only 3
studies corrected for weight or
adiposity measures, 1 did not
adjust for physical activity, and
only 3 adjusted for energy intake
– all of which could be major
determinants of DM risk. The
review failed to acknowledge
that risk of DM has also been
shown to be higher for
consumption of diet sodas
(Nettleton et al., 2009) (although
this may reflect intention to lose
weight) and has even been
shown for water (de Koning et
al., 2011).
CONCLUSIONS
Over-consumption of food
energy, whatever its
macronutrient composition and
inadequate physical activity
may lead to body weight gain
and increase risk of Type 2 DM.
There is no convincing evidence
that sugar is responsible for
increasing risk of diabetes
directly or indirectly via obesity.
STATEMENT
WSRO concurs with recent
national evidence-based
position statements which have
not made specific
recommendations for sugar
intake and either risk or
management of diabetes.
Excessive energy intake, of any
form, or inadequate physical
activity may encourage weight
gain and increase risk of Type 2
DM.
REFERENCES
Anderson, J. W., R. H. Herman,
and D. Zakim, 1973. Effect of
high glucose and high sucrose
diets on glucose tolerance of
normal men. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 26:
600-7.
Bantle, J. P., J. Wylie-Rosett., A. L.
Albright, 2008. Nutrition
recommendations and
interventions for diabetes: a
position statement of the
American Diabetes Association.
Diabetes Care, 31 Suppl 1, S61-
78.
Black, R. N., M., Spence, R. O.,
McMahon. 2006. Effect of
eucaloric high- and low-sucrose
diets with identical
macronutrient profile on insulin
resistance and vascular risk: a
randomized controlled trial.
Diabetes. 55: 3566-72.
Brynes, A. E., C. Mark Edwards.,
M. A. Ghatei, 2003. A
randomised four intervention
crossover study investigating the
effect of carbohydrates on
daytime profiles of insulin,
glucose, non-esterified fatty
acids and triacylglycerols in
middle-aged men. Br. J. Nutr. 89:
207-18.
COMA, 1989. Dietary Sugars and
Human Disease. Report on
Health and Social Subjects No
37. IN HEALTH, D. O. (Ed.).
London, HMSO. de L. Koning., V.
S. Malik., E. B. Rimm, 2011. Sugar-
sweetened and artificially
sweetened beverage
consumption and risk of type 2
diabetes in men. Am. J. Clin.
Nutr. 93:.1321-7.
Dunnigan, M. G., T. Fyfe., M. T.
McKiddie, 1970. The effects of
isocaloric exchange of dietary
starch and sucrose on glucose
tolerance, plasma insulin and
serum lipids in man. ClinSci, 38, 1-
9.
Dyson, P. A., T. Kelly., T. Deakin,
2011. Diabetes UK evidence-
based nutrition guidelines for the
prevention and management of
diabetes. Diabet. Med. 28, 1282-
1288.
Glinsmann, W. H., H. Irausquin,
and Y. K. Park. 1986. Evaluation
of health aspects of sugars
contained in carbohydrate
sweeteners. Report of Sugars
Task Force, 1986. J. Nutr. 116: S1-
216.
Malik, V. S., B. M. Popkin., G. A.
Bray., 2010. Sugar-sweetened
beverages and risk of metabolic
syndrome and type 2 diabetes:
a meta-analysis. Diabetes Care,
33, 2477-83.
Mann, J. I. and A. S. Truswell,
1972. Effects of isocaloric
exchange of dietary sucrose
and starch on fasting serum
lipids, postprandial insulin
secretion and alimentary
lipaemia in human subjects. Br J
Nutr, 27, 395- 405.
Nettleton, J. A., P. L. Lutsey., Y.
Wang., 2009. Diet soda intake
and risk of incident metabolic
syndrome and type 2 diabetes in
the Multi-Ethnic Study of
Atherosclerosis (MESA). Diabetes
Care, 32: 688-94.
Storlien, L. H., J. A. Higgins., T. C.
Thomas. 2000. Diet composition
and insulin action in animal
models. Br. J. Nutr. Suppl., 83: 1,
S85-90.
35 | P a g e
April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
STORY OF SWEETS DOUGHNUTS
Cooking Directions Ingredients
1. Add yeast, plain flour,
sugar, egg, butter and milk
together in a bowl.
2. Combine all the
ingredients together into a
smooth dough.
3. Cover the bowl and leave
it aside for half an hour.
4. Roll out the dough (about ½ inch thick) on a floured board and cut it into
shape with a doughnut cutter.
5. Heat the oil in a large pan and fry the doughnuts in it until they turn golden
brown.
6. Drain them on paper towels.
7. Put the chocolate into a bowl.
8. Boil in double boiler by placing the bowl into
half water filled saucepan.
9. Stir until the chocolate has melted.
10. Dip each doughnut into the melted chocolate.
11. Dust with icing sugar and sprinkle with the
colored beans
CHINESE EGG CUSTARD TARTS
Cooking Directions Ingredients
1. Shift the flour into a large bowl.
2. Work the butter into the flour with your
fingertips, until the mixture has the
appearance of coarse breadcrumbs.
3. Add hot water in badges into the
mixture and continue kneading.
4. Roll the dough into a large ball, cover
with wax paper and refrigerate.
5. In the meanwhile, prepare the filling: lightly beat the eggs, taking care not to
produce any air bubbles.
6. Stir in the milk and sugar.
7. Add the yellow food color (optional).
8. On a lightly floured surface, roll out the dough
until it is thin.
9. Use a pastry cutter to cut out circles.
10. Fit the circles into the tart shells.
11. Pour the filling into the shells.
12. Bake until the custard is cooked and a knife
inserted in the middle comes out clean, about
35 minutes.
13. Let it cool before serving.
2 C Flour
1/3 C Butter
½ C Sugar (ground)
4 tsp. Hot Water
2Eggs
1 ½ C Milk
1 C Chocolate
4 oz. Caster Sugar
Yellow Food Color
1 ½ C Plain flour
2 Tsp. Yeast
½ C Sugar (ground)
1 Egg
½ C Butter
1 ½ C Lukewarm Milk
1 C Chocolate
Icing Sugar & Colored
Beans (for decoration)
Oil (for frying)
36 | P a g e
April – June 2014 Vol. XXIX, No.02
GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS
Dear Fellow Author(s),
Pakistan Sugar Journal (PSJ) offers research, analysis, and reviews to keep its local and
international readership up to date with latest developments in the sugar industry. PSJ takes
into account the application of research and focuses on areas in agriculture related to
sugar, milling and processing.
In order to have your articles published in the PSJ, you are requested to adhere to the
below instructions and prerequisites to enable timely review of your submissions by the
editorial board:
i. Write the title of your article in CAPITAL LETTERS in the center of the page.
ii. Write the complete name of all authors with their addresses – it is compulsory in the text.
References should be cited by author and years as, for one, two or more authors
(Hammer, 1994, Hammer and Rouf, 1995; Hammer et al., 1993), respectively.
iii. Write HEADINGS in bold letters and in the center of the page.
iv. Type your article only in TIMES NEW ROMAN format.
v. Send TABLES and FIGURES on separate page with bold title and mark its numbers
correctly.
vi. Observe the following rule for REFERENCE, for one author: Hussain, K. 1991 for two authors;
Khan, M. and A. Habib 1995, for more than two; Ali, K., A. Hussain and S. Nasir, 1990.
vii. Always send two soft copies and one hard copy of CD. Please do not use FLOPPY DISK
for this purpose.
viii. Send copies on an A-4 size page, preferable LASER PRINT in word document
ix. Papers published in the PSJ are free of charges (for authors).
x. Send your papers to following address by mail or email:
Dr. Shahid Afghan
Editor-in-Chief, Pakistan Sugar Journal
Shakarganj Sugar Research Institute, Jhang (Pakistan)
Phone: +92 47 763 1001-5 | Ext. 602, 603
Mobile: +92 347 654 2858
Email: shahid.afghan@shakarganj.com.pk
Asia Naheed
Associate Editor, Pakistan Sugar Journal
Shakarganj Sugar Research Institute, Jhang (Pakistan)
Phone: +92 47 763 1001-5 | Ext. 603, 606
E-mail: asia.naheed@shakarganj.com.pk
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