On how age affects L2 learning in natural and instructed settings

On how age affects L2 learning in natural and

instructed settings

Carmen Muñoz

Universitat de Barcelona

GALA ’07

University of Thessaloniki

C. Muñoz - Gala '07

Age effects

“The earlier the better”

Opinions• “The bilingual children I have met over the years learnt

their skills at a very young age. When a child arrives in school with no English they learn quickly.”

(British teacher; Enever, forthcoming)

• “Children are learning language anyway and pick it up naturally”

(British teacher; Enever, forthcoming)

• “The younger they are, the more they are like sponges, the more they absorb, the more they retain.”

(Spanish parent; Torras, Tragant & García,1997)

... like a sponge

young children “soak up” languages

Scientific facts?

• Critical Period Hypothesis (Lenneberg, 1967)

“... after the critical period language acquisition may be impossible or incomplete”

• Multiple sensitive periods– Some variability in ages of onset and offset– Environmental influence– Different timings for pronunciation (age 6),

morphosyntax (midteens), …

Scientific facts?

• Theoretical dimensionA biologically determined period

→ an innate language-specific faculty

A valid SLA theory needs to solve the problem of age-related outcomes (Long, 2007)

• Applied dimensionWhen to begin FL teaching at schools?

Theoretical and applied dimensions

This talk

Point out asymmetries concerning age-effects in natural and instructed learning contexts.

- SLA and FLA- Characteristics of FL learning settings- 5 asymmetries - Conclusions

SLA vs. FLA

• SLA resembles the natural way young children learn their L1, i.e., by implicitly acquiring the language while attempting to use it in communicative contexts for real-world purposes

• Instructed FLA draws more on conscious

learning, explicit focus on form, and controlled practice.

Foreign language settings

1. instruction is limited to 2-4 sessions of approx. 50 min. / week

2. exposure to the TL during those class periods may be limited both in source (mainly the teacher) and quantity

3. the TL is not the language of communication between peers

4. the teacher’ s oral fluency may be limited5. the TL is not spoken outside the classroom

5 asymmetries

1. Age-related advantages

2. Age of acquisition

3. Ultimate attainment

4. Length of exposure

5. Learning mechanisms

Asymmetry 1: Learning outcomes

Naturalistic L2 learning

- Late starters – short-term rate advantage

- Early starters – long-term ultimate attainment advantage

Johnson & Newport (1989), DeKeyser (2000), Snow & Hoefnagel-Höhle (1978), …

Learning outcomes

• Instructed L2 settings?

…. can we automatically generalize?!

Instructed FL learning. The BAF Project

• Explore age effects in a foreign language setting

– at different points in time (short/long term defined by increments of instruction/exposure)

– for different language abilities – mixed design including longitudinal data

Group AGroup AAO = 8AO = 8

Group BGroup BAO = 11AO = 11

Group CGroup CAO = 14AO = 14

Group DGroup DAO = 18+AO = 18+

Time 1Time 1200 h.200 h.

AT = 10;9AT = 10;9N = 284N = 284OSE = 165OSE = 165

B1B1 AT = 12;9AT = 12;9N = 286N = 286OSE = 107OSE = 107

C1C1 AT= 15;9AT= 15;9N = 40N = 40OSE= 40OSE= 40

D1D1 AT = 28;9AT = 28;9N = 91N = 91OSE = 67OSE = 67

A2A2 AT = 12;9AT = 12;9N = 278N = 278OSE = 140OSE = 140

B2B2 AT = 14;9AT = 14;9N = 239N = 239OSE = 99OSE = 99

C2C2 AT =17;9AT =17;9N = 11N = 11OSE= 11OSE= 11

D2D2 AT = 39;4AT = 39;4N = 43N = 43OSE = 21OSE = 21

A3A3 AT = 16;8AT = 16;8N = 338N = 338OSE = 61OSE = 61

B3B3 AT = 17;9AT = 17;9N = 296N = 296OSE = 51OSE = 51

D3D3 AT = 41;7AT = 41;7N = 7N = 7OSE = 3OSE = 3

A4A4 AT = 17;9AT = 17;9N = 155N = 155OSE = 27OSE = 27

The BAF Project

• Questionnaire: language (L1, L2, L3) use, motivation, strategies,... • Measures:

– cloze (L1, L2, L3)– dictation (L1, L2, L3)– grammar– composition: fluency, (lexical & grammatical) complexity, accuracy

– listening comprehension– minimal pair discrimination– word imitation– oral interview: production and reception; vocabulary development

– oral narrative: textual cohesion; vocabulary development; grammar

– role-play– map task

General results: cross-sectional and longitudinal

• T1: D1 > C1 > B1 > A1

• T2: D2 > C2 > B2 > A2

• T3: B3 > A3

...late starters are more efficient

Advantage not uniform with respect to:

- phonetics/phonology

- morphosyntax

- listening comprehension

Gap reduced when difference in age (and cognitive development) is reduced as well

Phonetics

–Initial age of learning not conclusive determinant… (Fullana, 2006)

“Accented L2 input hypothesis”

“L2 learners will fail to perceive and produce L2 sounds accurately if they are not provided with adequate L2 phonetic input, regardless of their starting age of L2 learning.”

(Flege, 1991)

Morphosyntax vs. Listening comprehension

Cloze A

Cloze B

Cloze C

Cloze D

List. A

List. B

List. C

List. D

(from Muñoz, 2006)

Morphosyntax

• ES < LS

• Increase in morphosyntax gains

around puberty years

In an instructed L2 learning setting do younger starters outperform older starters in the long-term?

... in the long-term?

“… if the older learners’ advantage is mainly due to their superior cognitive development, no differences in proficiency are to be expected when differences in cognitive development also disappear with age.”

(Muñoz, 2006: 34)

…getting a clearer picture

of age effects

in a school setting …

Same amount of instruction different age at testing. BAF Project

- Early starters < Late starters

- In the long term, early starters may catch up but no long-term advantage

> Late starters are more efficient learners

Different amount of instruction same age at testing

- Early starters > Late starters in oral/aural skills

- In the long term, late starters catch up to early starters in literacy skills

Burstall (1975); Oller & Nagato (1974); Harley (1986); Swain & Lapkin (1986); Turnbull et al. (1998); …

Different amount of instruction same age at testing

- When there is enough exposure, older starters show higher learning efficiency in literacy skills as well.

- Are younger starters’ higher oral/aural skills an effect of their initial age of learning or of exposure/instruction? …

Age effects or Time effects??

“… no explanation has yet been provided for why in school settings the additional time associated with an early headstart has not been found to provide more substantial long-term proficiency benefits.”

(Harley, 1998)

Asymmetry 2:Age of acquisition

Natural settings

Age of acquisition = = beginning of significant exposure

Significant exposure

“… to participate in social settings effectively dominated by the L2” (Stevens, 2006)

= …learners are able to carry out a variety of speech acts over a wide range of situations and topics

“... immersion in the L2 context” (Birdsong, 2006)

Significant exposure?

NO social settings dominated by L2 in which to participate

• learners are not able to carry out a variety of speech acts over a wide range of situations and topics

NO immersion: 3-4 hours / week

1 hour / week?

Instructed settings

Significant exposure?

Previous instruction in home country?

– No correlation found (Johnson & Newport, 1989, etc.)

Exception (Urpunen, 2004)

– Disregarded: ”insignificant” (White & Genesee, 1996)

Asymmetry 2: Initial point

Instructed settings

Age of acquisition =

Beginning of insignificant exposure

a valid index?point vs period

Asymmetry 3:Ultimate attainment

• UA = final product of L2 acquisition = +/- nativelikeness

• Final product entails cessation of learning that appears in spite of optimal learning conditions (including input that is neither quantitatively nor qualitatively limited).

Han (2004); Han & Odlin (2006); Selinker & Lamendella (1979) ..

Instructed settingsThe requirement of having optimal learning conditions (including input that is neither quantitatively nor qualitatively limited) is

fulfilled in foreign language learning.

Asymmetry 3: Ultimate attainment

Natural settings: Length of time of residence

→ ultimate attainment in L2 (native-like)

Snow (1983): 2 yrs > 5 yrs

Slavoff & Johnson (1995): 3 yrs not enough

Krashen et al. (1979): 5 yrs

DeKeyser (2000): 10 yrs

Asymmetry 4:Length of exposure

Asymmetry 4:length of exposure

Instructed settings

10 years (14 h / day) = 51.100 hours

= 12.775 weeks (4h / week)

= 245 years …

Asymmetry 5:Learning mechanisms

Natural settings• “...automatic acquisition from mere exposure to

a language may disappear after puberty…” (Lenneberg,1967:

• “… between the ages of 6-7 and 16-17, everybody loses the mental equipment required for the implicit induction of the abstract patterns underlying a human language.” (DeKeyser, 2000)

“the implicit acquisition processes… require massive amounts of input, that only a total immersion program can provide, not a program with a few hours of foreign language per week.” (DeKeyser, 2000)

Implicit acquisition

Asymmetry 5:implicit vs. explicit

• Natural settings provide enough comprehensible input to make form-meaning mappings ... suited for younger learners

• Instructed settings provide explicit instruction (“short-cuts”)… suited for older learners, but do not provide the amount and intensity of input necessary for implicit learning.

Conclusions

Contribution of studies in natural contexts

The earlier the better

Overgeneralization

The earlier the better in any situation and independently of learning conditions (exposure, pedagogical, etc.)

Contribution of studies in instructed contexts

... provided it is associated with enough significant exposure

- distributed intensively

- and with opportunities for participating in a variety of L2 social contexts

The earlier may be the better ...

... children need water like a sponge!

Research agenda

• To determine the amount of input required for an early start to be effective in promoting language learning

• To focus on the relative gains of different-age pupils with different types of time distribution

• The distinction between short-term and long-term benefits of starting at different ages

• The comparative study of the learning rate of different-age learners to inform educators about what to expect after n years of FL instruction from different-age learners

(Muñoz, 2008)

Bibliographical references• Birdsong, D. and Molis, M. (2001) On the evidence for maturational constraints on second-

language acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language 44, 235-249.• Bley-Vroman, R. (1989) What is the logical problem of foreign language learning? In S. Gass and

J. Schachter (eds) Linguistic Perspectives on Second Language Acquisition (pp. 41-68) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Burstall, C. (1975) Primary French in the balance. Foreign Language Annals 10 (3), 245-252.• DeKeyser, R. (2000) The Robustness of Critical Period Effects in Second Language Acquisition.

Studies in Second Language Acquisition 22 (4), 499-533.• DeKeyser, R. (2003) Implicit and Explicit Learning. In C. J. Doughty and M. H. Long (eds)

Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 313-348). London: Blackwell.• Enever, J. (forthcoming). The status of the target language: contemporary criteria influencing

language choices for early learners in England. In M. Nikolov (ed.) Contextualizing the Age Factor: Issues in Early Foreign Language Learning and Teaching.

• Flege, J. (1991). Age of learning affects the authenticity of voice onset time (VOT) in stop consonants produced in a second language. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America 89, 395-411.

• Fullana, N. (2006). The development of English (FL) perception and production skills: starting age and exposure effects.In C. Muñoz (ed.): Age and the Rate of Foreign Language Learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters,

• Han, Z.-H. (2004). Fossilization in Adult Second Language Acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

• Han, Z.-H. and Odlin, T. (2005). ‘Introduction’ in Z.-H. Han and T. Odlin (eds): Studies of Fossilization in Second Language Acquisition. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, pp.1-20.

• Harley, B. (1986). Age in Second Language Acquisition. Clevedon, Avon: Multilingual Matters.• Johnson, J. and Newport, E. (1989) Critical period effects in second language learning: The

influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive Psychology 21, 60-99.

• Krashen, S., Long, M., and Scarcella, R. (1979) Age, rate and eventual attainment in second language acquisition. TESOL Quarterly 9, 573-582. Reprinted in S.D. Krashen, R.C. Scarcella and M.H. Long (eds) (1982) Child-Adult Differences in Second Language Acquisition (pp. 161-72). Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House Publishers.

• Lenneberg, E.H. (1967) Biological Foundations of Language. New York: Wiley.• Long, M. (1990) Maturational constraints on language development. Studies in Second Language

Acquisition 12 (3), 251-285.• Long, M. (2007) Problems in SLA. Lawrence Erlbaum.• Muñoz, (2006) ‘The Effects of Age on Foreign Language Learning: the BAF Project’ in C. Muñoz

(ed.): Age and the Rate of Foreign Language Learning. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, pp. 1-40. • Muñoz (2008). Symmetries and Asymmetries of age effects in naturalistic and instructed L2

learning. Applied Linguistics• Oller, J. and Nagato, N. (1974) The long-term effect of FLES: An experiment. Modern Language

Journal 58, 15-19.• Singleton, D. (1995) A critical look at the Critical Period Hypothesis in second language acquisition

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• Turnbull, M., Lapkin, S., Hart, D. and Swain, M. (1998) Time on task and immersion graduates' French proficiency. In S. Lapkin (ed.) French Second Language Education in Canada: Empirical Studies (pp. 31-55). Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press.

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On how age affects L2 learning in natural and instructed settings

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