Organisational Behaviour -Motivational Theories
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Theories
Fredrick Herzberg's theory
Adams equity theory
Victor vrooms expectancy theory
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FREDRICK HERZBERGS
THEORY
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FREDRICK HERZBERGSTHEORY
INTRODUCTION Frederick Herzberg (1923-2000), clinical
psychologist and pioneer of 'job enrichment', is
regarded as one of the great original thinker inmanagement and motivational theory. Herzbergsmotivation theory is one of the content theories ofmotivation.
Fredrick Herzberg's theory of motivation is based on
the information collected by him and his associate byinterviewing two hundreds engineers and accountantsin nine different companies at Pittsburgh, USA. Theinformation collected relates to the attitude ofpeople towards work.
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Fredrick Herzberg's and his associates (1959)were the first to identify that there are two setsof factor in the work setting that affect
employees job attitude. This attitude depends upon two set of factors
namely hygiene or maintenance factor andmotivating factor and is often referred to as a
two need system. These two separate needs are the need to avoidunpleasantness and discomfort and, at the otherend of the motivational scale, the need forpersonal development. A shortage of the factorsthat positively encourage employees (themotivating factors) will cause employees to focuson other, non-job related hygiene factors.
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MOTIVATION FACTOR
There are very few employees who feel thatthey do not deserve what they get, butthere are no of employees who feel thatthey are not getting what they deserve. Thisbrings out the importance of motivators.
Achievement
Recognition
Growth/advancement Interest in the job
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The most important part of this theory of motivationis that the main motivating factors are not in theenvironment but in the intrinsic value and satisfaction
gained from the job itself. It follows therefore thatto motivate an individual, a job itself must bechallenging, have scope for enrichment and be ofinterest to the jobholder. Motivators (sometimescalled satisfiers) are those factors directly
concerned with the satisfaction gained from a job,such as: The sense of achievement and the intrinsic value
obtained from the job itself The level of recognition by both colleagues and
management The level of responsibility Opportunities for advancement and The status provided.
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Motivators lead to satisfaction because of theneed for growth and a sense of self-achievement.Motivating factors act as a forces of job
satisfaction. motivation factors make people happywith their jobs because they serve mans basicneeds for psychological growth. A lack ofmotivators leads to over-concentration on hygiene
factors
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HYGIENE FACTORHerzbergs second components in his approach to motivationtheory involves what are known as hygiene factors and includes
the work and organizational environment.This Hygiene factor includes organization Its policies and its administration
The kind of supervision Working conditions Interpersonal relation Salary Status
Job security
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According to Herzberg, hygiene factors are onlypreventive in nature. they simply preventdissatisfaction. That means, taking care of themwill prevent dissatisfaction among the employees
but will not motivate the employees. hygienefactors bring motivation to theoretical zero leveland provide the necessary floor or launching padfor motivators to take off. only the motivatorsmotivate human being on the job.
According to Herzberg, the hygiene factors dolittle contribution to provide job satisfaction. hecalled them dissatisfiers as their absence causedissatisfaction but their presence is not motivatingbut only prevent dissatisfaction. The hygienefactors meet mans needs to avoid unpleasantnessbut do not motivate them to take more interest inthe work. This factors are related to theconditions of work than with the work it self.
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Criticism
The findings of this model can not universallyapplicable as study was on upper levelwhite caller employees.
The second criticism is that when the criticalincident method was not used, theresearchers got different kinds of responses.
There is criticism about the clear distinction
between satisfiers and dissatisfiers. Therewould be certain factors relating to the jobwhich are satiesfiers and dissatisfiers at thesame time.
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ConclusionDespite these drawbacks, herzbergs
two-factor theory is a greatcontribution to the field of
organizational motivators that till then
had been either neglected orcompletely overlooked.
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EQUITY THEORY
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ADAMS EQUITY THEORYJohn Stacey Adams, a workplace and behavioral psychologist,
put forward his equity theory on job motivation in1963.Much like many of the more prevalent theories ofmotivation, the Adams Theory features more awareness,cognizance of wider situation and crucial comparison.
In our common life, when people feel fairly or advantageouslytreated they are more likely to be motivated, when theyfeel unfairly treated they are highly prone to feeling ofdissatisfaction and demotivation. The way that peoplemeasure this sense of fairness is at the heart of EquityTheory.
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OVERVIEW OF EQUITY
THEORYIt is important to also consider theAdams Equity Theory factors when striving
to improve an employee's job satisfaction,motivation level, etc., and what can be doneto promote higher levels of each. Adam'scalled personal Efforts and Rewards andother similar Give and Take issues at workas INPUTS AND OUTPUTS respectively.
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INPUTS
Inputs are logically what we give or put into our work such as:
Efforts
Loyalty
Hard work
Commitment
Skill
Tolerance
Determination
Personal sacrifice, etc.
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OUTPUTSOutputs are everything we take out in return such as:
Salary ,benefits, perks, etc.
Intangibles that include,
Recognition
Reputation
ResponsibilityPraise
Sense of achievement
Growth, etc.
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Many of these points cant be quantifiedand perfectly compared, the theory
argues that managers should seek to finda fair balance between the inputs that anemployee gives and the outputs received.And according to the theory, employeesshould be content where they perceivethese to be in balance.
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IS THERE REALLY A RELATIONSHIPBETWEEN HOW HARD AN EMPLOYEE WORKS
AND HOW FAIRLY HE IS BEEN TREATED? Some noted economists believe that there exists such
relationship!
In any organization, the employees in addition to their
time contribute their experience, their qualifications,and their capability in addition to their personalstrengths. MONEY of course is the prime motivatingoutcome for an employee, but it is not the only, and in
some cases not even the most important factor.POWER and STATUS are also prime motivators.
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According to the Equity Theory, the most highlymotivated employee is the one who perceives his rewardsare equal to his contributions. If he feels that he is
working and being rewarded at about the same rate as hispeers, then he will judge that he is being treated fairly.This doesnt mean that every manager should treat everyemployee identically because every worker does notmeasure his contributions in the same way.
EXAMPLE:Flexible working hours might motivate a working mother
even more than a pay raise.
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Conversely, though an across the boardwage increase may delight more employees,the highest producers may become less
motivated if they perceive that they arenot being rewarded for their ambition. Thebasic idea behind the Equity Theory is thatworkers in an attempt to balance what theyput into their jobs and what they get fromthem, will unconsciously assign values toeach of his various contributions. HenceEquity Theory of Employee Motivationbasically describes the relationshipbetween how fairly an employee perceiveshe is treated and how hard he is motivatedto work.
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According to the equity theory employeescompare their outcome/input ratio with the
outcome/input ratio of others to determinewhether they are being treated fairly or unfairlyby the organization. These comparisons aredivided into 3 categories:-
1. Over rewarded inequity/ Positive inequity:-
A person feels over rewarded when hisoutcome/input ratio is greater than otherpersons outcome/input ratio with whom theperson compares himself.P outcome > O outcomeP input O input
Equity theory states that an overpaidworker feels guilty.
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2. Under rewarded inequity/ Negative inequity2. Under rewarded inequity/ Negative inequity A person feels under rewarded when hisA person feels under rewarded when his
outcome/input ratio is less than other persons outcome/inputoutcome/input ratio is less than other persons outcome/inputratio with the person compares himself.ratio with the person compares himself.
P outcome < O outcomeP outcome < O outcome
P input O inputP input O input
Equity theory states that underpaid workers feels angry.Equity theory states that underpaid workers feels angry.
3.Equity3.Equity:-:- A person feels equitably treated when hisA person feels equitably treated when his
outcome/input ratio is equal to others persons output/inputoutcome/input ratio is equal to others persons output/input
ratio with the person compares himself.ratio with the person compares himself.P outcome = O outcomeP outcome = O outcome
P input O inputP input O input
Equitably paid workers are said to feel satisfied.Equitably paid workers are said to feel satisfied.
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6.Under conditions of inequity peopleexperience tension, which in turn
creates the motivation to reduceinequity. Thus people are motivated toescape these negative emotional statesanger and guilt. Employees experiencinginequity will try to reduce it through acombination of 2 responses:-
Physical or Psychological
Internal or External
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Internal- Physical
Employee works harder at
his job.
Internal-PsychologicalEmployee might discountthe value of rewards
received.
External-PhysicalAn employee tries toconvince other workers to
ask for more rewards.
External-
Psychological
Employee might choosesomeone else for
comparison purposes.
Similarly the employees who feel under
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Similarly the employees who feel underrewarded may try to reduce inequity and
restore balance through these 4
responses:-
Internal-Physical
Employee may deliberately
lower the quantity or quality
of work.
Internal-Psychological
Employee might inflate thevalue of the rewards
received.
External-Physical
Employee might bargain for
more rewards.
External-Psychological
Employee might choose
someone to compare himself
more favorably.
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The equity model threw light on the areasof motivation by recognizing the influence
of social comparisons. Individuals areconcerned not only with the efforts but alsowith the absolute amount of rewards theyreceive for their efforts with therelationship of this amount to what otherreceives.
Research on the equity model has yieldedfavorable results as these results have beenmore supportive to under rewarded inequitythan over rewarded inequity.
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The equity is not free of limitations. Some of thedifficulties that managers encounter in using thismodel are:-
Difficulty in predicting inequity:-Predicting inequity is often difficult because
employees select a number of reference groups bothinside and outside the organization. Also employees
compare themselves to standards that are mostfavorable to them. For e.g. educated employeeemphasize on qualifications, while employees withlonger service emphasize seniority as the dominantcriterion.
Equity sensitivity:-Different individuals have different
preferences for inequity. Some people prefer to beover rewarded other prefer to be under rewarded.Identifying while category an employee belongs to isnot and easy task for managers.
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CONLUSION The idea behind Adamss equity theory is to strike a healthy
balance here, with outputs on side of the scale, inputs on theother-both weighing in a way that seem reasonably equal. If thebalance lies too far in favour of the employer, some employeesmay work to bring balance between inputs and outputs on theirown, by asking for more compensation or recognition. While
others will be demotivated and still others will seek alternativeemployment.
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Expectancy theoryIntroduction
Expectancy theory was introduced by victor vroom. He madeimportant contribution to the understanding of motivation and theprocesses used to determine how much efforts employees willexpand on their jobs. In short this theory expands on the work ofMaslow's and Herzberg. He introduced three important concepts areas follows:-
Expectancy Instrumentality
Valence
Force
E
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ExpectancyExpectancy denotes the anticipated probability
that a given level of work effort leads to aspecific level of performance. Vroom opines thatbefore an individual decides to put effort into theperformance of the task, he or she looks at the
various options available. Expectancy is defined asthe probability ranging from 0 to1 that certainefforts will lead to a certain outcome. If theemployee feels that he has no chance of meeting
target than his expectancy is 0.
The mere factthat he decides to put
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Expectancy
0
Low probability thatEfforts will lead
to performance
1
High probabilitythat efforts will lead
To performance
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Instrumentality
Instrumentality refers to the outcomes for each level ofjob performance of the individual. For instance, ifindeed through a high level of effort, highperformance is achieved, what will be the resultantoutcomes or instrumentalities? There are bothnegative and positive consequences in terms of effort
and reward outcomes. The value of instrumentalityranges from 0 to 1. if the employee strongly believesthat performance leads to promotion theninstrumentality is high. On the other handIf the employee is not clear as to what determines apromotion then instrumentality is low.
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Expectancy
0
Low probability thatEfforts will lead
to performance
+1
High probability
that efforts will lead
To performance
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Valence Valence is the extent of attraction (as opposed to repulsion)
of an outcome to the recipient of the reward. That is itdenotes the value or attraction of various possible outcomesfrom putting in effort. Valence can be positive or negative.The numerical value of valence may range from +1 to -1. Nomotivation is possible unless the valence is positive. Valence ispositive when the person prefers attaining the outcome ascompared with not attaining it. Valence is zero when the
person is indifferent to the outcome. Valence is negative whenthe person prefers not attaining the outcome as comparedwith attaining it.
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valence
-1
No attraction or
Preference for
The reward
0Indifferent to the
reward
+1Strong attraction
Or preference
For the reward
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ForceForce is the actual effort expanded by the individual on the
job (indicating the motivational level) and is, as we haveobserved, a function of the multiplicative effects of thesum of the effort to performance probabilities, the sum ofperformance to outcome probabilities, and valence. Force iscalculated thus:
force = [(E->P) x (P->O) x V]
Certainly, individuals in organization do not cognitively gothrough all the calculations described in the model attachingvalues for probabilities and valence. However, employees dointuitively and often cognitively go through processessomewhat on the lines described in the model while deciding
on how much effort you put in for studying for differentexaminations or writing various term papers
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