Making narrative connections? Exploring how late teens ... · Making narrative connections? Exploring how late teens relate their own lives to the historically significant past Elizabeth

London Review of Education DOIhttpsdoiorg1018546LRE15204Volume15Number2July2017

Making narrative connections Exploring how late teens relate their own lives to the historically significant past

ElizabethDawesDuraisinghHarvard Graduate School of Education

Abstract

Thispaperreportsonastudythatinvited18716ndash18-year-oldstudentsintheUnitedStatestodrawdiagramsshowingconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastInterviewsweresubsequentlyheldwith26studyparticipantsThedegreetowhichstudentsmadeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthevariouswaysinwhichtheyintegratedpersonalandhistoricalnarrativesarediscussedwiththreeexamplesexploredindetailThewaysinwhichinterviewedstudentstalkedabouttheirdiagramspointtothesignificanceofindividualsrsquounderstandingsofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeforhowtheyusethepasttoorienttheirownlives

Keywordshistoricalconsciousnesshistoricalunderstandinghistoryeducationidentity

Historyeducatorsareincreasingly interestedinwhatyoungpeopleknoworthinkaboutthepastndashratherthanwhattheydonrsquotndashwiththeassumptionthattakingstudentsrsquoexistingthinkingintoaccountcouldenhancehistoryeducationpracticesSimilarlymotivatedthisresearchtookanopen-ended approach towardsexploring youngpeoplersquos historical consciousnessorhowtheyusethepasttohelporienttheirlivesOtherpapersinthisissueexaminethewaysinwhichyoungpeopleunderstandorconstructnarrativesaboutacollectiveorhistorically significantpastThispapertakesasomewhatdifferenttackgiventhatindividualsintheirlateteensaredevelopmentallyprimedtoconsiderissuesofidentitywhatkindsofstrategiesdotheyusetoconnecttheirownlifestoriesorpersonalnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastincludingbutnotlimitedtonationalnarrativesFurtherhowdotheytalkaboutthesenarrativestrategiesandhowmightthewaysinwhichtheytalkaboutthemrelatetotheirunderstandingsofthenatureofhistoricalknowledge

This exploratory study involved 187 16ndash18-year-olds in four different state schools intheGreaterBostonareaintheUnitedStatesfurthercontextualdetailsareprovidedbelowStudentsdrewdiagramstoexplainhowthepast lsquohelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouare living or hope to liversquo and provided accompanyingwritten explanations (in an exerciseadaptedfromSeixas1997)Interviewswereconductedwith26studentsabouttheirresponsesThe187diagramsvariedgreatlyintermsofbothformandcontentwithapproximatelyone-fifthofdiagramsreflectingonlystudentsrsquopersonalexperiencesHowevermoststudentsdidmakeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthehistoricallysignificantpastnearlyalwaysinhighlypersonalizedwaysthatbore littleresemblanceto lsquoofficialrsquohistorytextbooknarratives

Emailelizabeth_duraisinghgseharvardedu copyCopyright2017DuraisinghThisisanOpenAccessarticledistributedunderthetermsoftheCreativeCommonsAttributionLicencewhichpermits unrestricteduse distribution and reproduction in anymediumprovidedtheoriginalauthorandsourcearecredited

London Review of Education 175

Theyusedvariousnarrativestrategiessituatingtheirownlifestorywithinabroaderhistoricalcontextexploringtherelationshipbetweenindividualsandbiggerhistoricalprocessestetheringtheirownlifestorytothestoryofagrouporcommunitytowhomtheyfelttheybelonged(eganationaracialethnicgroupareligionhumankindwrit large)presentingtheirown lifeasbeingattheconfluenceofvariousunfoldinghistoricalnarrativesandorexploringhowthepastishelpingtoshapetheongoingstoryoftheirownpersonaldevelopment

Mappingoutsomeofthewaysinwhichindividualsnarrativelyconnecttheirownstoriesto a broader human past contributes to existing theory about historical consciousnessMoreoverdifferencesintheways inwhichyoungpeoplespokeabouttheirdiagramssuggestthattheirassumptionsaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgendashthatistheirepistemologicalunderstandings of history ndash relate to important differences in terms of how they conceiveof their identitiesand liveshintingat thepotentiallyprofound impactof thekindofhistoryeducationthatpromotesrigoroushistoricalthinking

Below relevant literatures on historical consciousness narratives identity and historyeducationarediscussedThestudymethodsarethenoutlinedAnoverviewofthestudyfindingsisprovidedbeforemorein-depthdiscussionofthreestudentdiagramsandhowthosestudentstalkedabouttheirdiagramsispresentedThepaperconcludesbyreflectingontheimplicationsofthestudyrsquosfindingsandpossibleavenuesforfutureresearch

Conceptual framework

Individual historical consciousness

Historicalconsciousness isaconceptofgrowinginteresttoexpertswhohavepioneeredandpressedfordisciplinaryapproachestoteachinghistory(Ahonen2005Lee2004aSeixas2004)ApplicabletobothindividualsandcommunitieshistoricalconsciousnessisfundamentallyabouthowashumansweorientourselvesintimeandrelateourownlivestothepastandfuturewhattheoristJoumlrnRuumlsencallslsquohistoricalidentityrsquo(1993)Importantlyorientationinvolvesbothsituatingoneself (whereamIwenow)anddirecting oneself (whereamIwegoing)withinahistorical continuum that expands beyond onersquos personal life experience For communitieshistoricalconsciousnessisintimatelyboundupwithcollectivememoryincludingtheselectionofwhichpubliceventsgetcommemoratedorevenrememberedandhowthecommunityrsquosoriginsareexplained(Lowenthal1996Nora1996Ruumlsen1993)WhilerecognizingthatindividualsareinseparablefromthelargerenterpriseofcollectivememorythisstudyrelatestoaspectsofindividualhistoricalconsciousnessndashthatishowyoungpeopleorientormakesenseoftheirownliveswithinahistoricalcontinuumRuumlsenemphasizesthathistoricalconsciousnessisnotlimitedtolsquohowmuchrsquohistoryindividualsknoweventhoughacertainlevelofknowledgeorlsquoexperiencersquoisaprerequisitelsquowhatisimportanttodiscoverinregardtohistoricalconsciousnessisnottheextentofknowledgeinvolvedbutrathertheframeworkandeffectiveprinciplesoperativeinmakingsenseofthepastrsquo(Ruumlsen199380)Thisstudyhelpsaddresstheneedforinitialsmall-scalequalitative investigations into individualhistoricalconsciousness (Billman-MachechaandHausen2005Lee2004bSeixas2005)

The role of narratives

This study assumes that we construct and enact meaning and identity through discourseparticularly through narratives which lie at the heart of how we make sense of who weare and our relationship to the world (Bruner 1990 Hammack and Pilecki 2012) Bruner

176 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh

definesnarrativesas lsquoactsofmeaningrsquoorculturalproducts throughwhichweconstructourunderstandingof theworldndashconstructions thataccording toDanto(1965)arenecessarilyinfusedwithreferencestothepastBrunercontrastsnarrativeswithlsquoparadigmaticrsquoorlsquologico-scientificrsquo thinkingwhich involves trying to identifyeventsas instancesofanestablished law(Polkinghorne1988)Brunerbelievesthatthereareuniversalstobefoundacrossnarrativessuchasalsquostructureofcommittedtimersquowithabeginningmiddleandendorganizedaccordingtotheirhumanrelevance(Bruner200526)ThoughboundedbyhumanactionsstoriestypicallygeneratelsquogistsormoralsrsquothattranscendtheparticularitiesofthenarrativetoldandinvitetheaudiencetojudgethereasonsbehindindividualactionsNarrativescanberepresentedthroughavarietyofformsincludingthediagramsthatareanalysedinthispaperImportantlyBrunerfindsitimpossibletoseparatethethoughtthatgaverisetoanarrativeandthenarrativeitselfsuchadistinctionisnotmadeinthispaper

Researchshowsthatnarrativesplayakeyroleintheformationofnationalidentity(Billig1995 Reicher and Hopkins 2001) and theories about political processes and onersquos roleandagencywithinthem(Andrews2007)SimilarlytheoreticiansincludingRuumlsenconsidernarratives integral tohistorical consciousness (Polkinghorne 2005Ruumlsen 1993Wertsch2004)ReferringtolsquothenarrativecompetenceofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoRuumlsenpositsthattelling stories ishow individuals synthesizedifferentdimensionsof timeand imposemoralmeaningonthepast

IneverydaydiscoursewerarelytellcompleteandcoherentnarrativesRatheritisthroughlsquosmall storiesrsquoor lsquonarrative fragmentsrsquo thatweshift inandoutofdifferentwaysofnarrativetelling(Baynham2010)asreflectedinthedatacollectedforthisstudyHammackandPilecki(2012)suggestthatthewaysinwhichweselectorconstructnarrativesareoftenlsquosaturatedwithemotionrsquoandnotalwaysrationalorconsistentAsindividualswenecessarilycreatenarrativesaccordingtothelsquoculturaltoolsrsquoavailabletous(Wertsch2002)includingnationalnarrativesTheprevailingQueacutebeacutecois narrative for instance is thatofmelancholic tragedy (Leacutetourneauand Moisan 2004) while a progressive lsquonarrative templatersquo of American exceptionalismpredominates intheUnitedStates(VanSledright2008Wertsch2004)Schoolstraditionallyplay an important role inpropagatingofficialhistorynarrativeshowever youngpeople alsointeract with many other kinds of sources that relay information about the past includingpopularfilmsnewsmedianational ceremoniesandritualsbooks televisiondocumentariesfamilies religious communities museums and historic sites (Barton 2001 Rosenzweig andThelen1998Wineburget al2007)InthisstudythestudentsinterviewedreferredtomovieshistoricsitesandfamilyhistoryforinstanceaswellaswhattheyhadlearnedinschoolorreadaboutelsewhereThatistheyengagedwithnarrativesthatwereculturallyavailabletothemalbeitinuniqueandpersonallymeaningfulways

Identity

Forthepurposesofthisstudylsquoidentityrsquoisdefinedaslsquotheattempttodifferentiateandintegrateasenseofselfalongdifferentsocialandpersonaldimensionsrsquo(Bamberg20116)Acomplexandmultidimensionalendeavour it invokesoverlappingsocioculturalcategories includinggenderraceethnicityoccupationclassnationstatereligionandsexualorientationThecurrentstudyassumedthatidentityisactivelyconstructed bytheindividualratherthanpassivelylsquoownedrsquoorlsquoreceivedrsquo situational insofar as it develops in context and is subject to change and shaped by narrativesasindicatedaboveImportantlythestudentsrsquoperceptionoftheresearcherndashanEnglish-accentedwhitefemaleofapproximatelyfortyyearsoldaffiliatedwithauniversityndashas

London Review of Education 177

wellastheparticularschoolcontextsinwhichtheyinteractedwithherwouldhaveinfluencedthenarrativestheychosetotellparticularlyduringtheinterviews

Developmentalpsychologistsmeanwhileview lateadolescenceasthepre-eminenttimeinthelifecycleforexplicitlyaddressingissuesofidentity(Erikson1968NakkulaandToshalis2006)asitisaperiodwhenyoungpeopletypicallydevelopanintegratedsenseofselfandthecapacityorcognitivetoolstoconsidertheirlivesinanabstractsenseorasanoveralllsquostoryrsquo(DamonandHart1988Harter1999McAdams1993) Indeedemergingresearchsuggeststhatdevelopingtheabilitytocreateautobiographicalandintergenerationalnarrativesiscrucialfor theemotional andpsychological stabilityof youngpeople (Fivushet al 2011McLeanet al2010)Moreoverat least incontemporarywesterncontextsquestionsconcerningonersquosidentityandlifepurposeunderstandablycometotheforeasyoungpeoplepreparetoleavetheirfamiliesandattain increasedautonomyThisstudychosetofocuson16-to18-year-oldsonthegroundsthattheywouldbelikelytobebothwillingandabletoreflectontherelationshipbetweenthemselvesandhistory

Historical knowledge and understanding

A few quantitative studies have tried to measure young peoplersquos attitudes towards thepastmostnotablythatofAngvikandVonBorries(1997)Meanwhilestudiesincorporatingqualitative approacheshave shownhowyoungpeoplersquos familyornational affiliations affectthekindsofnarrativestheytellaboutthepast(Welzer2008)ortheirhistoricalreasoning(Goldberg et al 2008) Other studies have shown that studentsrsquo social and culturalenvironments impacthowtheymakemeaningoftheirhistoryeducationandthattheyarefar from passive recipients of textbook narratives (Barton and Levstik 2004Goldberg et al 2006Rantala2011) Stillothershave shownhowstudentsrsquo interpretationsofnationalhistorydifferaccordingtotheirracialethnicidentity(Almarza2001Epstein1998HawkeyandPrior2011Peck2010Traille2007)andimmigrationstatusandexperience(An2009Grever et al2008)Whilethisbodyofresearchisinformativethefocusinthisstudywason theways inwhich young people explicitlymake connections between themselves andhistoryOtherstudieshaveexploredhowyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesasmembersofaspecificgeneration(Lenz2011)personallyrelatetoschoolhistorytopics(BartonandMcCully2005)or feel a senseofconnectedness to theoverall studyofhistory (AudigierandFink2010Haeberli2005)Howeverthesestudieshavenotfocusedonthenarrativeprocessesbywhichindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepast

Finally this study draws on literature concerning young peoplersquos historical thinkingparticularlywithregardtotheirthinkingaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeForexampleacommonmisconceptionamongchildrenisthathistoricalknowledgeisjustlsquotherersquoanddoesnotneedtobeconstructedfromhistoricalsources(Ashby2005Lee2005Wineburg2001)althoughtheymayeventuallydeveloptheinsightthathistoricalaccountsarecontingentandmustanswerquestionsandfitcriteria(LeeandShemilt2004)Borrowingfromthatworkthisstudybroadly consideredwhether young people talked about their diagrams (andother historicalaccountsincludingnarrativeaccounts)astentativeinterpretationsoftheirrelationshiptothepastorasstraightforwardunambiguousaccountsItisworthnothingthattodatetherehasbeenalackofclarityregardingthetheoreticalrelationshipbetweenepistemologicalunderstandingsofhistoryandhistoricalconsciousness(Lee2004b)althougharecentpaperpointstoanintegralrelationshipbetweenthetwowithasophisticated(orlsquogeneticrsquo)levelofhistoricalconsciousnessnecessitatingthedevelopmentofalsquohistoriographicalgazersquo(Thorp2014)

178 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh

This study drew then from diverse bodies of literature some theoretical and someempiricallygroundedTheoverarchingimpetuswastounderstandwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothehistoricallysignificantpastWhilethisstudyemphasizesthehighlyindividualandcontext-specificwaysinwhichyoungpeoplecreateorweavetogethernarrativesaboutthemselvesandthepastitalsointegratesinsightsfromcognitiveresearchthatpointtothepredictabledevelopmentofmoreenduringepistemologicalordisciplinaryunderstandingsamongyoungpeopleThesetwoapproacheswhilepotentiallyincompatiblecanbereconciledifstudentsareseenasdevelopingcapacitiesformeaning-makingratherthanholdingparticularideas(HoferandPintrich2002Kegan1982)Howstudentsdeploytheirfundamentalepistemologicalunderstandingsmayvaryfromonediscursivecontexttoanotherbutstudentswhohavenotgraspedtheconstructedandcontingentnatureofhistorical interpretations for instancearenevergoingtoconstructnarrativesinwaysthatreflectthatunderstanding

Methods

Sample

Ofthefourresearchsitestwoschoolsweresituatedinaffluentsuburbancommunitiesonewasinamixed-incomesemi-urbancommunityandonewasinamixed-incomeurbancommunityTable1presentsdemographicfeaturesoftheoverallsampleasself-reportedbystudentsThesamplewas balanced by gender andwas somewhat raciallyethnically diverse however thestudywasnotintendedtobegeneralizabletosomebroaderpopulationespeciallyaspotentiallyimportant information was not collected regarding studentsrsquo socialeconomic or religiousbackgroundsMoreoverthestudywasfocusedonthegeneralprocessesbywhichstudentsusedthepasttomakesenseoftheirlivesidentitiesandvaluesratherthanontheactualsubstantiveconnections that theymadeUnderstandable differences inwhat students talked about (egslaveryandthecivilrightsmovementvstheIslamicRevolutioninIran)werelessimportantforthisstudythanhowtheytalkedaboutthepastorwhatkindofepistemological stance theytooktowardsit(whichwerenotexpectedtobeinfluencedbygenderorracialethnicbackground)

Bydintofbeingenrolledincollegepreparationclasses(HonorsorAP)thesestudentswererelatively successful academically and likely tobeable toarticulate their relationshiptothepastalthoughinformationabouttheirgradesorhistoryeducationwasnotavailableStudentsparticipatedduring class time towards theendof the school year in a varietyofsubject area contexts (accounting English literature government history andpsychology)The subsampleof the 26 interviewed studentswas intentionally diverse in terms bothofdemographiccharacteristics andof theirdiagramsandwritten responsesWith respect tostudentworkvariationwassoughtregarding(1)thenumberofconnectionsstudentsmadebetweenthemselvesandthepast(2)therelativesophisticationoftheirreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeas indicatedbya follow-upactivity (seebelow)and (3) theuniquenessortypicalityoftheirdiagramsrelativetotherestofthesampleHowever it isimportanttonotethatforreasonsoftimingtheinterviewsamplewasselectedbasedonaninitialreadingofthediagramsandotherwrittenresponsesratherthanonthemorethoroughanalysisdescribedbelowAllinterviewswerefullytranscribed

London Review of Education 179

Table 1Breakdownofsample(n=187)

Number of students in

overall sample

of overall sample

Number of students interviewed

of students interviewed

Gender (n=187)

Male 105 56 14 50

Female 82 44 14 50

Race ethnicity (n=175)

African-American 9 5 4 14

Asian 24 14 2 7

Hispanic 3 2 0 0

NativeAmerican 0 0 0 0

White 124 67 18 64

Mixedother 14 8 4 14

Family mobility and language (n=175)

Atleastoneforeignbornparent

74 39 11 40

Studenthasalwayslivedincurrentneighbourhood

111 59 15 54

StudenthaslivedoutsideNewEngland

50 27 5 29

LanguageotherthanEnglishspokenathome

56 30 9 32

Demographicdetailsweremissingforsomeofthesample

Data collection

AsmentionedstudentswereaskedtodrawadiagramonablankpieceofpapertoshowhowthepastlsquohelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingorhopetoliversquoandtothenexplaintheformandcontentoftheirdiagramTheideawasthataconcisediagramformatwouldallowstudentstoconstructanoverviewofthewaysinwhichtheythoughtaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastalthoughitwasusuallyunclearifthisrelationshipwassomethingtheyhadreflectedonpreviouslyTheopen-endednatureofthetaskallowedstudentstoapproachitinwaysthatwerepersonallymeaningfultothemStudentstypicallyspentapproximately45minutesonthetaskWhilethispaperfocusesonthediagramsstudentswentontocompleteotheractivitiesincludingonedesignedtosurfacetheirepistemologicalreasoningaboutthenatureofhistoricalaccounts(adaptedfromBoixMansilla2001)whichtheyalsodiscussedintheirinterviews

Initial coding rounds

StudentsrsquodiagramsprovedhighlyvariedposingachallengeforanalysisInitialcodingfocusedonthecontentofstudentsrsquodiagramsAcrossallthediagramsalmosthalfoftheitems(46percent)relatedtostudentsrsquodirectpersonalexperiencessuchasstartinganewschoolormovinghouseorfeaturesoftheireverydaylivesincludingpersonalitytraitshobbiesortastesOnlyaquarteroftheitemsreferredtowhatmightbecalledthehistoricalpasteventslikelytofeatureinstudentsrsquohistorytextbooksandwhichprecededtheirbirthsAfurther9percentofitemsreferredtolsquohistoricalrsquoeventsoccurringwithinthestudentsrsquoownlifetimesorcontemporaneouslysuchastheelectionofBushorObamaandtheWaronTerror20percentofitemscomprisedthemesortopicsnottiedtoaparticulartimeorperiodsuchasimmigrationracismorliterature

180 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh

ThevaguewordingofthetaskinstructionsndashlsquoshowhowthepasthelpsexplainwhoyouareandthelifeyouarelivingrsquondashmeantthatmanystudentslegitimatelychosetofocusontheirownpastaswellasorinsteadofthehistoricallysignificantpastClosetoafifthofstudents(17percent)includedonly eventsthateithertheyorimmediatemembersoftheirfamilyhadpersonallyexperiencedandoraspectsoftheirpresent-daylivesOverathirdofstudents(34percent)includedmostlyoronlysuchitems(lsquomostlyrsquowasdefinedastwo-thirdsormoreofitems)Overatenthofstudents(13percent)includedmostlyoronlyhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagramswhileclosetohalf(47percent)combineddifferenttypesofitemssothatnoonetypedominatedWhilesuchstatisticsarguablyhintattherelativesensitivityofindividualstudentstothepastthesheeramountofhistorythatindividualschosetoincludeintheirdiagramswasnotusefulforindicatingthedegreetowhichorprocessbywhichtheyweremakingconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepast

Thenextroundofanalysisattemptedtodifferentiatebetweenstudentswhotoldstoriesto explain their personal connection to the past and those who approached the questionmore lsquoanalyticallyrsquo as per Brunerrsquos distinction between narrative and paradigmatic thinkingHowevergiventhecentralityofnarrativestohowwemakemeaningofour lives itprovedmore productive to focus on theways inwhich students integrated personal and historicalnarrativesintheirdiagramsBrunercommentingonwrittentextshasstatedthatlsquoitisnotthatnarrativeandparadigmaticmodesofdiscoursefusefortheydonotItisratherthatthelogicalorparadigmaticmodeisbroughttobearonthetaskofexplicatingthebreachinthenarrativersquo(Bruner200594)Thisdistinctionplayedoutinthisstudyasfollowsstudentstypicallydrewadiagramcontainingnarrativethreads(orasinglecoherentnarrative)andthenwroteexplanatoryor logical comments eitherwithinor alongside thediagram Interviewed students retoldorelaboratedonthesenarrativeswhilealsobreakingoutintoanalyticcommentaryonthem

Findings overview Studentsrsquo incorporation of personal and historical narratives into their diagrams

Table2summarizesthewaysinwhichstudentscombinedpersonalandhistoricallysignificantitemsintheirdiagrams iftheydidatallandtheoverallnarrativeeffect ifanyThelabels inboldindicatethepresenceofwhatappearedtobecoherentoverarchingnarrativeswithinthediagramsndashbethatpersonalnarrativeshistoricalnarrativesoronesthatbroughtthesetwokindsofnarrativetogetherPersonalnarrativesrefertostoriesaboutstudentsrsquoownlivesorthoseoftheirimmediatefamilyHistoricalnarrativesinvolvethehistoricallysignificantpastasrecognizedbyarelativelylargegroupofpeopleincludinghistoriansTheycouldbenarrativesaboutparticulareventsorhistoricaldevelopmentssuchasthestruggleforwomenrsquosrightsortheUnitedStatesgainingindependencefromBritainmoreinterpretativesweepsofperiodsofhistorysuchasthetwentiethcenturyorevenaddresshowhistoryitselfunfolds

ItisimportanttonotethatstudentswerenotaskedtoproducecoherentnarrativesoftheirrelationshiptothepastintheirdiagramsanabsenceofacoherentnarrativedoesnotmeanthatindividualstudentswereincapableofandorresistanttoproducingthemjustthattheydidnotdosointhiscontextMoreoversincestudentsweregiventhechallengingtaskofsimultaneouslythinking of items to include and arranging those items diagrammatically some diagrams canbeinterpretedasaninitialjottingdownofideasndashalthoughasTable2indicatessomeofthediagrams that appeared tobe listsor brainstormseffectivelyoperated as narratives if thereweresufficientthematiccoherenceandadequatecontext forthechoiceof itemsHoweverinthecaseofstudentswhowerenotintervieweditisimpossibletoknowiftheyintentionallyselectedordevelopedparticularnarrativestrategiesThemostcompellingdiagrams(a)included

London Review of Education 181

lessthantwo-thirdsofitemsrelatedtopersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcandatleastsomehistoricallysignificantitemsand(b)integratedpersonalandhistoricalnarrativesHoweverTable2shouldbereadasasummaryoffindingsratherthanasanevaluativeschema

Table 2Asummaryofcontenttypeandnarrativestrategyintheoverallsampleofdiagrams(n=168)

A Diagrams onlyincludepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetc(n=31)

LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyvaluesinfluences 20

CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifeandorimmediatefamily

Personal narrative

11

B Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarepersonalorfamilyexperiencestastesinterestsetcbutotherkindsofitemsareincluded(n=29)

LISTBRAINSTORMCurrentinterestsfriendsfamilyetcwithhistorycitedasaninterestor eventsorinfluencesincludingitemsofbroadhistoricorcontemporarysignificance

17

CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHTellsstoryofownlifesomeprecedinghistoryisincludedasbackgroundandor broadercontextualdetailisincludedndashegcontemporaryeventsordevelopments

Personal narrative with links to the historically significant past

12

C Two-thirdsormoreofincludeditemsarehistoricallysignificantevents(n=24)

LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportant

13

LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)

Personal narrative linked to historical narrative

7

CHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHChronologicaloverviewofhistorywithselfatendorasapointonatimeline

Historical narrative with self inserted

4

D IntegrateddiagramMixtureofdifferentkindsofitems(n=84)

LISTBRAINSTORMSeeminglyrandomconnectionsorverygeneralrationaleforincludingitemsegthingsthathaveaffectedmethingsIbelieveareimportantorhavelearnedfrom 23

LISTBRAINSTORMCoherentthemeitemscollectivelyservetolinkownlifestorytobiggerhistoricalnarrative(s)

Personal narrative linked to historical narrative

13

VARIEDFORMSSubsumespersonalnarrativewithinthatofagrouptowhichheorshebelongs(egAlgerianMuslimsAshkenaziJewsAmericanshumanrace)

Personal and historical narrative tethered (STUART)

9

BROADCHRONOLOGICALAPPROACHContextualizesownorfamilystorywithinbroaderhistoricalcontextshowshowownstoryorfamilyrsquosstoryhasbeenintertwinedwithhistoricaleventsortrends

Personal narrative contextualized within broader historical narrative (MELVIN)

23

VARIEDFORMSPresentsselfasaproductandorpartofaconfluenceofnarrativesmayinvolvecomplexcausalconnections

Personal narrative seen as product of historical narrative(s) andor at confluence of different narratives (JESS)

16

NumberofdiagramsinsamplefittingthiscategoryDiagramsthatonlyincludedgeneralthemeswereexcludedfromthisanalysis

182 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh

Studentsrsquo narrative strategies Melvin Stuart and Jess

While giving a senseof thedistributionof approacheswithin theoverall sampleTable 2 isnecessarilyreductionistandfailstocapturewhatitlookedlikeinpracticeforparticularstudentstomakenarrativeconnectionsbetweentheirownlivesandthepastThispaperturnsnowtothreespecificcasestoprovidemorenuanceddiscussionandtoshowthatstudentsconnectedthemselvestothepast inhighly individualizedwaysMelvinStuartand Jess(allpseudonyms)wereselectedbecausetheycreateddiagramswithmixedcontentbutuseddifferentnarrativestrategies to bring personal and historical narratives together as indicated in SectionD ofTable2Furthermoretherewereinterestingdifferencesinthewaysinwhichtheytalkedabouttheirdiagrams

InwhatfollowsafewimpressionisticdetailsaregivenabouteachstudenttoemphasizetheirindividualityaswellastoconveytheresearcherrsquosperspectivethedetailsarenotnecessarilysignificantThenevidencefromthestudentsrsquodiagramstheirwrittenexplanationsandinterviewsarewoventogether

Melvin Historically contextualizing his own life story exploring the relationship between individuals and bigger historical processes

Melvinwas a soft-spoken affable studentwhowore abaseball capduringhis interviewHereferredtohisCaribbeanheritageandlargefamily(heistheyoungestofeightchildren)aswellashisreligiousfaithHehastravelledextensivelytovisitfamilyintheCaribbeanandEuropeandhaslivedinvariousGreaterBostonneighbourhoods

MelvinrsquosdiagramatfirstglanceisstructuredintheformofaswirlingtimelineHestartswith the Emancipation Proclamation ndash the abolition of slavery at the end of the AmericanCivilWarndashwhichispresentedasanecessaryconditionorbackgroundenablinghispersonalstorylsquomyeducationlevelmyqualityoflifeprobablywhereIlivewouldhavebeencompletelydifferentrsquoHoweverhisdiagramdoesnotfollowastrictchronologydespitethearrowsthatconnectthedifferentitemsTheendofthetimelineisonlylooselystructuredfeaturingaspectsofMelvinrsquoslifecircumstancessuchaswherehelivestheeducationhehasreceivedthetravelhehascompletedandhowtheselifecircumstanceshavehadanimpactonwhoheistodayWhileMelvinincorporatesthehistoricallysignificantpastintohisdiagramhisfocusissomewhattiltedtowardshispersonallifestory

NonethelessMelvindoesmorethanmerelydescribehisownlifehesituatesitwithinabroaderhistoricalcontextHisexplanatorynotescentreonhowhecametohaveexcellentlifeprospectsdespitethechallengesheperceivesofbeingayoungblackmanlivingintheUnitedStatesBeginninghispersonaltimelinewiththeEmancipationProclamationandtheendingoftheJimCrowlawsservestoacknowledgehisrelativegoodfortunecomparedwithpreviousgenerationshealsoconnectshisownstorytoawidercollectivenarrativeofsocialprogressandtechnologicalchangewhichaffectlsquoprettymucheveryoneinmygenerationrsquoByonlyselectinglsquothingsbeyondhiscontrolrsquo forhisdiagramMelvinusesthediagramnarrativetoexploretherelationshipbetweenindividuallivesorfreewillandlargersocietalorhistoricalforcesInhisinterview he also referred to his siblings his parentsrsquo political and religious views and theliberalcontextofMassachusettsasinfluencesbeyondhiscontrolthathavehelpedtoshapehimblurringthedistinctionbetweenpastandpresentinhisbidtoexplorethedegreetowhichweshapeourowndestinies

London Review of Education 183

Fig

ure

1M

elvinrsquosdiagram

184 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh

Fig

ure

2Stuartrsquosdiagram

London Review of Education 185

Stuart Situating his own life at the confluence of various historical narratives tethering his own story to the history of humanity

StuartwasaboyofItalianAmericanextractionwithspikedhairwhosefamilyhaslivedinthesamesemi-urbanneighbourhoodofGreaterBostonforseveralgenerationsHejokedaroundwithhispeersinclassbutbecamestrikinglyseriousinthecontextoftheinterviewspeakinginaheartfeltwayabouthisfamilyandhisprideinbeingAmericanHealsostatedthathistorywashisfavouritesubject

Stuartrsquosdiagramwaswide-rangingintermsofboththemeandtimespanHepickedthefollowingthemeslsquowarsandbattlesrsquowhichleduptooratleastprecededlsquomodernterrorismrsquolsquofamouspeoplersquowithJesusChristtheonlynamedpersonlsquoconstructionandfactorizationrsquo[sic]whichtracesbroadtechnologicaldevelopmentsinhumanhistoryandlsquolandandthefoundersrsquowhich broadly relates to the discovery andor establishment of different empires or nationstates The general chronological element to the threads suggests narratives unfolding overtimeanimpressionreinforcedbyacommentmadebyStuartinhisinterview

InterviewerObviously IrsquoveaskedyoutodothisbuthaveyouthoughtaboutthisbigpicturebeforeOrwasitjustmdash

StuartIactuallyhaveIwasjustlikesittingathomeandjustlikethinkinglikewhydideverythingstartandlikehowitactuallypusheditselfintoeachotheranditdevelopedintoeverythingandthenIcamealongandIfeltlikeIwasapartofiteventhoughIwasnrsquotlikephysicallyapartofitLikeIthoughtIwasinvolvedbecauseofallthishappening

Hismetaphoriclanguagewhichconveysasenseofhistoricaleventsslidingorpilingintooneanotherdrawsattentiontohisbeingimmersedinsomebiggerstoryconcerningthewholeofhumanhistory

InhisdiagramStuartsituateshislifeattheconfluenceofdifferentnarrativestrandsunfoldinginhistoryhealsotethershispersonalstorytothatofhumankindwritlargeThatisinbeingasked to show how his own life connects to the past he elects to tell a broader story ofhumanityIfwecompareStuartrsquosdiagramtothatofMelvin it is lessofanexplorationofhisindividualstoryandmoreanexpressionaboutbelongingtoacollectivestory

Jess Exploring how the past is helping shape the ongoing story of her own personal development situating her own life at the confluence of various historical narratives

Jesswasagirlwith longbrownhairanaccomplishedgymnastanddancerShespokeofherJewish ancestry and her familyrsquos involvement in the LGBTmovement as well as her closeattachmenttoherlocalurbancommunitywhereshehaslivedherwholelifeShearticulatedherwordscarefullyoftenpausingasiftoreflectbeforerespondingtoquestions

AtfirstglanceJessrsquosdiagramdoesnotexhibitthekindofflowvisibleintheprevioustwodiagramsHoweverthereisaswirlingdynamicatplaymadeevidentbyherverbalexplanationofherdiagram

SoattheverycentreofmydiagramIhavejustalittlekindofbubblethatsayslsquomersquoAndImadeitabubblebecauseIthinkIrsquomnotallthatsortofwelldefinedbutitrsquosallsortofjustmushandthingsjustkindofflowinandinfluencemeSoIhavesortofacirclearoundmyselfandIhaveabunchofdifferentsortsofmovementsandeventsinhistorythatIthinkhavemostinfluencedmesuchastheenvironmentalmovementsandenvironmentaldegradationThecivilrightsmovementstheGLBTmovementswomenrsquosrightsmovementsJewishhistoryJewishmovementsandwarsaresortofthemaineventsthatinfluencedmeandtheninmoreofaninnercircleIhavemorebroad

186 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh

topicssuchaseducationtechnologydancingandmusicthathavendashtheyallhavetheirownsortofhistoryandtheyallhaveapastthatIdonrsquotnecessarilyknowasmuchaboutinaconcretewaybutumndashallofthosethingsinfluencemesotheyrsquoreallflowingintothecentreThatrsquoswhereIam

Figure 3Jessrsquosdiagram

InthiscaseherongoingpersonaldevelopmentarguablyprovidesthenarrativecentrepieceorunifyingfactorThediagramalsoservesasanassertionofheremergingidentityndashintermsofeventsthathaveinfluencedhervaluesandsenseofwhosheisaswellasherpersonaltalentsandinterestsAsbecameevidentinherinterviewhowevershealsosituatesherselfasbeingattheconfluenceofdifferenthistoricalnarrativesForexampleshetalksaboutbeingatacertainmoment in thehistoryof theenvironmentwhichhasbeenshapedbypreviousgenerationsrsquoactionslsquomygenerationwersquoregoingtobereallyreallydealingwiththatrsquoShetalksaboutbeingshapedbyandinheritingthelegacyofthewomenrsquosrightsmovementcivilrightsmovementandJewishhistoryWithregardtothegayrightsmovementinwhichherfamilyhasbeenimmersedshehasasenseofbeingpartofhistoryinthemakinglsquothemovementisnow Youknowtherersquosbeenmovementsinthepastcertainlybutitrsquoslikeahugethingnowrsquo

How students talked about their diagrams The importance of epistemology

Theways inwhich students in the study talked about their diagramswere revealing of thepotentialrelationshipbetweentheirunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgeandtheir individualhistoricalconsciousnessInparticulartherewasacontrastbetweenstudents

London Review of Education 187

who presented their diagrams as contingent subjective interpretations of the relationshipbetweentheirownlivesandthepastandthosewhoappearedtopresenttheirdiagramsasself-evidentstraightforwardrepresentations

Jessforinstancetalkedfromthestartaboutnotbeinglsquoallthatwelldefinedrsquoasreflectedby the blob at the centre of her diagram There is a sense of fluidity ormovement in herdiagramndashasmuchintermsofherowninterpretationofherownplaceinhistoryasineventsordevelopmentsthemselvesShowinganawarenessofthelimitationsofherownknowledgeshestatesthatshedidnotwanttoexcludeitemsfromherdiagramsimplybecauseofherownignorance

MoreoverintalkingaboutthedifferentelementsofherdiagramshespokeinmetacognitivetermsaboutthedifferencesbetweenlearningaboutJewishhistoryatthetemplewhereitwasframedas lsquoourhistoryrsquoandatschoolwhereitwastreatedassomeoneelsersquoshistoryWithregardtothewomenrsquosrightsmovementshesaid

Sowomenrsquos rightsrsquomovements ndash umm ndashmymomwas a pretty hardcore feminist and IrsquovedefinitelyinheritedsomeofthatandIrsquovereallyenjoyedmostlythisyearactuallyndashIlearnedaboutwomenrsquosrightsinUSHistoryandthatrsquosbeenreallyinterestingsortofhowthatrsquosplayedoutAndprobablybecauseofmymotherandotheradultsandotherwomenthatIrsquovegrownupwithIrsquomlikendashveryconsciousofthatthatIamawomanandthatotherwomenhavedonealottogettowhereIamtodayAndtherersquosdefinitelyasenseofprideformeIhavealwaysbeenverysortofconsciousofthatheritage

Here Jesspresents the impactof themovementassomewhat inevitablegivenhermotherrsquosvaluesHowevershealsorefersexplicitlytoherenjoymentandinterestinlearningaboutthistopicatschoolSheexpresseshersenseofconnectiontowomenrsquoshistoryandheractiveprideinitwhilealsoprovidinganexplanationforwhyshefeelsconnectedtoitshowingacapacityforself-reflectionormetacognitionItisworthnotinghoweverthatshedidnotcommentontheprogressivetemplatethatseemedtoundergirdhernarrative

StuartincontrastpresentedhisdiagraminmorefixedtermsWheninvitedtotalkaboutitheproceededtolisteverythingcontainedwithinit

WellfirstofallIputthelandandthefoundersbecausethesearethebasicgroupsandpeoplethatstartedeverythingThepeoplewhostartedMesopotamiaAncientThebesyouknowlikethatPeoplewhowereintheRomanEmpireallthoseVikingsthefamousexplorersChristopherColumbusMagellanetceterahellip

Inthisextracthe iscitingundisputed lsquofactsrsquohedoesnotusemodifying languagebut insteadstates straightforwardlywhat happenedWhen asked how he knew about these aspects ofthepastheresponded lsquoMostofthestuffcamefromschool Iwas justtryingtothinkwhathappenedrsquo Stuart expressed a greatdealof connection to thepast including asmentionedearlierthathefeltpartofanongoinghistoricalprocessWhileJessspokewithprideyetanalyticdetachmentofherconnectiontothewomenrsquosmovementStuartdidnotexhibitthecapacitytotalkinametacognitivewayaboutthecontentorformofhisdiagramndashalthoughthisdoesnotmeanthathewasincapableofdoingso

Inhis interviewStuartalso talkedabout learning fromhisgrandmotherabout thepastincludinglifelessonsshegleanedfromweatheringtheGreatDepressionHereferredtohercorroboratingwhathelearnedatschool

Anditrsquoscoolbecause[myteacher]canteachmeaboutitatthesametimeandthenshecanjusttellmeaboutthestuffItrsquosreallycoolhellipIlikeaskherlsquoDoyourememberthisrsquohelliplsquoDoyourememberbootleggingandstufflikethatrsquoAndshewaslikelsquoyeaIrememberthatrsquowhichiscoolbecauseyouactuallyknowwhathappenedYoucanjusttalktoheraboutit

188 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh

It is notable that he does not talk about hearing his grandmotherrsquos perspective about whathappenedratherheviewsherasanauthorityonhistorypresumablybecausehethinksshedirectlyexperiencedwhatisinhistextbook

Melvinrsquosstancetowardhisdiagramwasmoretentativeinnosmallpartbecauseheactuallyproducedtwodiagramsthefirstversionwasabrainstormofinfluencesonhislifewhichhethought conveyed an even spreadof influences on his lifeHowever in the second version(featuredinthispaper)lsquoItriedtomakeitinchronologicalordersotospeakLikewhatwasinheritedthenthingsthataffectedmelateronrsquoFurtherhespokerepeatedlyabouthisparticularlifeexperiencesaffectinghisperspectiveontheworldandonthepast

YouknowIwasnrsquotbroughtupinthesametypeofenvironmentthat[myparents]wereIwasbroughtupinAmericainMassachusettsatthatAndIthoughtthatwassomethingthatreallyaffectsyouanditaffectshowyoulookatliketheinternationalpoliticalsystemandwhatnothellipIthinkbecausemyparentsarefromoverseasitdefinitelyhelpsmelookatthingsonalargerscaleButIdodefinitelythinkincomparisontothemIlookatthingsfromanAmericanperspective

At the same time he assumes some commonality with other people such as people fromhisgenerationwhoaregrowingup inadigitalenvironment InMelvinrsquoscasehisoverarchingnarrativeisabout thewayinwhichhisoutlookandlifeprospectshavebeenaffectedbythepastandexternalforceshoweverheisalsoabletolsquostepoutsidersquothatnarrativetoreflectonthewaysinwhichhisapproachtothetaskhasbeeninfluencedbythoseverylifeexperiencesandfamilyinfluencesLikeStuartheisclosetohisgrandmotherHoweverwhenhereferstotalkingwithherabout thepastandher life inTrinidadhiscomment isaboutherperspective lsquotheobstaclesofyourpastdefinitelyaffectyourpointofviewrsquoInturnhetalksaboutherinfluenceonhimlsquoIthinkthestoriesthatyoursquoretolddefinitelyaffectthewayyouthinkrsquo

OtherstudentsmadecommentsthatindicatedarelationshipbetweentheirawarenessoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgeandthewaysinwhichtheyviewedtheirownrelationshiptothepastThey(1)acknowledgedtheirownsubjectivityandorthelimitationsoftheirperspectiveontheirrelationshiptothepast(2)presentedtheirdiagramsandexplanationsas tentative and subject to alteration andor (3) stepped outside themselves to reflect ontheir reactions to learningabouthistory In factwhile Jesswas theonly studentwhomadecommentsthatcoveredallthreeofthesecategoriesfewstudentsappearedtotakethemorestraightforwardviewofhistoricalknowledgeapparentlyevincedbyStuartThefactthatstudentsinthesamplewereacademicallysuccessfulaged16ndash18andlivinginacitywithahighlyeducatedworkforceandmajoracademicinstitutionsprobablyneedstobetakenintoaccountwithregardtothisfinding

ItisalsoworthreiteratingthattheresearcherwasnotaproverbialflyonthewallwhilecollectingthisdataForexampleStuartpresentedhimselfasagoodstudentwholikedhistoryandrespectedhiselders justpriortotheinterviewtherewasadrugsbustattheschoolbypoliceanditispossiblehewantedtoconveythathewasalsquodecentkidrsquoMelvindiscussedhisrelative good fortune comparedwithother youngblackmen (including implicitly others athisschool)insodoinghewasabletocommunicatethathewasfromahighlyeducatedfamilylivinginadesirablepartoftownJessmeanwhilepositionedherselfasathoughtfulpoliticallyinformedstudentWhiletheseimpressionsarepurelyspeculativetheysuggestthattheschoolcontextandtheperceivedidentityoftheresearcherndashaswellastheframingoftheactivityndashhelpedtoshapewhatstudentschosetoshareHoweverrecognizingthatthereislikelytobesomefluidityintermsofhowindividualsrelatetheirownlivestothepastdoesnotdiminishthefindingthattheyoungpeopleinthisstudyusedavarietyofnarrativestrategiestodosoorthatthewaysinwhichtheytalkedaboutthosestrategiesappearedtodifferaccordingtotheirepistemologicalunderstandings

London Review of Education 189

Implications

InconjunctionwiththeoverallsummaryshowninTable2thesethreecasesprovidesnapshotsofdifferentways inwhichyoungpeopleusednarrativestrategiestoconnecttheirownlivesto the past aswell as differences in theways inwhich they talked about those strategiesWhilethisstudyishighlyexploratorythesecasespointtotheapparentdiversityofways inwhichyoungpeoplethinkaboutthemselvesinrelationtothepastaswellasthesignificanceof epistemological understanding in the construction of individual historical consciousnessOf coursemany questions remain For example was the ability of Jess andMelvin to talkreflectively about their diagrams and their relationship to thepast an indicationof rigoroushistoricalunderstandinginadisciplinarysenseorofmoregenericcriticalorabstractthinkingskills Further howdo teensrsquo broaddevelopmental trajectoriesndash such as thoseoutlinedbyErikson(1968)ndash intersectwiththeirhistoricalunderstanding Itwouldbe interestingtoaskchildrenofdifferentagestocompletethediagramtaskYoungerstudentswouldpresumablyfind it challenging tocreate anarrative about theirown lives in toto as indeed someof thestudentsinthisstudymayhavedoneExaminingthepotentiallinksbetweenthedevelopmentofautobiographicalstory-tellingskillsandhowyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastcouldbeanotherproductivelineofresearch

Methodologicallythestudyopensupsomeinterestingpossibilitiesespeciallyasthediagramactivity invited students to synthesize their thinking about their personal connections to thepastinarelativelyopen-endedmannerThetaskinstructionsandoranalysiscouldbealteredtoinvestigaterelatedphenomenaForexamplehowifatalldostudentsdealwiththeideathataspeopletheyareevolvingandmayhaveashiftingrelationshiptoorperspectiveonthepastTowhatextentdotheyportraythemselvesasactiveagentsintheirownrightratherthanindividualssubjecttoforcesbeyondtheircontrolHowdodifferencesamongtheirvariouslsquometa-historicalrsquounderstandingssuchastheirworkingideasabouthistoricalcausalityrelatetohowtheytalkaboutthemselves inrelation to thepastHowwould theyposition themselvesrelative toperceivednationalnarrativesWhile it is impossible toproveadirectrelationship fromthis singlestudyndashorthereasonsbehindsucharelationshipndashstudentswhodisplayedanunderstandingoftheconstructednatureofhistoricalknowledgealsogavetheimpressionofbeingmoreempoweredintermsoftalkingabouttheirfutureandnavigatingtheirownemergingidentities

Withregardtopractice therangeofpersonaldiagramsproducedbystudentsconfirmsthatifteachersarelookingtobuildontheirstudentsrsquoexistingideasandunderstandingsalsquoonesizefitsallrsquoapproach is likely tobemisguidedandnon-inclusiveandthatnationalnarrativesare only one kind of narrative towhich young people feel connected This paper does notadvocatethatyoungpeoplebeinvitedtorelateeverythingtheylearninhistorytothemselvesHoweverofferingopen-endedandpotentiallycreativeopportunitiesforthemtoreflectontheconnectionstheyperceivebetweenthemselvesandthepastislikelytobeengagingparticularlyforolderteensgiventheirbroaderdevelopmentalneedtoestablishindependentidentities

FurthermoresuchopportunitiescanactivelybuildhistoricalunderstandingGiventhesheervarietyofdiagramsthatwillalmostcertainlybeproducedwithinasingleclassroomstudentscan learn a greatdeal by looking at anddiscussing thediagramsof their peers inways thatdeveloptheirunderstandingthatpeoplehavedifferentperspectivesonthepastandthattheseperspectivesareshapedat least inpartbybiographicalorothercontextual factorsLookingatothersrsquodiagramscanopenupdifferentpossibilitiesforyoungpeopleintermsofhowtheythinkabouttheirownrelationshiptothepastandgivethemanewperspectiveontheirownidentityandoutlookIndeedthepowerofthisapproachcanbefurtherenhancedifclassroomsaredigitallyconnectedtoclassroomsinothercountriesengaginginthesameactivityinpartbecauseitallowsprevailingandassumednationalnarrativestobecomevisible

190 Elizabeth Dawes Duraisingh

While somepeoplewouldcertainly resist thenotionof lettingyoungpeopleuse schoolhistoryasavenueforexploringorinterpretingtheirownlivesidentitiesandvaluesthisresearchshedslightonsomeofthevariedwaysinwhichyoungpeoplerelatetheirownlivestothepastoruseitfororientingpurposesAsJessinparticulardemonstratedasophisticatedunderstandingofthenatureofhistoricalknowledgecangohandinhandwithaself-awarenessandevenprideinonersquosrelationshiptothepastWearguablyoweittoourstudentstohelpthemthinkaboutwhotheyareandthelivestheyarelivingorwanttoliveinourrapidlychangingandevermorecomplexworldWeneedtosupportthemtointerpretthepastandtodeveloprobusthistoricalunderstandingswealsoneedtosupportthemtointerprettheirownnarratives

Acknowledgements

TheauthorwishestothanktheGermanacosFoundationforsupportingtheresearchdiscussedinthispaperaswellasHowardGardnerHelenHasteandMeiraLevinsonforprovidingguidancewiththeresearchMycolleaguesEdwardClappandShariTishmangavehelpfulfeedbackonearlydrafts

Notes on the contributor

ElizabethDawesDuraisinghisaresearchassociateandprincipalinvestigatoratProjectZeroaresearchcentreat theHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducationwhereshealsoservesasalectureroneducationShewaspreviouslyahighschoolhistoryteacherforeightyearsworkinginbothEnglandandAustralia

References

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AndrewsM(2007)Shaping History Narratives of political changeCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressAngvikMandVonBorriesB(eds)(1997)Youth and History A comparative European survey on historical

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(eds)Understanding History Recent research in history educationLondonRoutledge21ndash36AudigierFandFinkN(2010)lsquoPupilsandschoolhistoryinFranceandSwitzerlandrsquo Education 3ndash1338

(3)329ndash39BambergM(2011)lsquoWhoamINarrationanditscontributiontoselfandidentityrsquo Theory and Psychology

21(1)3ndash24BartonKC(2001)lsquolsquolsquoYoursquodbewantingtoknowaboutthepastrdquoSocialcontextsofchildrenrsquoshistorical

understandinginNorthernIrelandandtheUSArsquo Comparative Education37(1)89ndash106BartonKCandLevstikLS(2004)Teaching History for the Common GoodMahwahNJLawrenceErlbaum

AssociatesBartonKCandMcCullyAW(2005)lsquoHistoryidentityandtheschoolcurriculuminNorthernIreland

Anempiricalstudyofsecondarystudentsrsquoideasandperspectivesrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies37(1)85ndash116

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Baynham M (2010) lsquoAlexandra Georgakopoulou Small stories interaction and identitiesrsquo Applied Linguistics31(3)471ndash3

BilligM(1995)Banal NationalismLondonSAGEPublicationsBillmann-Mahecha E and Hausen M (2005) lsquoEmpirical psychological approaches to the historical

consciousnessofchildrenrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks163ndash86

BoixMansillaV(2001)The Pursuit of Understanding A study of exemplary high school studentsrsquo conceptions of knowledge validation in science and history EdDthesisHarvardGraduateSchoolofEducation

BrunerJS(1990)Acts of MeaningCambridgeMAHarvardUniversityPressBrunerJS(2005)lsquoPastandpresentasnarrativeconstructionsrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and

Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks23ndash43DamonWandHartD (1988)Self-Understanding in Childhood and AdolescenceNewYorkCambridge

UniversityPressDantoAC(1965)Analytical Philosophy of HistoryCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressEpsteinT(1998)lsquoDeconstructingdifferencesinAfrican-AmericanandEuropean-Americanadolescentsrsquo

perspectivesonUShistoryrsquo Curriculum Inquiry28(4)397ndash423EriksonEH(1968)Identity Youth and CrisisNewYorkWWNortonFivush R Bohanek JG and ZamanW (2011) lsquoPersonal and intergenerational narratives in relation

to adolescentsrsquowell-beingrsquo InHabermasT (ed)The Development of Autobiographical Reasoning in Adolescence and Beyond (NewDirectionsforChildandAdolescentDevelopment131)45ndash57

GoldbergTPoratDandSchwarzBB(2006)lsquolsquoHerestartedtheriftweseetodayrsquoStudentandtextbooknarrativesbetweenofficialandcountermemoryrsquo Narrative Inquiry16(2)319ndash47

GoldbergTSchwarzBBandPoratD(2008)lsquoLivinganddormantcollectivememoriesascontextsofhistorylearningrsquo Learning and Instruction18(3)223ndash37

GreverMHaydnTandRibbensK(2008)lsquoIdentityandschoolhistoryTheperspectiveofyoungpeoplefromtheNetherlandsandEnglandrsquo British Journal of Educational Studies56(1)76ndash94

HaeberliP(2005) lsquoRelatingtohistoryAnempiricaltypologyrsquo International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research5(1)1ndash10

Hammack PL and Pilecki A (2012) lsquoNarrative as a rootmetaphor for political psychologyrsquo Political Psychology33(1)75ndash103

HarterS(1999)The Construction of the Self A developmental perspectiveNewYorkGuilfordPressHawkey K and Prior J (2011) lsquoHistory memory cultures and meaning in the classroomrsquo Journal of

Curriculum Studies43(2)231ndash47HoferBKandPintrichPR(eds)(2002)Personal Epistemology The psychology of beliefs about knowledge and

knowing MahwahNJLawrenceErlbaumAssociatesKeganR (1982)The Evolving Self Problem and process in human development CambridgeMAHarvard

UniversityPressLee P (2004a) lsquoUnderstanding historyrsquo In Seixas P (ed) Theorizing Historical Consciousness Toronto

UniversityofTorontoPress129ndash64LeeP(2004b)lsquoldquoWalkingbackwardsintotomorrowrdquoHistoricalconsciousnessandunderstandinghistoryrsquo

International Journal of Historical Learning Teaching and Research4(1)1ndash46LeePJ(2005)lsquoPuttingprinciplesintopracticeUnderstandinghistoryrsquoInDonovanMSandBransford

JD (eds)How Students Learn History mathematics and science in the classroomWashingtonDCNationalAcademiesPress31ndash77

LeePandShemiltD(2004)lsquolsquolsquoIjustwishwecouldgobackinthepastandfindoutwhatreallyhappenedrdquoProgressioninunderstandingabouthistoricalaccountsrsquo Teaching History 11725ndash31

LenzC(2011) lsquoGenealogyandarchaeologyAnalyzinggenerationalpositioning inhistoricalnarrativesrsquo Journal of Comparative Family Studies42(3)319ndash27

LeacutetourneauJandMoisanS(2004)lsquoYoungpeoplersquosassimilationofacollectivehistoricalmemoryAcasestudyofQuebeckersofFrench-CanadianheritagersquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress109ndash28

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LowenthalD(1996)Possessed by the Past The heritage crusade and the spoils of historyNewYorkFreePress

McAdamsDP(1993)The Stories We Live By Personal myths and the making of the selfNewYorkGuilfordPress

McLean KC Breen AV and FournierMA (2010) lsquoConstructing the self in earlymiddle and lateadolescentboysNarrativeidentityindividuationandwell-beingrsquo Journal of Research on Adolescence20(1)166ndash87

NakkulaMJandToshalisE(2006)Understanding Youth Adolescent development for educatorsCambridgeMAHarvardEducationPress

NoraP(1996)Realms of Memory Rethinking the French pastTransGoldhammerANewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress

PeckCL (2010) lsquolsquolsquoItrsquos not like [Irsquom]Chinese andCanadian I am inbetweenrdquoEthnicity and studentsrsquoconceptionsofhistoricalsignificancersquo Theory and Research in Social Education38(4)574ndash617

PolkinghorneDE(1988)Narrative Knowing and the Human SciencesAlbanyStateUniversityofNewYorkPress

Polkinghorne DE (2005) lsquoNarrative psychology and historical consciousness Relationships andperspectivesrsquoInStraubJ(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks3ndash22

RantalaJ(2011)lsquoChildrenasconsumersofhistoricalcultureinFinlandrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies43(4)493ndash506

ReicherSandHopkinsN(2001)Self and Nation Categorization contestation and mobilizationLondonSAGEPublications

RosenzweigRandThelenDP(1998)The Presence of the Past Popular uses of history in American lifeNewYorkColumbiaUniversityPress

RuumlsenJ(1993)Studies in MetahistoryPretoriaHumanSciencesResearchCouncilSeixasP(1997)lsquoMappingtheterrainofhistoricalsignificancersquo Social Education61(1)22ndash7SeixasP(2004)lsquoIntroductionrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityof

TorontoPress3ndash20SeixasP(2005)lsquoHistoricalconsciousnessTheprogressofknowledgeinapostprogressiveagersquoInStraub

J(ed)Narration Identity and Historical ConsciousnessNewYorkBerghahnBooks141ndash62SeixasP(2009)lsquoNationalhistoryandbeyondrsquo Journal of Curriculum Studies41(6)719ndash22ThorpR(2014)lsquoTowardsanepistemologicaltheoryofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquoHistorical Encounters A

Journal of Historical Consciousness Historical Cultures and History Education1(1)20ndash31TrailleK (2007) lsquolsquolsquoYou should be proud about your history Theymademe feel ashamedrdquoTeaching

historyhurtsrsquo Teaching History 12731ndash7VanSledrightB (2008) lsquoNarrativesofnation-statehistoricalknowledgeandschoolhistoryeducationrsquo

Review of Research in Education32(1)109ndash46WelzerH(2008)lsquoCollateraldamageofhistoryeducationNationalsocialismandtheHolocaustinGerman

familymemoryrsquo Social Research75(1)287ndash314WertschJV(2002)Voices of Collective RememberingCambridgeCambridgeUniversityPressWertschJV(2004)lsquoSpecificnarrativesandschematicnarrativetemplatesrsquoInSeixasP(ed)Theorizing

Historical ConsciousnessTorontoUniversityofTorontoPress49ndash62Wineburg S (2001)Historical Thinking and Other Unnatural Acts Charting the future of teaching the past

PhiladelphiaTempleUniversityPressWineburgSMosborgSPoratDandDuncanA(2007)lsquoCommonbeliefandtheculturalcurriculum

Anintergenerationalstudyofhistoricalconsciousnessrsquo American Educational Research Journal44(1)40ndash76

London Review of Education 193

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DawesDuraisinghE (2017) lsquoMakingnarrativeconnectionsExploringhow late teensrelate theirownnarrativestothehistoricallysignificantpastrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)

GoldbergT(2017) lsquoTheusefulpast innegotiationAdolescentsrsquouseofhistory innegotiationof inter-groupconflictrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)

GreverMandVanderVliesT(2017)lsquoWhynationalnarrativesareperpetuatedAliteraturereviewonnewinsightsfromhistorytextbookresearchrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)

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LeacutetourneauJandChapmanA(2017)lsquoEditorialndashNegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)

LeacutevesqueS(2017)lsquoHistoryasaldquoGPSrdquoOntheusesofhistoricalnarrativeforFrenchCanadianstudentsrsquolifeorientationandidentityrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)

OlofssonHSamuelsson JStolareMandWendell J (2017) lsquoTheSwedesandtheirhistoryrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)

SheehanMandDavisonM(2017)lsquoldquoWeneedtoremembertheydiedforusrdquoHowyoungpeopleinNewZealandmakemeaningofwarremembranceandcommemorationoftheFirstWorldWarrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)

VanHavereTWilsKDepaepeFVerschaffelLandVanNieuwenhuyseK(2017)lsquoFlemishstudentsrsquohistoricalreferenceknowledgeandnarrativesoftheBelgiannationalpastattheendofsecondaryeducationrsquoLondon Review of Education15(2)

WertschJV(2017)lsquoForeword ndash NegotiatingthenationYoungpeoplenationalnarrativesandhistoryeducationrsquo London Review of Education15(2)