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©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 1 (1): 1-19, 2013
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Research Article
Towards Sustainable Heritage Building Conservation in Malaysia
Mahmoud Sodangi¹, Mohd Faris Khamidi², Arazi Idrus³
¹Post-doctoral Research Engineer, Civil Engineering Department,
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia
Email: abbax9@yahoo.co.uk
²Senior Lecturer, Civil Engineering Department,
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia
Email: mfaris_khamidi@petronas.com.my
³Professor, Civil Engineering Department,
National Defence University of Malaysia
Email: arazi_idrus@petronas.com.my
ARTICLE INFO
Article history Received: 1/1/2013
Accepted: 25/3/2013
A b s t r a c t
It has been universally recognised that the conservation of heritage buildings has environmental sustainability benefits. Malaysian government spends quite
a huge amount of money in conserving national heritage buildings in the
country and the buildings deteriorate just few years after the conservation
works. Despite the enactment of the National Heritage Act and establishment
of the National Heritage Department coupled with the existence of many
heritage trusts and legislations related to heritage conservation in Malaysia,
maintenance practices for conserving heritage buildings seem to remain very
poor. This could be strongly attributed to lack of clear guidelines for
custodians of heritage buildings in managing the maintenance of the buildings
in their custody. Maintenance management practices can be better explained
and understood if there is a comprehensive guideline that can be referred to by
the custodians of heritage buildings, which at this time does not exist. Thus, the goal of this paper is to make as strong case for developing a framework
that would act as a basis for heritage organizations to prepare guidelines for
sustainable management of heritage building conservation in Malaysia. This
paper is part of an ongoing research aimed at developing a framework for
sustainable management of heritage building conservation in Malaysia. The
proposed conceptual framework is significant for its potential benefit in
sustaining the buildings and their associated values and enhancing the safety of
the buildings efficiently with minimum resources. It is expected that the
framework could serve as a basis for heritage organizations to prepare
guidelines for owners and custodians of heritage buildings to manage the
maintenance of their buildings. .
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
Keywords: building; conservation;
heritage; maintenance;
Malaysia; management.
1. Introduction
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Sustainable development and heritage conservation have become guiding principles for our
modern industrial society. Besides, it has been universally recognised that the conservation of
heritage buildings has environmental sustainability benefits. Heritage building conservation
reduces energy usage associated with demolition, waste disposal and new construction, and
promotes sustainable development by conserving the embodied energy in the existing
buildings. In order to achieve a sustainable management of heritage building conservation in
Malaysia, it is vital that maintenance takes a leading role in conserving the heritage values of
the buildings. Various authors have described regular maintenance as the most important,
pragmatic, sustainable and philosophically appropriate method of conserving heritage
buildings. However, poor maintenance management of heritage buildings leads to serious
building defects that could threaten both the safety of occupants and building fabric.
Maintenance of heritage buildings is quite different from new buildings because the fabric of
a heritage building has cultural significance which must be retained maximally and the
authenticity of a heritage building depends essentially on the integrity of its fabric. The
maintenance of heritage buildings involves repairing the building fabric very close to the
original using traditional techniques and traditional matching materials and being sensitive to
the original structure. Therefore, the maintenance of a heritage building is done without
unnecessarily disturbing or destroying the historic fabric; damaging the character of the
building and altering the features which give the building historic, architectural and cultural
significance.
To this regard, it is important to come up with a clear maintenance management framework
to guide those who provide advice, make decisions about or undertake maintenance works to
heritage buildings including owners, managers and custodians on how to systematically and
effectively evaluate, plan and implement maintenance management programme for their
heritage buildings, and thereby able to extend the life of the original building fabric and
expect considerable savings in costs and time in future conservation works. A well
maintained heritage building enhances the quality of life for everyone in the community, help
to attract investment to the community (tourism product), contribute to regeneration and
provide a source of local pride and sense of place (Forsyth, 2007).
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2. Background of the Research
History deals with human actions, that is, actions done by individuals and group of
individuals, which explains the circumstances under which humans lived and the way they
reacted to these circumstances (Mises, 1985). It also deals with people’s conscious reaction to
the state of their environment, which include both the natural and built environment as
influenced by the actions of preceding generations as well as by those of their contemporaries
(Mises, 1985). Folarin (2012) emphasizes that history as a human preoccupation, creates a
perpetual link between man and his roots, by which he gets a firm control of his society and
thus becomes the master of his social environment. The past, the present and the future are
not only related, they are mutually interdependent.
In the earliest times, people lived in caves and tents because of the necessity for warmth and
shelter (Watkin, 2005). However, by the new stone age (8000 – 5000 BC), people in Central
Europe had started building houses for themselves though many people continued to live in
caves and tents. As the people aged, they began to build complicated houses such as the
mammoth, clay, and then more complex concrete houses (Watkin, 2005). Between 3050 BC
to the early 20th
century, various notable building architectures were witnessed due to
civilizations and passage of generations. These notable architectures include Ancient Egypt,
Classical, Early Christian & Medieval, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rocco,
Georgian, Neoclassical, Victorian, Art Nouveau, Beaux Arts, Neo-Gothic and 20th
Century
Architecture. The people that lived in these generations and civilizations have left behind
indelible marks in the form of heritage to the present and future generations.
Heritage is created by attaching significance and values in what our predecessors left behind.
It is generally understood to include three key entities: material culture, the natural
environment and the built environment (ICOMOS, 1999). The Malaysian National Heritage
Act (2005) defined heritage under section 67 as “any heritage site, heritage object,
underwater cultural heritage or any living person declared as National Heritage”. However, a
broader definition of heritage was provided by ICOMOS (1982), where heritage is described
as the ideas, habits, and customs taking place in a particular geographic context, that have
given rise to traditions, folklore, mentality, ways of doing things, architecture, and a social
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structure. As pointed out by Ashworth (2001), the heritage of society or people is
irreplaceable and an important foundation for development. It encompasses biodiversity,
collections, past and continuing cultural practices, knowledge, living experiences, landscapes,
historic places, sites and built environments (ICOMOS, 1999).
The built environment provides the setting and backdrop by which people live their lives and
impacts on their senses, emotions, participation in physical activity and community life and
general well-being (Law, 2000). Buildings are more than just props in people’s lives; they are
imbued with meaning and resonance, as they signify people’s personal histories,
interpersonal relationships, and shared events in people’s extended relationships, families,
communities and wider culture (Ashworth, 2001).
According to Law (2000), heritage buildings are tangible manifestations of town’s identity
and a physical expression of the cultural heritage of the people of the town. The buildings
provide a link to the history and culture of a nation and particular town. Heritage buildings
very often provide a suitable background, or home, for the cultural life of a town. Generally,
heritage buildings are located in central parts of a town and, combined with appropriate
services; they help make the central parts of a town attractive area to visit by residents and
tourists. The built heritage is important as it helps to maintain community identity, enhance
the image of the area and local neighbourhoods, contribute to the quality of life for residents
and communities, assist with economic development and tourism initiatives; and initiate
conservation led regeneration (Law, 2000).
Genesis of Heritage Conservation
The fruits of built heritage conservation efforts are now easily valued because conserved
heritage buildings and sites are today seen and enjoyed by much of the world’s population
(Stubbs, 2009). Societies have continuously been worried by the loss of valued assets and
aspects of their environments. The origin of conservation minded actions dates back to the
time the first person attempted to control unwanted changes to his living environment
(Watkin, 2005).
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In other words, the instinct to conserve dates not long after early humans began creating
objects and structures that could be used continually. Stubbs (2009) pointed out that
researchers date the earliest creation of durable stone tools and equipment to about 3000000
BCE and the oldest evidence of durable expressions of artistic and spiritual beliefs date to at
least 50000 BCE. He further pointed out that the earliest evidence of the maintenance of
buildings dates back to about 8000 BCE, which shows that from time immemorial, humans
became interested in protecting their practical and symbolic legacies.
Between 960-1127 CE, tangible evidence of conserving artistic works of the distant past
dates back in China and Northern Song Dynasty when inventories and collections of ancient
bronzes were formed (Stubbs, 2009). Due to deep respect tradition in China, conservation
awareness was carried into the 20th
century. At that time, China and its neighbours have
developed wider interest in conserving heritage (Stubbs, 2009).Educated Europeans in the
early 15th century showed a growing understanding of human history as elements of the ‘age
of humanism’ and afterwards the ‘age of reason’ developed together with significant
modifications in the area of arts and science (Stubbs, 2009). The free quest for knowledge
and its teachings from the Renaissance onward meant that with every passing year, people
knew more about their past than ever before.
Since the beginning of the 18th Century; heritage conservation has progressed side by side
with allied developments in history, archaeology, museology and ecology (Stubbs, 2009).
The focus then was to save ancient monuments, significant religious buildings and national
symbols. From the late 18th
century, many heritage conscious individuals attempted to
conserve heritage buildings and sites to the way they were thought to have previously
appeared. By the 19th century, monuments were reordered and reconstructed with little
proven evidence to what was thought to be the original design intention (Orbasli, 2008). The
restoration works paid little respect to originality of the monuments. Towards the end of the
19th
century, a popular restoration approach was adopted. The areas around culturally
significant monuments were cleared and the monuments were then displayed in the midst of
large parks and gardens.
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However, Orbasli (2008) noted that a growing anti restoration movement in the latter half of
the 19th
century began to emerge as an opposition to some of the poor restoration practices.
The Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB) was established in 1877 in
England. SPAB suggested that heritage building needed to be maintained within their settings
rather than being isolated in a landscaped park. The SPAB’s criticism of restoration practices
of the time led to the replacement of the word ‘restoration’ with ‘conservation’ in England.
According to SPAB, real heritage lay in the authentic monument, not in modern replicas.
Also, the value of historic cities lay in terms of collective value of buildings, streets, and
spaces that made up the character of old towns, which were being lost to modern
developments and street widening projects. The conservative repair philosophy was
introduced upon a manifesto written by William Morris and other founding members of
SPAB in 1877.
Even though the idea of protecting cultural and natural heritage sites around the world began
after the World War I; momentum for its actual establishment was not witnessed until the
1950s (Jokilehto, 2002). The nationalistic feelings in the aftermath of World War I and II and
the economic value associated with cultural tourism triggered a growing interest in heritage,
which later defined conservation in Europe in the 20th century.
To this regard, the Hague Convention which was the first UNESCO Convention on cultural
heritage was launched in 1954 in order to protect cultural property in the event of armed
conflict (Jokilehto, 2002). Development of a network of supportive legislation for heritage
conservation and collaboration with a host of international heritage conservation charters,
programs and projects propagated by international organizations such as UNESCO and
ICOMOS in the 20th century have contributed to making heritage conservation a participatory
concern for millions of people all over the world (Jokilehto, 2002).
Heritage conservation approaches promote greater integration between disciplines (Orbasli,
2008). Also, understanding the values of heritage emphasize the significance of multi-
disciplinary approaches among history, archaeology, museology, conservation, architecture,
civil engineering, environmental engineering, quantity surveying and town planning among
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others. Civil engineering researchers in the field of heritage conservation need to establish
close working relations with social science disciplines.
Heritage conservation is now a well-integrated worldwide concern that commonly engages
large segments of the world’s population. It has become a vibrant and autonomous field with
many centres of interest including archaeology, museology, conservation science, civil
engineering, urban planning, tourism, education and even national economic policy. This is
evident by the growing public and institutional support dedicated to conservation of heritage
buildings and sites.
Heritage Building Conservation and Tourism
The popular appeal of cultural heritage is easily seen through observations of heritage
tourism. The rapidly globalizing and modernizing world is witnessing a fast emergence of
heritage consciousness. With the work of international organizations like the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and other notable heritage
organizations and agencies of various countries, the need for understanding and protecting
heritage has tremendously increased.
In discussing heritage building conservation, Sodangi et al. (2011) pointed out that the
identity of a people and nation is largely defined by their heritage which is a legacy that is
passed down from one generation to another. These legacies are irreplaceable sources of life
and inspiration which provide people with a sense of place and inform the people about who
they are and how their society has developed over time. Heritage places as unique and diverse
as the Mount Kinabalu of Malaysia, the Pyramids of Egypt, the Taj Mahal of India, the Great
Barrier Reef in Australia and the Baroque Cathedrals of Latin America make up some of the
world’s heritage.
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Heritage could either be natural or cultural which may be significant for historical,
architectural, scientific or for any other distinct cultural value. Natural heritage includes
culturally significant landscapes, landforms, flora and fauna. In contrast, cultural heritage
includes tangible culture (such as buildings, monuments, tombs, artefacts, books and works
of art) and intangible culture (such as knowledge, language, tradition, music and folklore).
While 'heritage' suggests a very wide subject, this research focuses on heritage buildings
since they are regarded as the main components of tangible cultural heritage that societies
want to keep, share and pass on to future generations. Besides, they are regarded as
fundamental cultural heritage elements that strengthen a country’s national identity and
sovereignty as well as capture its soul and spirit (Ahmad, 2006). The buildings remain the
best form in which historic cultural heritage can be expressed. The buildings characterize the
history of people and nations. They serve as the table from which this history can be read and
in this way, the life of a society in the past, its values in the present and directions for the
future are decorated on heritage buildings. Idrus et al. (2010) describes heritage buildings as
Figure 1: Pyramids of Egypt Figure 2: TajMahal (India)
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buildings built in the past which have high historical and architectural values and require
continuous care and protection to conserve their cultural heritage significance for as long as
possible. Similarly, Feilden (1982) had previously described heritage buildings as
irreplaceable sources of life and inspirations which for various reasons society has decided
shall be conserved for as long as possible and they differ from modern buildings because they
are expected to last forever.
The growth of tourism has propelled the emergence of heritage tourism which is a potential
form of alternative tourism to both local and foreign tourists (Badaruddin, 2005). Over the
years, the global influx of tourists to Malaysia (see Figure 3) and the growing interest in
heritage tourism have increased the number of heritage tourists visiting heritage cities of
Malaysia especially Malacca and Penang (Badaruddin, 2005). In Malaysia today, heritage
buildings are regarded as highly valuable assets due to their cultural significance and tourism
potentials (Mustafa et al., 2011). The buildings are regarded as essential products of
promoting heritage tourism because of their strong influence in motivating cultural heritage
tourists to visit the country. Cultural heritage tourists are attracted to these buildings due to
their cultural uniqueness, high historical and architectural values, and the strong desire to see
something different (Mustafa et al., 2011).
The increasing consciousness in the cultural significance of the buildings has helped in
conserving these assets to promote heritage tourism as well as boost revenue generation in the
country. In the year 2010, the country attracted 24.6 million foreign tourists and generated
RM56.5billion to the tourism sector (Sodangi et al., 2011). Therefore, it became imperative
to conserve heritage buildings in Malaysia considering their high tourism potentials and the
fact that the buildings serve as fundamental cultural heritage elements that strengthen
Malaysia’s national identity and sovereignty as well as capture its soul and spirit. It is mainly
through heritage conservation that a society can pass onto future generations what is currently
identified as being of cultural significance today (Forsyth, 2007). Every building whether
heritage or new, requires care and protection to limit deterioration (Idrus et al., 2010). For
heritage buildings, efficient maintenance management practices are essential in extending the
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life of the buildings and avoiding the need for potentially expensive and disruptive repair
works, which may damage the heritage values of the building.
Figure 3: Tourist arrivals in Malaysia and revenue generated to the government
(Source: Tourism Malaysia, 2010)
Description of Problem Identification
Malaysian government spends quite a huge amount of money in conserving national heritage
buildings in the country and the buildings deteriorate just few years after the conservation
works. For instance, over a hundred thousand Ringgit Malaysia was spent in the conservation
of Istana Kenangan which houses the Perak Royal Museum in 2005 but by the year 2010,
exactly five years after the conservation works, the once elegant building was deteriorating to
the extent of near collapse.
According to Brereton (1991) all elements of heritage buildings tend to deteriorate but at a
greater or lesser rate based on the age, function, location, high cost of maintenance and lack
of adequate maintenance funds. Nevertheless, various authors (Ahmad, 1994; Fielden, 2000;
Forsyth, 2007; Mustapa et al., 2007) emphasize that heritage buildings will rapidly decay and
degrade when maintenance is poorly managed. The authors further emphasizes that poor
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
arrivals (million)
revenue (RM billion)
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maintenance management of heritage building causes the buildings to deteriorate and lose
their heritage values.
It is quite natural that as buildings aged, they will be exposed to serious building defects and
deterioration. As such, every building whether heritage or new, requires continuous care and
protection to limit deterioration. For heritage buildings, efficient maintenance management
approaches are essential in extending the life of the buildings and avoiding the need for
potentially expensive and disruptive repair works, which may damage the buildings’ heritage
value (Idrus et al., 2010)
Notwithstanding the increasing consciousness among the public on the need for conserving
the nation’s cultural heritage, many heritage buildings in Malaysia still remain in poor
conditions with signs of serious building defects threatening their survival (Kamal et al.,
2008). This is evident from a survey of 209heritage buildings at four historic towns and cities
i.e. George Town, Ipoh, and Kuala Lumpur, in order to identify the current conditions of the
heritage buildings and the level of building defects that occur at those buildings. Kamal et al.
(2008) revealed among other findings that 39% of the buildings surveyed were poorly
maintained. More disturbing was the fact that 83% of the buildings surveyed had signs of
serious building defects (Kamal et al., 2008). Kamal et al. (2008) further revealed that 74%
of the buildings were not properly conserved while about 84% of the buildings were in dire
need of urgent conservation works.
Despite the enactment of the National Heritage Act and establishment of the National
Heritage Department coupled with the existence of many heritage trusts and legislations
related to heritage conservation in Malaysia, maintenance practices for conserving heritage
buildings seem to remain very poor (Ahmad, 2005; Kamal et al., 2008; Idrus et al., 2010;
Eshak, 2011; Mohamad, 2011; Tharazi, 2011; Sodangi et al., 2011). This could be strongly
attributed to lack of clear guidelines for custodians of heritage buildings in managing the
maintenance of the buildings in their custody. Maintenance management practices can be
better explained and understood if there is a comprehensive guideline that can be referred to
by the custodians of heritage buildings, which at this time does not exist.
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There are several existing frameworks for managing the maintenance of normal buildings.
However, as mentioned earlier; the maintenance management strategy for heritage buildings
is different from normal buildings because the fabric of heritage building has cultural
significance which must be retained maximally and the authenticity of heritage building
depends essentially on the integrity of its fabric. Besides, the maintenance of heritage
buildings involves repairing the building fabric very close to the original using traditional
techniques and traditional matching materials and being sensitive to the original structure.
Hence, the maintenance of heritage building takes a cautious approach in order not to
unnecessarily disturb or destroy the historic fabric; damage the character of the building and
alter the features which give the building historic, architectural and cultural significance.
Therefore, a specific framework is required for managing the maintenance of heritage
buildings.
Though there are some heritage building maintenance manuals and best practice guidelines,
they do not guide on how maintenance should be conceived, managed and integrated with
other key management activities in the context of heritage building conservation. Besides, the
set of factors that influence effective maintenance management, maintenance cost prediction
tool and prioritization of building defects have not been incorporated into these manuals and
best practice guidelines. Thus, it becomes difficult to use them to plan, control, organize and
monitor maintenance activities.
Moreover, the previous works do not provide for understanding the heritage building;
maintenance planning and development; maintenance staffing; predicting maintenance costs,
handling maintenance information and maintenance control. Thus, the previous works may
not be effective in facilitating holistic and consistency in the planning, organizing, directing,
implementing and controlling heritage building maintenance management. Understanding the
heritage building; maintenance planning and development; maintenance staffing; predicting
maintenance costs, handling maintenance information and maintenance control should form
parts of the philosophy and principle for managing the maintenance of heritage buildings.
This seems to indicate that previous works may not provide the tactful and consistent
initiation and implementation of effective maintenance management of heritage buildings.
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Therefore, the goal of this research is to develop a framework that would act as a basis for
heritage organizations to prepare guidelines for managing the maintenance and conservation
of heritage buildings.
3. Research Hypotheses
Based on review of literature and discussions with some heritage building conservation
experts from various heritage organizations in Malaysia, it is hypothesized that:
H0 = lack of maintenance management framework for heritage buildings conservation does
not significantly influence the poor practices of maintenance managers and the poor physical
conditions of the buildings.
H1 = lack of maintenance management framework for heritage buildings conservation
significantly influences the poor practices of maintenance managers and the poor physical
conditions of the buildings.
The hypothesis above is diagrammatically represented as:
Figure 1.2: Schematic diagrams showing the relationship between maintenance management
framework; poor maintenance management practices and poor physical conditions of heritage
buildings.
4. Scope and Limitations
This research covers only national heritage buildings in Malaysia. Heritage buildings that
have not been gazetted as national heritage buildings are not included. The research requires
adopting case study as one of the research strategies in order to understand the managerial
practices adopted by maintenance managers and their organizations in managing the
is related to
Lack of maintenance
management framework for
heritage buildings conservation
1. Poor practices of maintenance
managers in managing the
maintenance of heritage buildings
2. Poor physical conditions of
heritage buildings
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maintenance of heritage buildings in Malaysia. The research poses the “how” and “why”
questions about the maintenance management practices for the conservation of heritage
buildings over which the researcher has little or no control. The research focuses on national
heritage buildings that were built in the 20th
century and are presently used as royal museums
and galleries in Malaysia. The rationale for this selection is due to the fact that royal
museums and galleries bring about a sense of nostalgia and serve as source of great pride to
any society (Keremo, 2003).
Also, royal museums and galleries are the repositories of cultural heritage which without
them, the society would be adrift in time and a society that has no past has no future.
Moreover, royal museums and galleries are semi-academic and educational institutions that
hold a great wealth of information in the form of material heritage which are evidences of our
past. They are similar to libraries as they provide rich resources for useful learning and nation
building. Also, the encyclopedic collections are useful for helping us know who we are, our
identity and history. Economically, a well conserved museum boosts tourism and generates
revenue to the government thereby contributing to the economy of the country.
In order to increase the generalizability and validity of the case studies findings, the cases
(heritage buildings) in this research were strategically selected based on the intrinsic
differences in their present physical conditions, which are; good, fair and poor conditions. As
questionnaire survey and case studies were the methodologies employed for this research, the
respondents for this research were divided into two sets; the first set participated in the
questionnaire survey while the second set participated in the comparative case studies.
Respondents for the questionnaire survey are heritage conservations experts from government
heritage organization departments, non-governmental heritage organizations and heritage
contractors. On the other hand, maintenance managers of the selected national heritage
buildings were the respondents in the comparative case studies. In the context of this
research, building refers to the building fabrics and structures. Also, the main issues do not
cover the artefacts exhibited in the buildings while the defects addressed do not include
defects that relate to substructure works (foundations cracking, foundation bowing,
foundation settlement etc).
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4. Significance of the Research
Heritage buildings remain the best form in which historic cultural heritage can be expressed.
The buildings are regarded as the main components of tangible cultural heritage that societies
want to keep, share and pass on to future generations and are regarded as fundamental
cultural heritage elements that strengthen a country’s national identity and sovereignty as
well as capture its soul and spirit (Ahmad, 2006). In Malaysia today, heritage buildings are
regarded as highly valuable assets due to their cultural significance and tourism potentials
(Idrus et al., 2010). The buildings are regarded as essential products of promoting heritage
tourism because of their strong influence in motivating cultural heritage tourists to visit the
country. In the year 2010, the country attracted 24.6 million foreign tourists and generated
RM56.5billion to the tourism sector (Sodangi et al., 2011). In the same way, the buildings are
highly precious considering their contribution in keeping past historical evidences, retaining
history, belief, identity and values of a society.
The buildings also provide architectural continuity and boost revenue generation through
heritage tourism. Considering the numerous benefits of conserving heritage buildings, it can
be strongly affirmed that the country’s heritage buildings deserve the best practice in the
maintenance management of these buildings in order to continuously care and protect them
from being demolished so as to prolong their life span and functions and generate more
tourism revenue to the government. However, several authors have pointed out that
management practices for maintaining heritage buildings in Malaysia are poor (Ahmad, 2005;
Kamal et al., 2008; Idrus et al., 2010; Eshak, 2011; Mohamad, 2011; Tharazi, 2011). Besides,
heritage organizations and trusts do not provide guidelines for managing the maintenance of
heritage buildings in the country (Ahmad, personal communication, December 6, 2010,
JWN).
Therefore, this research is significant for its potential benefit in sustaining the buildings and
their associated values and enhancing the safety of the buildings efficiently with minimum
resources. It is expected that the framework could serve as a basis for heritage organizations
to prepare guidelines for owners and custodians of heritage buildings to manage the
maintenance of their buildings. With the application of the guidelines; less resources might be
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required for heritage building maintenance and the buildings could be maintained proactively
thereby slowing down the rate of deterioration of valuable original materials, avoiding
potential hazards, reducing maintenance costs, and improving the buildings’ life and
performance. Similarly important, the research could serve as drive for further research in
order to improve and achieve best practices in the maintenance management of heritage
buildings.
5. Conclusions
In expecting the main research, this conceptual paper has planned to go on with the research.
The maintenance management of heritage buildings presents quite different challenges as
compared to non heritage buildings. The aim of this study is the development of maintenance
management framework for the conservation of heritage buildings in Malaysia. Many
heritage buildings are decaying due to age, neglect, high maintenance cost and poor
maintenance management. Though there are some heritage building maintenance manuals
and best practices, they do not guide on how maintenance should be conceived, managed and
integrated with other key management activities in the context of heritage building
conservation. The previous works do not consider set of factors that influence maintenance
management, maintenance cost prediction tool and the prevailing building defects. Thus it
becomes difficult to use them to plan, control, organize and monitor maintenance activities.
The Malaysian government keeps spending huge amount of money in conserving national
heritage buildings in the country and the buildings keep deteriorating just few years after the
conservation works on the buildings. This is a loss to the government and harmful to the
originality and integrity of the fabric of the buildings, performance of the buildings and safety
of lives and properties. By way of intervention, there is the urgent need for a framework that
would guide on how maintenance should be conceived, managed and integrated with other
key management activities in the context of heritage building conservation. The maintenance
management framework presents a promising guideline for the management of heritage
building conservation. The proposed framework would consider set of factors that influence
maintenance management, maintenance cost prediction tool and the prioritization of building
Sodangi M. / Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability (JASES)1 (1): 54-61, 2013
17 | P a g e
defects. The main goal of the framework is to help plan, control, organize and monitor
maintenance activities.
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13. Keremo, P. (2003, Aug). The national conservation programmes for national heritage in Malaysia.
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77.
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practices for conservation of heritage buildings in Malaysia. National Postgraduate Conference,
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(2011). Conservation and repair works for traditional timber mosque in malaysia: A review on
techniques. World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology, 77, 81-89.
24. Mustapa, A.H., Kamal, S.K., Mohamad A.Z., & Wahab A.L. (2007). Maintenance approach of
Historic Buildings in Malaysian Context. Journal of building engineering, 8-11.
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aspects case study of Mulong old mosque and Kelantan Islamic museum, Kota Bharu, Kelantan.
Unpublished master’s thesis, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Selangor.
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26. Tharazi, M.I. (2011). Museum and monument: a study on the architectural features of heritage
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©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 1 (1): 20-36, 2013
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Research Article
Selection and Use of Sawn- Structural
Timber in Akwa Ibom State
Nsikak Ulaeto
1, Joseph Uyanga
1 and Luna Bassey
2
1Department of Building, University of Uyo,
2Department of Architecture,
University of Uyo
ARTICLE INFO
Article history Received: 27/11/2012
Accepted: 25/1/2013
A b s t r a c t
The introduction of new timber species and a lack of appropriate grading
criteria for sawn structural timber in the Akwa Ibom state construction sector raise doubts on the integrity of timber structures built. Hence, an assessment of
selection factors and levels of use of sawn-timber species available for
structural purposes in the Akwa Ibom construction sector, with a view to
ascertaining their credibleness. Research objectives included; identification of
sawn- timber species and assessment of level of use of sawn- timber species
for particular structural purposes. A survey design approach was adopted using
a purposive sampling technique. The study covered five major local
government areas and a total of eight timber markets. The level of importance
of selected factors and purposes of use were measured based on the five point
Likert scale. Data obtained were analysed using relative importance and use
index. Results showed that twenty (20) timber species were available.
Commercial factors such as long- run availability and popularity were of great
importance to timber dealers though straightness was found to be the most
important factor. Species discovered to be most significantly used for selected
structural purposes were quite adequate with the exception of Obeche, Ceiba,
Gmelina and Alstonia; in their use as props, bearers, ledgers and standards.
Most uses cited in literature were similar to findings. However, Ndunung and
Mkpenek which were both found to be significantly used for some structural
purposes had very little or no reputation in literature as sawn structural timber
species. Hence, raising concerns on the use of these species.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Selection, Use, Sawn-
Structural Timber
1. Introduction
Timber remains one of the most complex building materials by virtue of its biological nature
and the existence of diverse species. Despite the abundance of wood resources, wood has
been under utilized with a view that it is a material to be avoided due to its perceived
unreliability, variability and unknown properties (Nolan, 1994). However, timber is still
preferred for some applications when compared with plastic, metal and concrete because of
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its inherent natural properties. The following were cited by Fuwape (1998) reasons for the
preference of timber to other construction material;
• timber has high basic strength –related properties which make it adaptable for use to
withstand static loads as well as vibration and fatigue conditions,
• it also has high strength to weight ratio, therefore it can be used in cases where the
structure is large in relation to load to be carried,
• it can easily be converted into different shapes and sizes by using manual or simple
machine tools,
• it is also easily fastened together by using nails, screws, metal connectors and glues,
• it is compatible with other materials such as plastic, metal and concrete,
• it has low co-efficient of thermal and electrical conductivity,
• it is renewable and environmentally friendly and
• it has low energy requirement during conversion when compared with concrete,
plastic and metal.
Sawn timber has found significant use in building production. Goetzl and Ekstrom (2007)
cited that vast majority of wood products consumed in the United States are used in structural
applications. This represented an estimated 80 percent of the total US market for solid wood
products. Structural uses of sawn timber has been shown in literature to range from the
construction of roof trusses (Lim, Gan and Choo; 2004); lintels, columns and beams (Zziwa,
Ziraba and Mwakali; 2009); lock gates, sheet pile works, pedestrian bridges and mooring post
(Wesselink and Ravenshorst, 2008); whole building construction, hardwood flooring, decking
and structural frames (Antezana, 2007); to culverts and bridges (Ofori, Mohammed, Brentuo,
Mensah and Boamah-Tawiah; 2009). Goetzl and Ekstrom (2007) listed the United states
sawn- hardwood consumption by end-use as including building/ millwork (14.1%), crossties
(8.1%), flooring (10.5%), household furniture (11.0%), office furniture (3.3%), upholstered
furniture (3.9%), industrial uses (5.0%), cabinets (12.0%) and Pallets/ containers (32.2%).
In the Nigerian building industry, much emphasis has been placed on the use of reinforced
concrete. Structural timber is only significantly used in construction of short span roof
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trusses, low cost bridges and culverts as well as in scaffolding and formworks (Ulaeto,
Odesola and Ujene;2013).
Bowyer, Shmulsky and Haygreen (2003); and Ishengoma, Gillah, Amartey and Kitojo (2004)
cited that in timber utilization one should recognise that the properties of timber vary with
species, age, site and environmental conditions. Ahmad, Bon and Abd Wahab (2010)
observed that the structural use of wood products requires the knowledge of physical and
mechanical properties of timber for design criteria and the lack of proper visual or
mechanical grading parameters for local timber species raises difficulty in the economic
selection of species for various applications. Hence, the selection of appropriate timber
species is an essential first step in generating fit- for- purpose timber products (National
Association of Forest Industries, 2004).
Selection of appropriate timber specie commences during design and detailing stages of
procurement. The designing Architect or Engineer specifies required strength, stiffness and
density properties of structural elements (Kohler and Sandomeer, 2007). The builder based on
designers specifications, will look for appropriate timber material at the market. His ability to
meet design and specification requirement is based on the species available.
Of three hundred timber species inventoried in the Congo Basin (Cameroun), a major source
of structural timber for the Akwa Ibom construction sector, more than a hundred were
described as capable of being used as structural wood but half were said of been exploited in
an unbalanced way (Mvogo, Ohandja, Minsili and Castera; 2011). Six of these timber species
namely Obeche (Triplochiton scleroxylon), Iroko (Chlorophora excelsa), Sapelli
(Entandrophragma cylindricum), Tali (Erythrophleum ivorense), Ekki (Lophira Alata) and
Moabi (Mimusops djave) represent nearly 84% of the yearly logging.
Sawn structural timber species available in the Akwa Ibom state construction sector
according to Ulaeto, Odesola and Ujene (2013) include Iroko, Obeche, African mahogany,
Mkpenek (Uapaca guineensis), Ekki, Eveuss, Manni, Ceiba, Tchitola and Ndunung
(Rhizophora racemosa). Tchitola, Ceiba and Ndunung were discovered to be the three most
available and demanded species.
Zziwa, Ziraba and Mwakali (2009) cited that non- traditional species such as Mpewere
(Piptadeniastrum africana) and Musambya (Markhamia lutea) were being used as roofing
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timber, ceiling materials, lintels, columns and beams. This was similar to observations made
by Ulaeto, Odesola and Ujene (2013), that species relatively unknown as structural timber in
literature were amongst the top five species available and demanded in the Akwa Ibom
construction sector. Increasing use of lesser used species streams from high cost and scarcity
of traditionally used species. The main problem in the use of wood as structural material in
Nigeria is that of inadequate supply of required timber species in some parts of the country
(Fuwape, 1998). When there have been attempts to use locally available timber for building,
little or no proof of their structural integrity was documented (Kityo and Plumptre, 1997).
The selection of sawn structural timber species should be primarily based on the properties of
such species. Zziwa, Ziraba and Mwakali (2009) cited that the selection of timber species for
structural application was generally based on availability, cost, customer’s preference,
strength and appearance, a procedure which could not adequately assess the potential quality
of timber. Majority (53%) of respondents in this study carried out by Zziwa, Ziraba and
Mwakali (2009) revealed that choice of timer species was mainly influenced by availability
and cost. Density perceived by majority of timber dealers as a strength indicator was one of
the considerations in selection of timer species for construction purposes (Zziwa, Ziraba and
Mwakali; 2009). Antezana (2007) listed a number of factors influencing the specification and
selection of new imported timber species. These included easy to machine, easy to finish,
mechanical properties, natural durability, colour, strength, texture, density, surface hardness,
stability, straightness, environmental certification, price, long-run availability, trustworthy
(suppliers), kiln dried, graded under standards, quality and known supplier. Generally,
respondents gave more importance to quality (4.7), trustworthy supplier (4.6), straightness
(4.3), stability- shrinkage/ swell (4.2), long-run availability (4.2), price (4.1) and colour (4.0);
while little importance was given to density- specific gravity (3.1), environmental
certification (3.1), strength (3.3) and surface hardness (3.3) (Antezana, 2007).
Statement of Problem
There is no clear procedure for the selection of sawn-structural timber in Akwa Ibom State
construction sector. Most building contractors purchased structural timber members based on
the recommendation of timber dealers (Ulaeto, Odesola and Ujene; 2013). Building
contractors had limited knowledge on timber as a unique construction material and customers
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were not keen on quality assurance measured, few indicated awareness of its impact on
structural integrity (Zziwa, Ziraba and Mwakali; 2009).
Where strength requirements were specified by designers, structural timber sections available
were not graded to standard. Hence, their strength classes unknown. Most often, timber
supplied comprised of mixed species which later had to be separated and identified through
unreliable means (Lim, Gan and Choo; 2004 and Ulaeto, Odesola and Ujene; 2013). Zziwa,
Ziraba and Mwakali (2009) cited that in Uganda’s building construction industry, timber of
similar nominal dimensions were applied for different structural applications regardless of the
species. Same could be said in the use of sawn- structural timber species in the Akwa Ibom
construction sector.
With the consideration of new unknown species for various structural applications, doubts
exist on the integrity of timber structures in the Akwa Ibom State construction sector.
Aim and Objectives
This research is aimed at assessing the selection and use of sawn-timber for structural
purposes in the Akwa Ibom construction sector, with a view to ascertaining their
credibleness.
To achieve this aim, the objectives are;
1 To identify the species of sawn –timber available in the Akwa Ibom construction
sector.
2 To assess the factors influencing the selection of sawn timber species for structural
uses.
3 To assess the level of use of sawn-timber species for particular structural work
purposes.
2. Methodology
A Survey Design Approach was adopted, based on a purposive non-probability sampling
technique. Primary data were obtained through observations on timber markets, personal
interviews and structured questionnaires. Secondary data were obtained from a detailed
literature review of the study area as published in journals, textbooks, conference proceedings
or reports, unpublished theses, technical reports and timber data files.
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Akwa Ibom state is located on the south- southern part of Nigeria (figure 1). It lies between
latitudes 4o32
I and 5
o33
I North and longitudes 7
o25
I and 8
o25
I East. Akwa Ibom state has a
total population of 3,920,208 and a land area of 6,900 square kilometres (AKSGonline,
2011). It is bordered on the East by Cross River state, on the West by Rivers state and Abia
state; and on the South by the Atlantic ocean. It comprises of thirty-one Local Government
Areas, the majors being Uyo (the state capital), Eket, Ikot Ekpene, Abak, Ikot Abasi and
Oron (AKSGonline, 2011).
Population of study covered timber dealers in timber markets of Akwa Ibom state. The
sample population was limited to timber dealers operating on timber markets in five major
Local Government Areas of Akwa Ibom State. These were Uyo, Ikot Ekpene, Eket, Abak and
Oron Local Government Areas (figure 2). Uyo has two timber markets (Itam and Ifa timber
markets) while Ikot Ekpene has three (Utu, Ikono road and Essiene town timber markets).
Each selected Local Government Area having at least a timber market. These Local
Government Areas account for the highest levels of construction works in the state. A total of
eight timber markets were studied.
At the timber markets, observations and interviews were carried out over a period of one
month. Interviews were of the direct personal investigation form aimed at understanding
individual market characteristics as well as the timber species available. A total of twenty
timber dealers specializing in the sales of sawn- structural timber were interviewed. Each had
a minimum of five years experience and an appreciable sales volume.
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Figure 1: Location of Akwa Ibom State Figure 2: Study Local Government
In Nigeria Areas
Source: AKSGonline (2011) Source: Researcher’s Drawing
Sixty structured questionnaires were developed based on findings from the review of
literature, observations and personal interviews. Of sixty questionnaire distributed, fifty were
returned. Questionnaires comprised of nine sections. Section one made enquires on
respondents’ specialization and experience. Section two emphasised on respondent’s
assessment of factors important in specification and selection of sawn structural timber
species for structural use. Factors considered were based on literature. They included easy to
machine, easy to finish, natural durability, strength properties, appearance, colour, density,
texture, surface hardness, stability, straightness, environmental certification, price, long-run
availability, popularity, trustworthy (supplier), kiln-dried, grade under standards and others.
Quality a major factor in Antezana (2007) was not considered due to it vague definition and
its ability to be measured using other factors considered. Section three to nine emphasised on
respondent’s assessment of level of use of sawn timber species for particular structural
purposes. Structural purposes included; use for purlins and noggins; use for rafters, wall
plates and tie beams; use for props, bearers, ledgers and standards; use for decking panels;
and use in timber bridges and culverts. Level of importance and use were assessed based on
ABAK
UYO
ORON
EKET
IKOT EKPENE
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the five point Likert scale and data obtained analysed using relative importance and use
index.
3. Results
Timber Species Available
Results of interviews and observations showed that twenty (20) timber species were available
as sawn- timber in Akwa Ibom state timber markets (Table 1). Their use and level of use for
particular structural purposes were not ascertained. Species such as Ebony, Abura and Sida
though available were believed to be more relevant in upholstery but not in the production of
structural elements. Hence, the need to ascertain use of sawn timber species available for
particular structural purposes. Ulaeto, Odesola and Ujene (2013) through interviews and
observations noted that eleven (11) timber species were available for structural purposes in
Akwa Ibom construction sector. All eleven structural timber species cited by Ulaeto, Odesola
and Ujene (2013) were found to be available at timber markets. Most having been cited as
species available for construction purposes in tropical African countries ( Zziwa, Ziraba and
Mwakali; 2009 and Mvogo, Ohandja, Minsili and Castera; 2011).
In timber markets, sawn timber sections were arranged based on their work purposes. This is
as cited in Ulaeto, Odesola and Ujene (2013). Noggins and purlins were of 2x2 and 2x3
(inches) sections respectively. Wall plates, rafters, struts, ties and tie- beams were available in
2x4 and 2x6 (inches) sections. Props and Bearers were of 2x4 and 3x3 (inches) sections.
Planks were available in 1x12 and 2x12 (inches) sections. Some hardwood species were also
available in large sections such as 4x6 and 3x9 (inches). These various sections were of either
12 feet (3600mm) or 18 feet (5400mm) lengths. The species been selected by timber dealers.
TABLE 1: Timber Species Available for Construction Purposes
S/no Local name Trade name Botanical name
1 Ofriyo Iroko Chlorophora excelsa
2 Obeche Obeche Triplochiton scleroxylon
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3 Mahogany African Mahogany Khaya ivorensis
4 Mkpenek - Uapaca guineensis
5 Owen Abura Mitragyna ciliate
6 Ebony Ebony Diospyros dendron
7 Anwanaka Ekki Lophira alata
8 Uyo ekpo Eveuss Klainedoxa gabonensis
9 Efiat ndua Manni Symphonia globuiifera
10 Ukpah Padauk Pterocarpus soyauxii
11 Ukpo Alstonia Alstonia boonei
12 Gmelina Gmelina Gmelina aborea
13 Sida African walnut Lovoa trichilioides
14 Ukim Ceiba Ceiba pentandra
15 Ebebit Moabi Mimusops djave
16 Ntufiak Tchitola Oxystigma manni
17 Ndunung - Rhizophora racemosa
18 Ukong Dahoma Piptedeniastrum afrianum
19 Enoi Poga Poga oleosa
20 Uno idem Pycnanthus Pycnanthus angolensis
Source: Cirad (2011)
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TABLE 2: Importance of Factors in Specification and Selection of Sawn Structural Timber
Species
S/no Factors Mean Rank Remark
1 Easy to machine 4.68 5.00 5th
2 Easy to finish 4.52 10.50 10th
3 Natural durability 4.76 3.50 3rd
4 Strength properties 4.64 6.00 6th
5 Appearance 4.48 12.50 12th
6 Colour 4.40 14.50 14th
7 Density 4.56 8.50 8th
8 Texture 4.48 12.50 12th
9 Surface hardness 4.56 8.50 8th
10 Stability 4.40 14.50 14th
11 Straightness 4.84 1.00 1st
12 Environmental certification 4.16 16.00 16th
13 Price 4.60 7.00 7th
14 Long-run availability 4.80 2.00 2nd
15 Popularity 4.76 3.50 3rd
16 Trustworthy (supplier) 4.52 10.50 10th
17 Kiln-dried 3.88 18.00 18th
18 Grade under standards 3.92 17.00 17th
19 Others 1.92 19.00 19th
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Factors Important In the Specification and Selection of Sawn Structural Timber Species:
Results showed that all factors listed were of significant importance in the specification and
selection of sawn structural timber species (Table 2). Straightness was found to be the most
important factor. The second being long- run availability with natural durability and
popularity coming third. Results of data analyses were similar to those of Zziwa, Ziraba and
Mwakali (2009) where availability, cost, customer’s preference, strength and appearance
were the major bases for selection of timber species for structural applications. Similarly;
straightness, long- run availability and price were highly ranked by the study amongst the
factors considered more important to respondents in Antezana (2007).
Appearance which came fourth in Zziwa, Ziraba and Mwakali (2009) was ranked 12th in the
study, although straightness ranking first could possibly have been considered under
appearance. Strength was ranked sixth in the study but third in Zziwa, Ziraba and Mwakali
(2009) and sixteenth in Antezana (2007). Strength, straightness and natural durability which
are very important factors for the specification and selection of materials for structural
elements faired considerably. Straightness is important when considering eccentricity on
axially loaded members under compression.
Level of Use of Sawn Timber Species as Purlins And Noggings
In the construction of purlins and noggins, emphasis is made to ease of work as well as
strength. This is important so as to reduce damages to brittle finishes such as ceramic based
ceilings and roofing sheets. Timber members should be capable of supporting these
components, wind loads, weight of work- men and fittings. Hence, little surprise why
Tchitola is ranked first and Mkpenek second with means of 4.68 and 4.64 respectively. Only
eight of the twenty species were found to be significant for this use. Others included Poga
(4.04), Dahoma (3.8), Ebony (3.62), Mani (3.44), Alstonia (3.44), Ekki (3.38). Mkpenek
being ranked second was in conformity with Ulaeto, Odesola and Ujene (2013), who cited
that it was significantly used in the construction of purlins and noggins in the Akwa Ibom
construction sector. Zziwa, Ziraba and Mwakali (2009) and Ulaeto, Odesola and Ujene
Source: Results from Analyses
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(2013) considered Mkpenek as a timber specie new to the international timber market. Ebony
being found significantly used for this purpose is surprising since it is commonly known for
its application is upholstery.
Level of Use of Sawn Timber Species as Rafters, Wall Plates and Tie Beams
Eleven timber species were found to be significant for use as rafters, wall plates and tie
beams, of the twenty timber species. Ndunung was ranked first (4.60), Ekki second (4.54),
Padauk (4.48), Eveuss (4.44), Mkpenek (4.38), Mani (4.32), Abura (4.08), Gmelina (3.82),
Dahoma (3.32), Tchitola (3.24) and Iroko (3.12). This timber species are amongst the
strongest in flexure, compression and tension. Eveuss possesses the highest strength in static
bending (168MPA) and Ekki possesses the highest strength in compression (96MPA) (Cirad,
2012). Obeche which is ranked eighteenth and not significant possesses strength of 52MPA
and 30MPA in static bending and compression, respectively (Ulaeto, Odesola and Ujene;
2013). Hence, there seemed to be a correlation between strength and choice of timber species
for these work purposes. However, timber dealers assume strength of these species based on
their perceived weight and hardness. Not through any standard test procedure. Ekki and
Eveuss were both cited by Cirad (2012) as species whose main known end use included wood
frame house, heavy carpentry, stairs, industrial or heavy flooring, etc. Ndunung which is
ranked first has very little or no recognition in literature as structural timber. Atheull, Din,
Longonje, Koedam and Dahdouh-Guebas (2009) cited that though many small timbers of
Ndunung, often used as building materials were also found in the local markets; it was
heavily harvested because of its availability, dominance and suitability for making firewood
and charcoal.
Level of Use of Sawn Timber Species as Props, Bearers, Ledgers and Standards
Twelve timber species were found to be significant for use as props, bearers, ledgers and
standards. They were Tchitola (4.66), Obeche (4.34), Ceiba (4.32), Uno idem (3.64), Poga
(3.58), Gmelina (3.52), Ndunung (3.38), Alstonia (3.32), Mkpenek (3.30), Mahogany (3.24),
Eveuss (3.20), Mani (3.06). Easy of work (or machine) seems to be a major factor influencing
the selection of species for this use. It is not a surprise since scaffolding and formwork
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members require frequent erection and dismantling. However, the strength requirement for
timber species used for these purpose should not be compromised. These formwork and
scaffold members bear the dead weight of structural elements, work personnel or equipments
they support. The strength values of species such as Obeche, Ceiba. Poga, Gmelina and
Alstonia make them unsuitable for these structural applications. Cirad (2012) cited Tchitola
and Poga as timber species whose main known end-uses include construction of light
carpentry, wood frame house and formwork. Obeche, Ceiba, Gmelina and Alstonia were not
cited for this end-use.
Level of Use of Sawn Timber Species in Decking Panels
Four timber species were significant for use as decking panels. Ceiba (4.68), Obeche (4.56),
Alstonia (4.54) and Pycnanthus (4.52). There was no surprise that only softwood species
were considered for this work purpose. These species are mostly available in one inch by one
foot (12inches) planck sections, specifically for this posses. Obeche and Ceiba were cited by
Cirad (2012) as timber species whose main known end-use includes moulding.
Level of Use of Sawn Timber Species in Timber Bridges and Culverts
Five timber species were found significant for use in timber bridges and culverts. Ekki (4.33),
Eveuss (4.29), Moabi (4.26) and Dahoma (3.72). These species are quite suitable for this use.
Ulaeto, Odesola and Ujene (2013) showed Ekki, Eveuss and Moabi to be the strongest of the
sawn timber species available in the Akwa Ibom construction sector. They are also amongst
the most durable. Cirad (2011) cited Ekki, Eveuss and Moabi as timber species whose main
known end-uses include industrial or heavy flooring, heavy carpentry, bridges (parts in
contact with water or ground) and bridges (parts not in contact with water or ground).
6. Conclusions
This research was aimed at assessing specification and use of sawn-timber for structural
purposes in Akwa Ibom construction sector, with a view to ascertaining their credibleness.
Twenty timber species available in timber markets provide an adequate variety for
specification, selection and use of sawn timber for various structural purposes. Basic factors
Nsikak U. / Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability (JASES)1 (1): 54-61, 2013
33 | P a g e
such as strength, natural durability, straightness and ease of machine; were found significant
and of immense importance in the specification and selection of sawn timber species for
structural purposes. Commercial factors such as long –run availability and popularity were
also of great importance to timber dealers. These show that timber dealers have a good
understanding of the essential factors necessary in specification and selection of sawn timber
species for structural purposes. Species discovered to be most significantly used for selected
structural purposes were quite adequate with the exception of Obeche, Ceiba, Gmelina and
Alstonia; in their use as props, bearers, ledgers and standards. Most uses cited in literature
were similar to findings. However, Ndunung and Mkpenek which were both found to be
significantly used for some structural purposes had very little or no reputation in literature as
sawn structural timber species. Hence, raising some concerns on the use of these species.
Hence, the use of species such as Obeche, Ceiba, Gmelina and Alstonia should be
discouraged for use as props, bearers, ledgers and standards. Also studies should be carried
out to ascertain the suitability and sustainability of species such as Ndunung and Mkpenek for
their respective uses.
References
1. Ahmad, Z., Bon, Y., and Wahab, E. (2010). Tensile Strength Properties of Tropical Hardwoods in
Structural Size Testing. International Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 10(03): 1-6.
2. AKSGonline (2011). About Akwa Ibom State: The Land of Promise.
http://www.aksgonline.com/About.aspx.
3. Antezana, V. (2007). Introducing Lesser-Known Wood Species from Certified Forests in Bolivia
to the U.S. Market. Unpubl. M.Sc. Thesis, Department of Wood Science and Forest Products.
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia, USA.
4. Atheull, A., Din, N., Longonje, S., Koedam, N., and Dahdouh-Guebas F. (2009). Commercial
activities and subsistence utilization of mangrove forests around the Wouri estuary and the
Douala-Edea reserve (Cameroon). Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 5:35.
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5. Bowyer, J., Shmulsky, R. and Haygreen J. (2003). An Introduction. Forest Products and Wood
Science. Fourth Edition. Iowa State Press, ISBN-10: 0813826543.
6. Cirad (2011). Tropix 7: Technology Characteristics of 245 Tropical and Temperate Species.
http://tropix.cirad.fr/africa/africa.html
7. Fuwape, J. (1998). Wood Utilization from Cradle to the Grave. Proc. 25th Inaugural Lecture of
the Federal University of Technology Akure, (1-32).
8. Goetzl, A. and Ekstrom, H. (2007). Report on the Review of the US Market for Tropical Timber
Products. Report on Fortieth Session of the International Tropical Timber Council. 7-12 May.
Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea.
9. Ishengoma, R., Gillah, P., Amartey, S. and Kitojo, D. (2004). Physical, mechanical and natural
decay resistance properties of lesser known and lesser utilized Diospyros mespiliformis,
Tyrachylobium verrucosum and Newtonia paucijuga timber species from Tanzania. Holz als Roh-
und Werkstoff Springer Berlin/Heidelberg. Issue: Volume 62, Number 5; 387–389.
10. Kityo, P. and Plumptre, R. (1997). The Uganda Timber User’s Handbook, a Guide to Better
Timber Use. Common Wealth Secretariat, London.
11. Kohler, J. and Sandomeer, M. (2007). Modelling the Properties of Strength Graded Timber
Material. Proc. Cost E 53 Conference – Quality Control for Wood and Wood Products. 15-17
October 2007. Warsaw, Poland. Pp69-74.
12. Lim, S., Gan, S., and Choo, K. (2004). Identification and Utilization of Lesser-known
Commercial Timbers in Peninsular Malaysia 1: Ara, Bangkal, Bebusok and Bekoi. Timber
Technology Bulletin, (29), Kuala Lumpur.
13. Mvogo, K., Ohandja, A., Minsili, S. and Castera, P. (2011). Mechanical Grading of Structural
Timber and Species Conservation in the Forest of the Congo Basin. African Journal of
Environmental Science and Technology, 5(2): 111-125.
14. Nagubadi, V. and Munn, I. (1999). An Econometric Study of the Hardwood Stumpage Market in
the South Central U.S. In Abt. K.L, and R.C. Abt. (eds.). Proc. of the Southern Forest Economics
Workshop. Pp185- 190.
15. National Association of Forest Industries (2004). Timber Species and Properties. NAFI Timber
Manual Datafile P1, Australia, 18pp.
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16. Nolan, G., (1994). The Culture of Using Timber as a Building Material in Australia. Proc. of the
Timber Engineering Conference. Department of Architecture, University of Tasmania.
17. Ofori, J., Mohammed, A., Brentuo, B., Mensah, M. and Boamah-Tawiah, R. (2009). Properties of
10 Ghanaian High Density Lesser-Used-Species of Importance to Bridge Construction-Part 2:
Mechanical Strength Properties. Ghana Journal of Forestry, 25: 78-92.
18. Wesselink, A. and Ravenshorst, G., (2008). Application and Quality Requirements for (tropical)
Hardwoods. Proceedings Conference COST E53. 29-30 October 2008. Delft, Netherlands. Pp.31-
39.
19. Ulaeto, N., Odesola, I. and Ujene A. (2013). Availability and Demand of Sawn Structural Timber
in Akwa Ibom State. Global Journal of Environmental Studies, 12(1&2).
20. Zziwa, A., Ziraba, Y. and Mwakali, J. (2009). Timber Use Practices in Uganda’s Building
Construction Industry: Current Situation and Future Propects. Journal of the Institute of Wood
Science, 19: 48-53.
21. Zziwa, A., Ziraba, Y. and Mwakali, J. (2009). Timber Use Practices in Uganda’s Building
Construction Industry: Current Situation and Future Propects. Journal of the Institute of Wood
Science, 19: 48-53.
Biographical Statement of the Author
Ulaeto, Nsikak William is a Lecturer in the Department of Building, University of Uyo. With a
Bachelor of Science degree in Building (University of Uyo), Master of Science in Structural
Engineering (University of Surrey) and a member of the Nigerian Institute of Building; Nsikak is
pursuing a research career in the area of materials and structures. Areas of research interest include
Strut and Tie Modelling of Reinforce Concrete structures, Finite Element Analysis, Explosion
Response of Reinforced Concrete Structures and Structural Timber Design. An interest in timber was
inspired by its diversity in species, variability in properties and the lack of attention paid to these in
the design of building and civil structures in developing countries.
http://www.uniuyo.edu.ng/.php
Uyanga, Joseph Theophilus is a Professor of Environmental Management and current Head of
Department, Department of Building, University of Uyo, Uyo, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria formerly of
Federal University of Technology, Yola, Adamawa State. He obtained his Ph.D degree from Flinders
University of South Australia, Australia. He belongs to several learned and professional bodies such
Nsikak U. / Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability (JASES)1 (1): 54-61, 2013
36 | P a g e
as Australian Geographical Association; Nigerian Geographical Association; Population Reference
Bureau, USA; Rivers State Association of Planners; African Studies Association, USA; Royal
Australian Planning Institute; African Association of Social Science and medicine; International
Union for Scientific Study for Population; Population Association of Nigeria; Nigerian Environmental
Society and institute of Management. He is the Editorial Consultants to the following journals,
Indonesian Journal of Tropical Geography, Singapore, Journal of Scientific and Scholarly Research,
Langston University, Oklahoma. He is the Consulting Editor of the contemporary Who’s Who of the
American Biographical Institute. Professor Uyanga, an internationally renowned researcher, has
carried out several internationally funded research projects by the Canadian International
Development Research Council, The Rockerfeller Foundation, the United Nations Fund for
Population Activities and the Union for African Population Studies. An astute teacher and prolific
writer, he has over twenty Masters and Ph.D Students under his supervision. He has published six
books, fifteen chapters in books and forty-five articles in national and international journals and
thirty-three conference papers.
http://www.icidr.org/Professor_Joseph_Uyanga.php
http://www.uniuyo.edu.ng/urban.php
Bassey, Luna Edidem is a Senior Lecturer and former Head, Department of Architecture, University
of Uyo, Uyo. With a MSc (Calabar) and a PhD (Moscow) in Architecture, he has taken particular
interest in Housing, materials specification and new materials.
http://www.uniuyo.edu.ng/arc.php
Permanent Contact Address: Department of Building, University of Uyo, PMB 1017 Uyo, Akwa
Ibom State, Nigeria. E-mail: nsikakulaeto@uniuyo.edu.ng
Current Contact Address: Department of Civil Engineering, University of Surrey. 28 Hamilton Drive,
Hazel Farm, Guildford, Surrey, United Kingdom. GU2 9PL.
©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 1 (1): 37-44, 2013
37 | P a g e
Research Article
Accelerated Factors of Delays on Project Delivery in Ghana:
A Case Study of Cape Coast Metropolis
Zakari Mustapha
Department of Building Technology,School of Engineering,
Cape Coast Polytechnic, P.O. Box AD. 50, Cape Coast. Ghana
*Corresponding Author: Phone: +00233268333033;
E-mail: zakariyamustapha@yahoo.co.uk
ARTICLE INFO
Article history Received: 12/12/2012
Accepted: 17/12/2012
A b s t r a c t
The most common, costly, complex and risky problem encountered in
construction projects is delay. The overriding importance of time for both the
owner (in terms of performance) and the contractor (in terms of money), is the source of frequent disputes and claims leading to lawsuits. The aim of the
study was to examine the factors that contribute to delay in building projects
delivery. Questionnaires and interview were used to collect the data for the
study. Construction-related delays were found to be the factors of delay on
project delivery in the construction industry. The ten most critical causes of
delays need to be observed critically in order to minimize them. It will also
enable projects to be completed as schedule to avoid any dispute or damages
among parties
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
Keywords: construction industry, Cape
Coast Metropolis, delays in
project, project delivery
1. Introduction
The economy of Ghana has been growing rapidly and becoming one of the countries with
highest growth rate in the West Africa sub-region. Construction industry has grown rapidly
while project management could not meet requirement of construction industry as indicated
by [1].Completion time is extremely important in construction projects and must be made a
priority. Timely completion of projects should be a major consideration when implementing
policies, management procedures, and specifications. Execution time is one of the
performance measures of construction projects, which are time, cost, and quality. Project
success is measured by the measures that show the performance of the construction parties
involved, mainly the owner and the contractor. The entire parties look for project completion
Mustapha Z. / Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability (JASES)1 (1): 54-61, 2013
38 | P a g e
by a specified time, in the most economical manner, with the required quality [5]. Questions
arise as to the causes of delay and the assigning of fault often evolves into disputes and
litigation. Today, many stakeholders in construction are becoming increasingly concerned
about the duration of construction projects because of increasing interest rates, inflation,
commercial pressures and of course, its potential to result in disputes and claims leading to
arbitration or litigation [2].
2. Statement of the Problem
Many construction firms in Ghana have experienced delays in the construction projects.
Delays on construction projects are usually accompanied by cost and time overruns and has a
debilitating effect on parties (owner, contractor, and consultant) to a contract in terms of a
growth in adversarial relationships, distrust, litigation, arbitration, cash-flow problems, and a
general feeling of apprehension towards each other. The clients, consultants and the
contractor shift blames from one person to the other when delay occurs. This investigation
was carried out to determine the factors responsible for delays and its effects in completion of
building construction projects in Cape Coast Metropolis.
3. Aim and Objectives of the Study
The study aimed to examine the major factors that contribute to delay in building projects.
The following objectives were used to achieve the aim of the study.
i. To identify the major factors that lead to project delays in project delivery
ii. To make recommendations to help minimize delays in the building Industry.
4. Literature Review
Delay involves multiple complex issues all of which are invariably of critical importance to
the parties to the construction contract. Delay in construction is a global phenomenon
affecting not only the construction industry but the overall economy of countries as well. It is
found in practice that not everything in the contract can be taken at face value and applied in
cookbook fashion. Circumstances play a great deal in determining which clause(s) will be
Mustapha Z. / Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability (JASES)1 (1): 54-61, 2013
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applied to a particular delay claim. In addition, contract law encompasses concepts of
reasonableness and fair dealing, implied obligations and warranties, constructive acceleration,
etc. A good general understanding of the principles involved and the operation of the
applicable clauses are essential to help make appropriate decisions and take the proper action
in those delay situations. Minor delays are generally overlooked until their cumulative effect
becomes financially apparent. By the time a Contractor recognizes that there is a problem,
many different parties and natural forces would have contributed to the situation. Failure to
comply with the notice requirements can contribute to the situation that may or may not
defeat the claim. This process has thoroughly explained by [4].
Causes of Building Projects Delays in Ghana
According to [2], delays in construction are caused by several factors and are grouped into
two categories – internal causes and external causes. Internal causes arise from the parties to
the contract (e.g. contractor, client, and consultant). External causes, on the other hand, arise
from events beyond the control of the parties. These include the acts of God, government
action, and material suppliers. Examples of the factors leading to the causes of delays in the
construction industry are grouped into nine major areas and they are as follows: Material,
Manpower, Financial, Equipment, Environmental, Changes, Government action Contractual
relations and Scheduling and control techniques.
4. Methodology
Interviews and questionnaire were employed in the study. The interview was on one-to –one
basis on the selected members or directors from the organizations. The interview was
conducted alongside the prepared questionnaires in order to avoid any possible lapses. The
questionnaires were administered to the various parties (Clients, Consultants, and
Contractors) undertaking building projects in the Cape Coast Metropolis. Three groups were
covered under study population. This includes all building contractors currently undertaken
project in the metropolis. The 32 personnel were made up of eleven (11) clients, six (6)
consultants and fifteen (15) contractors. The sampling technique used was census because
few building contractors operate in Cape Coast Metropolis. Descriptive statistics was used to
analyse the data collected. The data was scaled from the lowest to the highest (1-5) and
Mustapha Z. / Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability (JASES)1 (1): 54-61, 2013
40 | P a g e
calculated using Relative Index (RI) formula. This technique was used in a similar context of
application by [3 . The results were ranked and presented in the form of tables, histogram,
and pie charts. Data was collected between March, 2012 and May, 2011.
5. Results
Out of the 32 questionnaires administered, 25 questionnaires were returned representing
78.13%. The response rate of the questionnaire is shown in table 1.
Table 1 Questionnaire response rate
Respondents Questionnaire distributed Questionnaire
returned
Percentage of responses
Client 11 8 32%
Contractors 15 12 48%
Consultants 6 5 20%
Total 32 25 100%
Table 2. Ten (10) factors of construction delays in the Metropolis
TOP TEN FACTORS OF DELAYS IN THE METROPOLIS RI RANK
Delay in honouring payment certificates 0.832 1st
Delay by sub-contractors 0.704 2nd
Fluctuation of prices 0.688 3rd
Difficulty in accessing Bank credit 0.669 4th
Client initiated variations 0.632 5th
Delay in instructions from consultants 0.632 5th
Necessary variations 0.600 7th
Underestimation of time for completion by contractors 0.600
7th
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Bad weather conditions 0.584 9th
Late deliveries of materials 0.584 9th
Total 6.525
Delay by sub- contractor, late deliveries of materials are the most common in this stage with
RI of scoring 0.704 and 0.584 respectively which form part of the top ten and first in the
categories groupings having a total RI of 5.064 as indicated in table 2 and figure 2. The
factors which had higher Relative Index (RI) ranging from 0.584 to 0.832 were selected as
the top ten (10) main factors that cause delays in Construction Industry in Cape Coast
Metropolis and are ranked from the highest to the lowest (Table 2). Since client initiated
variations and delay in instructions from consultants had the same RI, there is number 6th
position in the ranking and as also, necessary variation and underestimation of time for
completion by contractors had the same RI there is no 8th position, and also in the case of
bad weather conditions and late deliveries of materials there is no 10th position in the top ten
(10) main factors of construction delays in the Metropolis as indicated in table 2.
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42 | P a g e
In general, the delays factors with a score ranging from 0.584 to 0.832 were selected and
categorised under the top ten causes of delays in the Cape Coast Metropolis. Under the
opinion and perception shared by the parties (Clients, Consultants and Contractors) regarding
delay issues in Cape Coast Metropolis.
6. Conclusions
Construction-related delays were found to be the accelerated factors of delay on project
delivery in the construction industry. The ten most critical causes of delays that affect the
construction industry need to be observed critically in order to minimize them in the building
construction industry. This will enable projects to be completed as schedule to avoid any
dispute or damages among parties.
7. Recommendations
It was concluded that
1. Payment of certificate should be honored on time to enhance financing of the project.
Figure 1 : Top ten causes of delays
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43 | P a g e
2. Variation orders should be minimized as much as practicable and be early enough
during construction.
3. Mobilization fees should be paid on time to boost the cash flow of contractors.
4. Management should assign responsibilities as soon as contract is awarded in order to
meet project completion time
Mustapha Z. / Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability (JASES)1 (1): 54-61, 2013
44 | P a g e
References
1. Dzifa, E.T, and N.A. Ayeley, 2010. Ghana to become fastest growing economy in sub-Sahara
Africa. The Ghanaian Times.Friday 14, p 26.
2. Fugar, F.D.K. and Agyakwah-Baah, A. B. (2010).Delays in Building Construction Projects in
Ghana. Department of Building Technology,
KNUST,Kumasi,Ghana.Availableat:http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/ojs/index.php/AJCEB/article/viewArti
cle/1592.(accessed March 18 2010).
3. Naoum, S. G., 1999. Dissertation Research and Writing for Construction Students. United States of
America : Butterworth-Heinemann.
4. Syed, A. M., Azhar, S., Kappagantula, P. and D. Gollapudi, 2003. Delays in Construction: A Brief
Study of the Florida Construction Industry. Department of Construction Management, Florida
International University,
Miami,UnitedStatesofAmerica.Availableat:www.cm.fiu.edu/pdfs/Research_Reports/Delays_Project(a
ccessed January 8 2011).
5. Trauner, T.J., 2009. Construction delays: documentation causes, winning claims, and recovering
cost (2nd ed). Burlington, United States of America: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann Publications.
Available at :http://books.google.com.gh/books?id=oaxtvyysljkc(accessed December 7 2010).
Biographical Statement of the Author
The author, Zakari Mustapha, is a lecturer at Cape Coast Polytechnic, Cape Coast/ Ghana. He had his
secondary school education in Ghana. After his secondary education, he went to Nigeria were he
obtained his first degree in Construction Technology, Postgraduate Diploma in Environmental
Management and masters degree in Land Resources and Administration.He has been with Cape Coast
Polytechnic as a lecturer for ten years.
Email: zakariyamustapha@yahoo.co.uk
P.O.Box AD. 588, Cape Coast. Ghana
©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 1 (1): 45-54, 2013
45 | P a g e
Research Article
Labour Output of Steel Fixers in Selected Building Construction Sites In
Malaysia
Oko John Ameh Department of Building, University of Lagos, Nigeria
ARTICLE INFO
Article history Received: 10/11/2012
Accepted: 31/01/2013
A b s t r a c t
This study investigates labour output of steel fixers in in-situ concrete storey building construction on selected sites in Lagos state. The main aim of the study is to aid the estimation of labour cost of steel works in reinforced concrete construction and to provide information for planning and schedule of work. Data were collected from twenty (20) construction sites through work study and activity sampling. The investigation reveals that a proficient steel fixer, averagely motivated is capable of cutting and bending one tonne of steel using simple hand tools for beams, columns, stairs and floor slabs in 41.58 hours, 24.10 hours, 25.06 hours and 27.05 hours respectively. He is also capable of tying one tonne of steel rods into the same structural elements aforementioned in 67.70 hours, 35.20 hours, 25.10 hours and 45.60 hours respectively. Furthermore, steel fixers use 75.1% of their working time effectively while 24.9% of same is used ineffectively. It is recommended that labour output obtained in this study be adapted as local substitute for the British Standard labour rate currently in use.
© Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Building construction, Labour
output, Steel fixers, work
study, Nigeria;
1. Background of the Study
Productivity is commonly defined as a ratio between an output value and an input value used
to produce the output. Output consists of products or services and input consists of materials,
labour, capital, energy, etc. There is nothing as dangerous to an economy as a decrease in
productivities because it creates inflationary pressure, social conflict, and mutual suspicion
(Drucker, 1980). There are diverse reasons for embarking on productivity studies in the
construction industry. First, it may be for detailed estimating and project scheduling, which
measures the input as labour hours and the output as installed quantities (Dozzi and
AbouRizk 1993). Second, productivity may be measured to identify industry trends and to
allow performance comparisons with other industry sectors (BFC 2006) and third, Company-
level or project-level productivity measurement provides internal and external benchmarks
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46 | P a g e
for comparison with company or project norms (Park et al. 2005; Ellis and Lee 2006). Jarkas
(2010) argued that, since construction is a labour-intensive industry, manpower is the only
productive resource, thus construction productivity is mainly dependent on human effort and
performance. In most countries, construction labour cost comprises 30% – 50% of the overall
project’s cost (Jarkas et al, 2012). Over the years, consultants and contractors relies on
personal judgment and productivity data based on craftsmen output in the UK for labour cost
estimate of civil and building works in Nigeria (Ayeni, 1992 p12). This is not only
misleading but a contentious issue in view of the fact that, the construction industry of most
developing countries still maintains a low level of mechanization on the construction sites,
and at the same time, factors that influence labour productivity varies from one country to
another. Besides, productivity data used over time were rarely amended or revised and hence
subject to considerable uncertainty. Earlier studies revealed that outputs of labour in the
Nigeria construction industry are much lower than those of their counterparts in the United
States of America and United Kingdom (Ayandele, 1997). In specific terms Edmond (1974)
reported an output of 2.93 and 4.18 square metre per man-day for formwork to soffits and
walls respectively in Nigeria as against output of 10.87 and 13.38 square metre respectively
for the same activity in United Kingdom. In Wahab's study, it was shown that the man-days
per square metre in Nigeria varied from 6.44 to 16.78 as against 2.33 for U.K, 3.28 for
Ireland and 1.53 for USA.
The steel fixer is one who specializes in the cutting, bending and fixing of steel reinforcement
into forms and in accordance to specification. Reinforcement fixing is highly labour intensive
and time consuming. The cost of the rebar trade is approximately one third of the overall cost
of the reinforced concrete frame (Illingworth, 2000), of which the cost of labour comprises
approximately 30%. The fixing operation in beams is associated with added difficulty
because of the space confinement of formwork moulds in which reinforcement is fixed, and
the variability of reinforcing bar diameters, locations and details. However, for structural
elements such as foundations, slabs, and to a large extent columns and walls, the fixing
operation takes place in a relatively open and accessible space, thus for an approximately
equal quantity of reinforcement, it is usually characterized by smaller gang sizes and shorter
duration. In view of the absence of a local standard for measuring the outputs of steel fixers,
Oko A. / Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability (JASES)1 (1): 54-61, 2013
47 | P a g e
the focus of this study is to determine the output of steel fixers in cutting, bending and
placing reinforcing bars into structural elements (beams, column, floor slabs and stair) and to
determine the percentage of time spent productively on site. The value of this research is that,
apart from its usefulness in preliminary advice to the client and in preparation of labour
estimate for steel fixers based on Nigerian craftsmen capacity, it will be useful to the
contractors when decision regarding the adequacy of crew size and award of bonus incentives
scheme to deserving workers that put in work in excess of the set standard has to be taken. It
will also enable the planning engineer to maintain basic productivity rate and likewise
enhance the assessment of sub-contractors nationally.
2. Literature Review
Labour productivity is influenced by various factors present at the project site. These factors
are very difficult to consider during the measurement and estimation of production rates
because of its variable nature and uniqueness of every project. Ameh and Odusami (2002)
identified low wages, lack of materials and unfriendly working atmosphere as having key
impact on productivity of craftsmen involved in in-situ concrete operation in single storey
building projects in Nigeria. Makulsawatudom et al. (2004) established 10 most significant
factors affecting construction productivity in Thailand and they include lack of materials,
incomplete drawings, incompetent supervisors, lack of tools and equipment, absenteeism,
poor communication, instruction time, poor site layout, inspection delay and rework.
Enshassi et al.’s (2007) study in the Gaza Strip identified the five most important factors that
impact negatively on labour productivity as material shortages, lack of experience of labour,
lack of labour surveillance, and alteration of drawings/specification during execution. The
major categories of factors in Dai et al.’s (2009) study of craft workers perception of 83
factors that affect their productivity in the US revolve around availability of tools and
consumables, materials, construction equipment and engineering drawing management.
Reinforcement in concrete may be steel bars or mesh fabric. The steel bars are usually
classified or manufactured on account of their strength as:
* Mild steel, which is usually round in section and plain, but could be deformed.
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* High yield which is usually deformed.
High yield bars are almost twice as strong as mild steel for the same diameter. This factor
enables designers to achieve reduction in the overall sectional area of steel reinforcement in
concrete by using high yield rod. Reinforcing bars are rolled in ten standard diameters as
shown in the Table 1 below:
Table 1: Standard reinforcing Bars in Nigeria Market
SIZES
Mm Inches Weight Kg/m
6 ¼ 0.222
8 5/16 0.375
10 5/8 0.616
12 ½ 0.888
16 5/8 1.579
20 ¾ 2.466
25 1 3.854
32 1¼ 6.313
40 1½ 9.864
50 2 15.413
The common tools used by steel fixers in Nigeria are: (a) Pincers: This is a tool consisting of
two hinged arms, for gripping and for cutting binding wire. (b) Bender: This is another
important tool used by the steel fixer, formed and welded into F-shape using high yield steel
bar, mainly used in bending reinforcement into the required shape so as to fit into the forms
easily. (c ) Hacksaw: It is a hand saw used for cutting metal. (d) Measuring Tape: Used for
measuring steel bar, size of forms etc.
Cutting and bending, and fixing of reinforcement are two distinct activities which could be
performed by two different gangs on site. Alternatively, the reinforcement could be pre-
assembled into cages off-site, transported and lifted into position using mechanical hoist. The
commonest method of tying reinforcing rode is using the soft iron binding wire at selected
intersection of main bars and links or stirrups in the appropriate structural element using the
pincer.
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In the context of labour productivity, the input to an activity is measured by the direct labour
hours charged to the activity. Several methods have evolved for improving the construction
productivity based on the motion and time study (Thomas and Daily,1983). Some examples
of such methods are stopwatch study, photographic method, taping video, time-lapse video.
Other method of productivity measurement is work-sampling and five minutes rating.
3. Research Method
The aim of the study was to establish a standard labour output that will serve as a data base
for computation of labour cost estimation in Nigeria. The choice of Lagos as the study area
benefits the study because it permits the sampling of a large population of craftsmen in
construction firms. Lagos is located in South-West Nigeria. Being a former federal capital
and now the commercial nerve centre of the country, Lagos hosts many of the reputable
construction companies operating in Nigeria. Lagos is listed as one of the 25 megacities of
the World with an estimated population of about 17million in 2007 and a growth rate (3.2%)
which has an attendant pressure on its infrastructure. There are numerous construction
projects in Lagos executed by both the private and public sector to meet the housing,
economic and infrastructure requirements of the emerging megacity.
Two approaches adopted for measuring steel workers’ productivity are activity sampling and
work study. Activity sampling is used to determine the proportion of time spent by a gang of
workers productively or un-productively. The equipment used was mainly stopwatch, pencil,
calculator and activity sampling sheet (Groover, 2007 p. 341). These studies were observed
on different days but starting at the same time and stopped at the same time in all the sites
visited for observation. An observation interval of ten minutes was used between 9.30am –
3.20pm. A total of 25 observations per steel fixers in a day was made. Time study measures
the time required to perform a given task in accordance with a specified method.
The data for this study was collected from twenty (20) building construction sites within
Lagos metropolis. Considering the fact that only one trade (steel fixing) is involved, the
sample size of 20 building construction sites is large and adequate enough to draw any
reasonable conclusion. The activities of the iron fixer were divided into two tasks groups. The
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first group involves cutting and bending steel rods while the second group involves placing
and tying steel rods into the appropriate structural forms for beams, columns, stairs and floor
slabs. Decimal minute stop watch was used to record the time productively spent by a gang of
steel fixer to cut and bend one tonne of steel as well as placing and tying a tonne of steel in
specified structural form. All the steel fixers were averagely skilled, averagely motivated and
of good physical health. The tools used were simple hand tools consisting of 15 metre tape,
pincers, F-shaped high yield iron for bending bars, and hack saws.
4. Result
From the biographical information of the respondents presented in Table 2, four level of
education were identified and used for the study. The response indicate that ten percent of the
steel fixers had no basic education, 20% have trade test, 23.3% have ordinary level school
certificate while 46.7% have primary school leaving certificate. It can be observed that the
steel fixers were not will educated academically. The implication of this on the steel workers
ability for critical reasoning and ability to make independent judgment is grievous. On the
total number of years each steel fixer have spent on the Job, only 25% of the respondent have
over 16 years work experience 15% have below 5 years on the job experiences, 28.3% have
between 5 and 10 years experience and 31.7% have between 11 and 15 years experience. The
model class for the years of experience is between 11 – 15 years, which indicate adequate
level of exposure to the task. The age distribution of the steel fixers that participated in the
study indicate that very few (six percent) of the steel fixers were below 20 years. This
category were in the minority. They are mostly apprentices who are working for their
masters. 23.3% were between 20 and 30 years, 33.3% were between 31 – 40 years and 33.4%
were ever 40 years. From the analysis, it can be inferred that majority of the steel fixers are
within the active work group, although this again depend on the physiological makeup of the
individual. The weekly (six days) wages in Naira of the steel fixers was also investigated. It
was observed that overwhelming majority 71.7% earn between 3000 and 4000 Naira daily,
16.7% earn between 2000 and 2999 Naira while only few (eight percent) earn over 4000
Naira. It is important to note that as at the time of this study, a U.S. dollar officially exchange
for One hundred and fifty six Naira (N156.00). This means that a daily wage rate of the
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highest paid steel fixer is more than 25.64 US dollars ($25.64). This is higher than the United
Nation’s recommendation of at least $1.25 dollar per hour or $10 (N1, 560.00k) per day to
escape poverty. Hence, the workers can be said to be moderately motivated financially.
Table 2: Demographic Characteristic of Steel Fixers
1. Level of Education
(N=60)
Frequency Cumulative
Frequency
% Cumulative
i. Primary School 28 28 46.7 46.7
ii. O’ Level 14 42 23.3 70
iii. No basic education 6 48 10 80
iv. Trade test 12 60 20 100
Year of experience
(N=60)
i. Below 5 years 9 9 15 15
ii. 5 – 10 years 17 26 28.3 43.3
iii. 11 – 15 years 19 45 31.7 75
iv. 16 – 20 years 7 52 11.7 86.7
v. Over 20 years 8 60 13.3 100
Age (N= 60)
i. Below 20 years 6 6 10 10
ii. 20 – 30 years 14 20 23.3 33.3
iii. 31 – 40 years 20 40 33.3 66.6
iv. 41 – 50 years 16 56 26.7 93.3
v. Over 50 years 4 60 6.7 100
Daily wages in Naira
(N=60)
i. 1000 – 2000 2 2 3.3 3.3
ii. 2000 – 3000 10 12 16.7 20
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iii. 3000 – 4000 43 12 16.7 20
iv. Over 4000 5 60 8.3 100
Table 3 shows the result of activity sampling of steel fixers. The result indicate that a
proficient steel fixer Spent about 75% of his time per day doing productive work while the
remaining is spend doing work that are not directly related to productivity. This is however,
not unconnected with the type of contract as the percentage may increase if it is a labour only
contract as opposed to other contract type.
Table3: ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF STEEL FIXERS’ WORKING TIME ON SITE
Site No. of effective
time observed
Number of
ineffective time
observed
Total Number of
Time observed
Effective time (%) Ineffective time
(%)
A 92 33 125 73.6 26.4
B 75 25 100 75 25
C 41 9 50 82 18
D 56 19 75 74.7 25.3
E 37 19 75 74.7 25.3
F 59 13 50 64 36
G 74 16 75 78.7 21.3
H 55 26 100 74 26
I 37 20 75 73.3 26.3
J 37 13 50 64 36
Mean effective time = 75.1%
Mean ineffective time = 24.9%.
Table 4 shows the labour output in hours per items for cutting and bending steel bars into
structural forms for floor, beams, columns, staircase and floor slabs base on one steel fixer.
The result indicate a mean labour output of 41.58 hours, 24.10 hours, 25.06 hours and 27.05
hours per tonne for beams, columns, stairs and floor slabs respectively. Similarly, Table 5
shows the mean labour output per steel fixer of 67.70 hours, 35.20 hours, 25.10 hours and
45.60 hours per tonne for placing, tying into forms for Beams, columns, staircase and floor
slabs respectively. The outputs of steel fixers currently in use in Nigeria for estimation
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purposes irrespective of the structural member are 63 hours, 45 hours, 35 hours, 27.5 hours
and 22.5 hours for cutting and bending one tone of 6mm, 8mm, 10mm, 12mm and 16mm
reinforcing bars respectively (anonymous). The same output is used for placing the bars into
structural forms.
4. Conclusion
The main aim of the study was to establish a local standard labour output for craftsmen
involved in cutting, bending and placing steel bars into beams, columns and slabs, which will
serve as information for planning and schedule of work. This study has shown that a
proficient steel fixer, that is moderately motivated is capable of cutting and bending one
tonne of steel rods manually into beams, columns and stairs in 41.58, 24.10 and 25.06 hours
respectively and also capable of doing the same for floor slabs in 27.65 hours. Similarly, a
proficient steel fixer is capable of placing and tying one tonne of steel rods into beams,
columns and stairs in 67.70, 35.20 and 26.10 hours respectively and also capable of doing
same into slab in 45.60hours.
Steel fixers manage their time more effectively on site when engaged as sub-contractors
rather than when employed on a day work schedule. The study revealed that steel fixers use
75.1% of their working time effectively while 24.9% of same is used ineffectively
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References
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Nigerian construction industry- case study of indigenous contracting organization in Lagos. The
Quantity Surveyor . 40( 3 ), 14 – 18
2. Ayandele, J. O. (1997). Evaluation of factors affecting labour productivity of some selected
building trades in Nigerian construction sites. Unpublished Ph.D thesis submitted to the school of
post-graduate studies, University of Lagos.
3. Ayeni, J. O. (1992). Estimating and price analysis. Longman publishing company ltd,
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4. Building Futures Council (BFC), (2006). Measuring productivity and evaluating innovation in the
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factors affecting their productivity. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,
135(1), 217-226
6. Dozzi, S. p. and AbouRizk, S. M. (1993). Productivity in construction. Institute for Research in
Construction, National Resaerch Council, Ottawas, ON, Canada.
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Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 132(3), 314-320
8. Enshassi, A; Mohammed, S; Mustafa, Z. A and Mayer, P. (2007). Factors affecting labour
productivity in building project in the Gazza Strip. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management,
XIII(4), 245-254
9. Groover, M. P. (2007). Work systems and the methods, measurement and management of work.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
10. Illingworth, J. R. (2000). Construction methods and planning, 2nd edn, E&FN Spon, London
11. Jarkas, A. M. (2010). The influence of buildability factors on rebar fixing labour productivity of
beams. Construction Management and Economics, 28(2), 527-543
12. Jarkas, A. M; Kadri, C. Y. and Younes, J. H. (2012). A survey of factors influencing the
productivity of construction operatives in the state of Qatar. The international Journal of
Construction Management, 12(3), 1-23
13. Park, H; Thomas, S. R and Tucker, R. L. (2005). Benchmarking of construction productivity.
Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 137(7), 772-778
©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability 1 (1): 55-68, 2013
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Research Article
Maintenance Management Challenges For Heritage Buildings Used in
Royal Museums in Malaysia
Mahmoud Sodangi¹, Arazi Idrus², Mohd Faris Khamidi³
¹Post-doctoral Researcher, Civil Engineering Department,
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia
email: abbax9@yahoo.co.uk
²Professor, Civil Engineering Department,
National Defence University of Malaysia
email: arazi_idrus@petronas.com.my
³Senior Lecturer, Civil Engineering Department,
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia
email: mfaris_khamidi@petronas.com.my
ARTICLE INFO
Article history Received: 1/1/2013
Accepted: 25/3/2013
A b s t r a c t
Maintenance is regarded as the key to the survival of any building; be it a
heritage or non-heritage. To date, there has been no published research work
investigating how maintenance managers of heritage buildings used as royal
museums in Malaysia currently approach the maintenance of the buildings in
their custody. Thus, this paper examined the current approaches adopted by
maintenance managers of National Heritage Buildings in Malaysia in
managing the maintenance of the buildings under their care. In order to
achieve the set objective of this paper, observational study approach was
adopted. The study revealed that the maintenance unit of Istana Kenangan
adopts reactive maintenance approach, which is a response to failure. The
maintenance management problems identified in this paper require urgent attention and continuous improvement in order to conserve the cultural
significance of the building and to generate more heritage tourism revenues.
©Journal of Applied Sciences & Environmental Sustainability. All rights reserved.
Keywords: conservation, heritage
buildings, Malaysia,
maintenance, management.
1. Introduction
Malaysia is blessed with a rich legacy of heritage buildings with unique architectural and
historical values [1]. These buildings serve as the cultural identity of the country and its
people. The heritage buildings form a major repository of the cultural heritage of Malaysians.
They no doubt indicate significant landmarks in the inventive genius of Malaysians [2]. The
country is one of the hot tourism spots in South East Asia, and it inherited a rich architectural
heritage of traditional Malay houses, royal palaces, colonial buildings, mosques, churches,
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temples, monuments, railway stations etc. These heritage buildings are known for their
exceptional workmanship and architectural qualities. It became paramount to conserve these
buildings as they provide a sense of common identity and continuity for future generations
[3].
Figure 1: Masjid Ubudiah Kuala Kangsar, Perak.
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Figure 2: Sultan Abdul Samad Building, Kuala Lumpur.
Figure 3: Kuala Lumpur Railway Station
Perak Royal Museum (Istana Kenangan)
According to Ref [4], The Sultanate of Perak is one of the oldest hereditary Sultanates among
the Malay States. When the Sultanate of Malacca Empire fell to the Portuguese in 1511,
Sultan Mahmud Shah I retreated to Kampar, Sumatra and later died there in 1528. Sultan
Mahmud Shah I left behind two princes named Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II and Sultan
Muzaffar Syah. The former later went to establish the Sultanate of Johor while Sultan
Muzaffar Syah was invited to rule Perak and hence, he became the first Sultan of Perak. The
present Sultan of Perak; Duli Yang Maha Mulia Paduka Seri Sultan Azlan Muhibbuddin
Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Yusuff Izzuddin Shah Ghafarullah is the descendant of the last
Sultan of Malacca. Kuala Kangsar is the royal town of Perak which is located at the
downstream of Kangsar River, where it flows into the Perak River.
The present Sultanate of Perak dates back to the early 16th
century when the eldest son of
the last Sultan of Melaka, Sultan Muzaffar Shah established his own kingdom on the banks of
Sungai (river) Perak. Though Ipoh is the state capital but the royal capital is set in Kuala
Kangsar, where the palace of the Sultan of Perak is located and it has been Perak’s royal seat
since the 18th century. The old palace (Istana Sri Sayong) was built by Sultan of Perak Yusuf
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Sharifuddin Mudzaffar Shah who ruled from 1877 to 1887. The Sultan unlike many rulers
who protected their royal palaces by carefully choosing good viewpoints in order to detect
enemy approach from afar decided to build his royal palace beside the riverbank. However,
the force of the monsoon seasons which led to numerous flooding became the major threat to
the existence of the palace. It was decided to build a new palace that would be on a higher
ground after the Big Flood of 1926, which almost swept the old palace away. The old palace
was moved to where the present royal palace stands.
While awaiting the completion of the present royal palace locally known as Istana
Iskandariah (Figure 7), Istana Kenangan (Figures 4 & 5) was built in 1926 to serve as a
temporary residence for Duli Yang Maha Mulia Sultan Iskandar Shah (Marhum Kadasallah).
The design and construction of Istana Kenangan is considered as an achievement because of
the uniqueness in its local architecture. It is noted for being built entirely of wood but without
the use of a single nail. The plan of the building takes the shape of a sword (pedang) in its
scabbard (sarung pedang). The sword’s handle is where the Sulatan’s bedchamber is located.
Though the palace is small in size, it still has a beautiful throne (Singgahsana) for the Sultan.
The surface of the walls is made of diamond shaped plaits (Kelarai), while the roof structure
inherited the combined styles of the five ridges (perabung lima) and the ridge of a row of
bananas (perabung pisang sesikat). The initial roof was made of wooden planks.
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Figure 4: Istana Kenangan (Right side view)
Figure 5:Aerial view of istana Kenangan
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Figure 7: Istana Iskandariah (Present Perak Royal Palace)
Significance of Maintenance in Heritage Building Conservation
It is mainly through conservation of heritage buildings that we can pass on to future
generations what is currently identified as being of cultural significance today, and this would
be difficult to achieve if an efficient approach to the maintenance management of heritage
buildings is not fully adopted [5]. Conservation is defined as the requisite actions taken to
prevent deterioration by adopting approaches that extend the life and basic functions of
heritage building while maintenance is defined as the continuous care and protection
involving minor repair works carried out to building elements in order to keep it in good
order thereby prolonging the life of such element and the entire building for as long as
possible and this will require considerable administrative and managerial expertise [5].
This definition shows the significance of maintenance as a conservation process for heritage
buildings. Maintenance is considered the most pragmatic and philosophically appropriate
conservation method [6]. Regular maintenance is the key to the survival of any building, be it
a heritage or non-heritage building. This recognition was made as early as 1877 by William
Morris the founder of the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings (SPAB), an
organization responsible for caring and preserving United Kingdom’s heritage buildings. He
considered regular maintenance as “the most practical and economic form of conserving
heritage buildings”. Reference [7] also emphasized that “of all the processes of conserving
heritage buildings, maintenance is the single most important process”. To date, regular
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maintenance is still considered as the most sustainable way of preserving heritage buildings
[7].
Reference [8] described Maintenance management for heritage buildings as a process
that involves the effective and efficient utilization of resources in the continuous care and
protection of building elements in order to keep them in good order, maintain the building
fabric and its services and prolong the life of such element and hence the entire building for
as long as possible. In Malaysia today, heritage buildings are considered as valuable because
of their high historical values and great tourism potentials. It became necessary to conserve
these buildings in order to protect them from being destroyed. The fact that no building is
maintenance free irrespective of the building being a heritage or new emphasizes that
heritage buildings need utmost care and protection to limit their deterioration and prolong
their life span and functions. To do so, efficient maintenance management approaches must
be employed to avoid the need for potentially expensive and disruptive repair works, which
may damage the buildings’ heritage value.
2. Problem Statement
Malaysia like many other nations that are recognizing the need for conserving their cultural
heritage faces many difficulties in handling the challenges of heritage building conservation.
Some of the heritage buildings have been demolished to pave way for urban development
while others are deteriorating due to age, high cost of maintenance and poor maintenance
management approaches.
Istana Kenangan which now houses the Perak Royal Museum was built as a temporary royal
palace for Sultan Iskandar Shah in the royal city of Perak - Kuala Kangsar. Istana Kenangan
still stands today and is being regarded as an important tourism spot in Perak. However, parts
of this beautiful royal building are now decaying and degrading rapidly due to poor
maintenance management approaches. This threatens the safety of both the users, visitors,
artefacts and the building itself. The question here is “how do maintenance managers of
heritage buildings currently practice the maintenance of the buildings in their custody?” To
answer this question, this paper would aim to examine the current approaches adopted by
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maintenance managers of national heritage buildings in Malaysia in managing the
maintenance of the buildings under their care.
3. Methodology
Huge amount of money is continuously spent in conserving heritage buildings and the
buildings keep deteriorating just few years after the conservation works on the buildings. The
need for adopting observational study as one of this research strategies arose out of the desire
to understand reasons why heritage buildings deteriorate just few years after carrying out
conservation works on them. The author wanted to find out if there are existing guidelines
used for managing the maintenance of the buildings and to understand the managerial
practices adopted by maintenance managers and their organizations in managing the
maintenance of heritage buildings. Besides, the research poses the “how” and “why”
questions about the maintenance management practices for the conservation of heritage
buildings over which the researcher has little or no control. The author carefully considered
that structured direct observation might be useful for the research because it can provide
information previously unknown to the researcher that is crucial for project design, data
collection, and interpretation of other data.
Istana Kenangan (Perak Royal Museum) was chosen for this study. The rationale for this
selection is due to the fact that the Sultanate of Perak is one of the oldest hereditary
Sultanates among the Malay States and the building was built as a temporary royal palace for
Sultan Iskandar Shah al-Kaddasullahibni al-Marhum Sultan IdrisMurshid al-Azam Shah
Rahmatullah. Besides, the building is uniqueness in its local architecture. It is noted for
being built entirely of wood but without the use of a single nail. The plan of the building
takes the shape of a sword (pedang) in its scabbard (sarungpedang). The surface of the walls
is made of diamond shaped plaits (Kelarai). Istana Kenangan is a repository of cultural
heritage for the Perak Sultanate and a symbol of cultural identity that creates psychological
emotion and nostalgia to the people of Perak. Moreover, the building remains one of the best
forms in which historic cultural heritage of Perak Sultanate can be expressed. Istana
Kenangan characterizes the history of the people of Perak.
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Necessary arrangements were made to conduct the observations. During the observational
study, the researcher was cautious not to influence the behaviour of the curators (maintenance
managers). Cameras were used to take photos and document the defects and level of
deterioration observed on the buildings.
4. Findings
The building was last renovated in 2005 and declared a National Heritage Building by the
National Heritage Department Malaysia in 2006. Barely six years after the renovation; parts
of the building are now decaying due to poor maintenance management. Findings of the
study showed that some parts of the buildings are rapidly decaying and this is evidenced by
the defects shown in the figures below.
Figure 8: Termite attack on timber column Figure 9: Termite attack on timber column
Figure 10: Crack on concrete base Figure 11: Termite attack on staicase step
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Figure 12: Crack and termite attack Figure 13: Peeling paint on column
Figure 14: Termite attack Figure 15: Termite attack on the façade of
the wall
Since regular maintenance is the most practical and economic form of conserving heritage
buildings and also the key to the survival of heritage building, it became paramount to
examine the maintenance approaches adopted by the maintenance unit of this building in
managing the maintenance of this building. For the purpose of this paper, the examination
was restricted to maintenance implementation.
Attitude towards maintenance: The main goal of heritage building maintenance is to ensure
the retention and enhancement of the cultural significance of the building fabric as well as
retaining the functions of the building. To do this, unnecessary interventions should be
avoided by considering cautiously the nature and possible effects of the defects. However, it
was found out that the main purpose of maintaining Istana Kenangan relates to maintaining
the image of the museum and retaining its basic functions in the most cost effective away
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thereby laying less emphasis on retaining the cultural significance of the building. It was also
found out that routine maintenance activities like cleaning and painting are being regarded as
low status activities thereby paying less attention to these activities. The attitude of the
maintenance function towards the concept of retaining and enhancing the cultural
significance of the building is very disturbing. It is clear that a change in attitude is really
required. The maintenance function needs a greater awareness and understanding of the
importance of retaining the cultural significance of the building.
Maintenance Policies: Clear maintenance policies are important in linking assessment of
cultural significance of heritage building to maintenance implementation. However, the
maintenance function of this building do not assess the relative historic significance of the
building as such they could not use this assessments when making decisions about
maintenance priorities. As a result, the maintenance function does not do not have a clear
policy that will assert that cultural significance should be the key driver for maintenance
management planning and implementation. This really is an indication of poor maintenance
management practices because assessments of cultural significance play an important role in
informing management planning especially when considering maintenance management
priorities.
Maintenance approaches: Reactive and preventive maintenance have been identified to be
the two distinct types of maintenance. Reactive maintenance is characterized as a response to
failure while preventive maintenance is predictive in nature and it requires careful planning.
Although preventive maintenance has long been promoted as being effective and efficient
approach in retaining the cultural significance of heritage buildings; the maintenance function
of this building continues to adopt the reactive maintenance approach which is a response to
failure. This approach has led to the deterioration of some of the parts of the buildings as
shown in the figures. Reactive maintenance approach is not fundamental to good
conservation as it has proved beyond doubt that it is not effective in protecting and upholding
the heritage value of the buildings. Moreover, this approach does not provide economies of
scale to the maintenance function and makes maintenance management arrangements quite
difficult as the maintenance function may not be able to plan for minimal intervention.
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Inspections and Condition Surveys: Regular inspections are considered a fundamental part of
preventive maintenance programme in the sense that they help to identify the condition of the
fabric, identify the need for the repair, prioritize the repair needed and identify the cost of the
repair needed. Though the maintenance unit of this building carries out less formal surveys of
the condition of the fabric at much more frequent level, yet the building continues to
deteriorate simply because there were no formal systems for inspecting the building and there
is no adequate provision of fund to undertake the proposed work that comes from the survey.
The maintenance unit relied on using only internal staff to carry out the inspections instead of
using both internal staff and external consultants. Employing external consultants provides an
independent perspective and to a reasonable extent it serves as an assessment of the
effectiveness of the maintenance unit.
Information Management: The significance of information and records for the maintenance
management of heritage buildings cannot be over emphasized. Effective records that give a
detailed historic development of the building are a fundamental part of the cultural history of
the building because they help to explain why and how the building is significant. From the
study, it was found out that there is no integrated information system that would enable the
collection, storage and retrieval of suitable information to ensure efficient and effective
maintenance management. In addition to this, maintenance records are not given the level of
importance that they should be given. The maintenance unit only considered these records as
important for maintenance management purposes but not for archival documentation in
relation to cultural history. Most importantly, the level of understanding of the importance of
maintenance records from a cultural heritage perspective was poor.
5. Conclusions
The study revealed that the maintenance unit of Istana Kenangan continues to adopt the
reactive maintenance approach, which is a response to failure. This approach among other
factors has led to the deterioration of some of the parts of the buildings as shown in the
figures. Reactive maintenance approach is not fundamental to good conservation as it
ineffective in protecting and upholding the heritage value of the buildings. More so, the
maintenance function needs a greater awareness and understanding of the importance of
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retaining the cultural significance of the building. The maintenance strategy for heritage
requires repairing the building fabric very close to the original using traditional techniques
and traditional matching materials and being sensitive to the original structure. Therefore,
there is an urgent need to develop a specific framework that would act as a basis for heritage
organizations to prepare guidelines for managing the maintenance and conservation of
heritage buildings.
References
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Biography
1. Ghafar, A. A.: Building Maintenance, Paper presented at Bengkel Menangani Masalah
Pemuliharaan Bangunan di Malaysia, Kota Ngah Ibrahim, Taiping, Perak on 19-22 December
1994 A.
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1994
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Buildings in Malaysia, Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Built Environment in
Developing Countries. 3-4 December 2008. Penang, Malaysia.
4. ICOMOS Australia. The Burra Charter, International Council on Monuments and Sites Australia.
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3 pp14-33
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research agenda. Structural Survey, vol. 17, No.3, p 143-153. 1993.
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