Monitoring student learning in the classroom

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Monitoring Student Learning in the Classroom

• Redirection and probing (often researched together) are positively related to achievement when they are explicitly focused, e.g., on the clarity, accuracy, plausibility, etc. of student responses.

• Redirection and probing are unrelated to achievement when they are vague or critical, e.g., “That’s not right; try again”; “Where did you get an idea like that? I’m sure Suzanne has through more carefully and can help us.”

• Acknowledging correct responses as such is positively related to achievement.

• Praise is positively related to achievement when it is used sparingly, is directly related to the student’s response, and is sincere and credible.

Student Attitudes

• The cognitive level of questions posed is unrelated to students’ attitudes toward the subject matter.

• *Those students who prefer lower cognitive questions perform better in recitations and on tests where lower cognitive questions are posed.

• *Those students who prefer higher cognitive questions perform equally well with higher or lower cognitive questions in recitations and on tests.

• What happens when teachers participate• In training designed to help them improve their

questioning skills? Research indicates that :• * Training teachers in asking higher cognitive

questions is positively related to the achievement of students above the primary grades.

• * Training teachers in increased wait-time is positively related to student achievement.

• * Training teacher to vary their questioning behaviors and to use approaches other than questioning during classroom discussions (e.g.,silence, making statements) are positively related to student achievement.

Guidelines for Classroom Questioning• Incorporate questioning into classroom teaching/learning

practices.• Ask questions which focus on the salient elements in the

lesson; avoid questioning students about extraneous matters.• When teaching students factual material, keep up a brisk

instructional pace, frequently posing lower cognitive questions.

• With older ang higher ability students, ask questions before (as well as after) material is read and studied.

• Question younger and lower ability students only after material has been read and studied.

• Ask a majority of lower cognitive questions when instructing younger ang lower ability students. Structure these questions so that most of them will elicit corret responses.

Guidelines for Classroom Questioning• Ask a majority of higher cognitive questions when instructing older and

higher ability students.• In settings where higher cognitive questions are appropriate, teach

students strategies for drawing inferences.• Keep wait-time to about three seconds when conducting recitations

involving a majority of lower cognitive questions.• Increase wait-time beyond three seconds when asking higher cognitive

questions.• Be particularly careful to allow generous amounts of wait-time to students

perceived as lower ability.• Use redirections and probing as part of classroom questioning and keep

these focused on salient elements of students’ responses.• Avoid vague or critical responses to student answers during recitations.• During recitations, use praise sparingly and make certain it is sincere,

credible, and directly connected to students’ responses.

• Detailed instructions for teaching students to draw inferences is outside the scope of this paper.

• However, the model offered by Pearson (1985) does provide some basic steps which can help students make connections between what they know and what they are seeking to learn. Pearson suggests that teachers complete all the steps in this process by way of demonstration, then gradually shift responsibility for all but the first step to the students.

1. Ask the inference question.2. Answer it.3. Find clues in the text to support the inference.4. Tell how to get from the clues to the answer (i.e., give a line

of reasoning).

Generating Good Discussions

• Is discussion the right pedagogy?• What makes discussions effective?• Setting rules of engagement• How to grade discussions• Designing a discussion

Summary : is it the right pedagogy?

• Fits your learning outcomes• Goals of the pedagogy fit• Instructor owns a board range of skills (“ people management” )• Instructor comfort with unpredictability• Physical space/online skills

Learning outcomes• Cognitive goals :

- Exploring and brainstorming- Defending a position- Considering multiple perspective- Evaluating evidence- Problem-solving

• Social/ emotional goals :- Democratic and collaboration skills- Crossing cultural boundaries

Discussion Goals

• Reaches all three levels of interaction- student-content, student-instructor, student-student

• Higher level of reflective thinking and creative problem solving

• Higher retention• Students often prefer active engagement with

content

Skills instructor may need

• Addressing views diverdent from your own• Challenging factual errors• Drawing in students• Managing emotions• Dealing with disruptive, belliegerent, or domineering

students

Discussion may not be best when :

• Question has only one correct answer and one right way to get there

• Convey or clarify information• Insufficient time, space, technological skills• Path exists that you don’t want to take• Disruptive students are problem• No time to design

• WHAT MAKES DISCUSSIONS EFFECTIVE?

Obstacles to Effective Discussion• Students do not know enough about the subject• Students do not know the purpose of the discussion (e.g.,

learn from one another vs. demonstrate their knowledge)• Students do not know how they are expected to interact

(e.g.,answer a question, ask questions, build on others’ comments, challenge other, etc)

• Inequitable participation (student who talks too much, or not at all; only 4 out of 50 students talk)

• Students are inhibited; e.g. fear of being evaluated, fear of looking foolish, not able to keep up with the discussion, fear of conflict, uneasy talking about topic with strangers, etc.

Effective design

• Set ground rules to govern interactions• Clarify your expectations• Establish the purpose• Prepare the groundwork• Group students to fit goals• Ask discussable questions• Give student time to think• Involve students equitably

Develop student skills

• Part of the grondwork• Identify the necessary skills

- Reading in a discipline- Evaluation- Collaboration

• Consider using a student self-evaluation (see handout)

SETTING DISCUSSION GROUND RULES

Why set ground rules?

• Your actions seem less arbitrary• Can deal with disruptive students• Helps class stay on task• Teach students democratic and collaboration skills

(self-policing, consensus-building, civility)• Safety (not the same as comfort)

• GRADING DISCUSSIONS

Set clear expectations

• Not an attendance grade• Do you need to grade everything?• Be clear about what you are grading

- What constitutes “class participation”?- Why are you grading on “class participation”?

• Individual or whole-group, or both?- Tie this decision to your goals- Include a divorce clause for long-term groups

• Consider grading product, not discussion

DESINGING A DISCUSSION

Planning a discussion

• Identify the learning outcomes• Identify your pedagogical goals• What set students up to discuss?

-Out of class-In class

• Draft your questions :

Purposeful Discussion Activity Ideas

• Analyze a specific problem• Start with controversy• Show video clip, slide, current event, etc.for focus• Assign sides/role-play• Collectively create a chart or resource• Compare and contrast• Give new ideas and examples• Explain opinions backed by research• Share research findings and reactions• Give questions ahead of time• Break a large issue into smaller parts

Types of question that don’t work

• “Guess what I’m thinking” (you have a spesific answer in mind; results in guessing)

• Yes/No and Leading questions (one response, at best)

• Info retrieval (look up the answer; one response at best)

• Rhetorical (own your beliefs; if you believe based on evidence, back your argument)

Asking good questions

• Beyond factual recall• Open-ended• Use question prompts• Types of questions –Factual, Convergent,

Divergent, Evaluative, and Combination

Tips for success

• Learn student names• 10-second rule (“wait time”)• Seat students facing one another• Avoid jargon• Be able to say “ I don’t know”• Promote students helping students• Deal with “over-talkers”• Summarize, summarize, summarize

Learning Framework

…but have you answered the questions all learners need to know?

• Where do I need to go?• Why should I go there?• How will I get there?• How will I know when I’ve arrived?

Common Test Types And Characteristics

Type Advantages Disadvantages Best Utilized

True – FalseYes - No

• Easy to construct • Can be ambigeous•Can reinforce incorrect informationEnables guessing

• To measure recall and comprehension of facts

Multiple Choice • Easy to score and statistically analyse• Can be constructed to measure analyse and synthesis of information

• Difficult to construct• Enables students to answer by process of unintentionally hidden clues

• To measure comprehension• To measure higher cognitive skills

Matching •Popular with students•Can be constructed to include broad range of information

• Difficult to construct• Enables students to answer by process of

• To measure comprehension by comparing information

Short Answer Open- Ended •Easy to construct•Adaptable to specific subject content

•Difficult to score as more than one answer may be correct

•To measure to recall of facts and specific knowledge

Fill in The Blank •Can be more focused and easily scored

•Diffuclt to score when more than one answer may be correct

•To measure recall of facts and specific knowledge

Essay •Easy to construct•Enables students to demonstrate a broad knowledge base

•Scoring is quite time consuming

•To measure application and higher cognitive skills

Written Tests

Selected- response test Short-answer test Essay test

Characteristics Objective; Choose among alternatives;Assess foundational knowledge

Objective; Ask to supply into from memory; Assess foundational knowledge

Ask to discuss one or more related ideas according to certain criteria

Advantages Efficiency Relatively easy to write; Allow for breadth

Assess higher-level abilities

Disadvantages Focus on verbatim memorization

Focus on verbatim memorization

Lack of consistency of grading

Way to Measure Student Learning

• Written test- Selected-response tests- Short- answer tests- Essay tests

• Performance tests- Direct writing assessments- Portfolios- Exhibitions- Demonstrations

Conceptions of learning ( Saljo 1979 )

1. Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge. Learning is acquiring information or “ knowing a lot”

2. Learning as memorising . Learning is storing information that can be reproduced.

3. Learning as acquiring facts, skills and method that can be retained and used as necessary.

4. Learning as making sense or abstracting meaning. Learning involves relating parts of the subject matter to each other and to the real world.

5. Learning as interpreting and understanding reality in a different way. Learning involves comprehending the world by re-interpreting knowledge.

(7) Increases in the amount and quality of evidence students offer to

support their inferences

(8) Increases in contributions by students who do not participate much

when wait-time is under three seconds

(9) Expansion of the variety of responses offered by students

(10) Decreases in student interruptions

(11) Increases in student-student interactions

(12) Increases in the number of questions posed by students

Analytic Framework : Broad Conceptions of Teaching

Type CCategory DeDescription

I Teacher- Focused

A Teaching as transmitting concepts of syllabus

B Teacher as transmitting teacher’s knowledge

II Student Focused

C Teacher as helping students acquire concepts of syllabus

D Teacher as helping students acquire teacher’s knowledge

Results : Type I Conception( Teacher- Focused)

“ [ Teaching ] is a transfer of knowledge from somebody who accumulates certain amount of knowledge to people who are recipient[s] of the knowledge” (Professor of Medicine)

* Focus on transfer of information* Students’ prior knowledge not considered* Students are passive recipients