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A STUDY OF SOCIAL DIFFICULTIES OF FOREIGN STUDENTS IN INDIA
\AySi Dissertation Submitted for the Degree of
PETER ODERA
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY
ALIGARH (INDIA)
1 9 9 2
DS2336
In memory of my Mother
Jennifer Claris A. AJuoga
She was a constant source of inspiration to the family members. She left behind a legacy of love and compassion worthy
of emulation. Her towering personality left a deep and
everlasting impression on those who knew her.
ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY ALIGARH INDIA.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that Mr. Peter Odera worked under my
supervision for h is M.Phil , dissertation entitled "A Study of Social
Difficulties of Foreign Students in India".
Mr. Odera has been engaged in full time study for the
required period as prescribed In the Ordinances of the
University. He has fulfilled the requirements of attendance in the
department and residence in Aligarh as laid down by the Academic
Council.
I recommend that Mr. Odera 's dissertation may be sent
for evaluation for the degree of Master of Philosophy in Psychology.
ALIGARH
DATED : SJ&I-I^^ PROF. QAMAR HASAN
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I do not find adequate words to express my gratitude
to my parents for what I am. I must gratefully acknowledge the
financial assistance, tender consideration, encouragement and best
wishes I continuously received from my affectionate father.
Let me take this chance to express my sincere thanks
to my highly esteem.ed supervisor Prof. Qamar Hasan whose guiding
abi l i ty , atti tude, encouraging remarks, painstaking and wholehearted
co-operation at every phase of my research project made it
practically possible for me to complete my dissertation successfully.
I am thankful to Chairperson, Prof. (Mrs.) Hamida Ahmad
and Prof. Afzal Kureshi, Department of Psychology, Aligarh Muslim
University for their inspirations and assistance during my research
work.
The University Grant Commission (UGC) must go on record
especially for the financial support towards this piece of research
work.
I am most grateful to my brother David Ajuoga for his
initiative thought, efforts and financial aspects involved that enabled
me to come to India for further studies. Thanks to my brothers
John Ajuoga and Noah Ajuoga for their continuous best wishes and
constructive advice that inspired confidence in me. I am also
indebted to Dottie Owino and Bettie Tambo for their inspirations
that boosted my morale.
- 1 1 -
Thanks to madam Naima Khatoon for her sympathy and
encouragement when my supervisor was at Jamia Millia Islamia.
I should not forget to move vote of thanks to my colleagues; Anlsa,
Intekhab, Mrs. Irfana Asif, Irfan, Meena, Naved, Neelu, Rehana,
Sabuh and Shah Alam for their sincere co-operation and encouraging
remarks.
Special thanks to my friends and compatriots; Daniel
Keboga, Daniel Wanye, George Nuthu, Ondieki Manono, among others ,
for their encouraging remarks.
I am extremely thankful to my dearest friend Judith Atieno
Adero for her encouragement, emotional support and wholehearted
co-operation throughout my research work.
I am indebted to foreign students of Aligarh Muslim
University, Delhi University, Jamia Millia Islamia and Panjab
University for their co-operation and participation in attending to
the questionnaire during my field work for data collection.
Thanks to Ashfaque T.A. Programming, C.C.A.E. I must
register my hearty thanks to Kafeel Ahmad Khan who assisted me
to type out this manuscript and Sultan-uz-Zafar who bound the same.
Aligarh
Dated : 2 G . i'. i^^3 ( pETER ODERA )
CONTENTS
Page No.
Acknowledgements 1-11
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
II
IV
Introduction
Review of L i t e ra tu re
III Research Methodology
Resul ts and Discussion
Conclusion
01-16
17-58
59-67
68-113
114-118
References 119-124
Appendix I Original Pool of Items 125-135
Appendix II Lis t of Items Selected For Factor Scales 136-140
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CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
Perhaps the contemporary transnational movements of students
and scholars bear the imprint of ancient times. People of different
cultures came in contact due to different reasons. The interaction
among people who belong to different cultures and ethnic groups of
the same nation or of different nations has been for certain concrete
purposes such as trade and commerce, to teach, learn, conquer,
convert, for amusement or enjoyment etc. Whatever i ts purpose may
be, the interaction provided the opportunity to members of one
culture to know about other cultures. The ancient gatherings of
pupils around their masters, the role played by missionaries to
impart knowledge and the eventual establishment of educational centers
in European countries brought together people across cultural
boundaries, added training to learning and awarded scholarships.
Sojourners who come from one land to another can be
divided into ten major categories: foreign students, scholars,
teachers; technical personnels, touris ts , business persons, defence
personnels, multinational corporation workers; bilingal group members,
field workers. Peace Corps and immigrants.
The traditional of overseas studies is as old as recorded
his tory . For instance during the reign of the Emperor Ashoka the
Great of India (273-232 B.C.) , the University of Taxila became famous
international institution for students from Asia Minor. Chinese Tang
- 2 -
Dynasty (620-907) encouraged international education and Alexander
the Great provided scholarship to students from abroad.
However, the great moveirent of students and scholars across
cultural boundaries started after the end of second World War, but
it is very evident that the phenomenon is not new and so are the
socio-psychological problems associated with i t . New forces have
come into play and old forces have had an added impact as national
interests and multinational corporations' incentives have cast foreign
students in a new role . In 1980s, to study abroad was no longer
regarded as only an individual 's scholarly pursuit , it is also an
instrument of national reconstruction in the case of developing
countries; diplomacy, accumulation of goodwill and clout in the case
of technologically and economically advanced natioons.
Contemporary Universities are institutions of higher learning
at which not only overseas students converge and mingle up with
students of the host country, but also native students of a particular
country who desire to gain knowledge may hail from different cultural
or ethnic groups. The latter category of the students would no doubt
feel foreign in their own country if they joined Universities located
in a different cultural zone. They may share some of the problems
of living in an alien culture with foreign students. The native students
who come from different states to Aligarh Muslim University
(A.M.U.), India, to acquire knowledge may encounter the demand of
cultural readjustment, for instance, (i) Bihari students are habitual
of putting on ' lungi ' at the place of residence but th is type of at t i re
is not approved by the norms of A.M.U. This poses personal
- 3 -
problems to the students concerned who have no alternative but to
comply with the Univeresity 's fashion of putting on "Kurta Pa jama"
only within hostel premises, ( i i) students from Tamil Nadu and Kerala
States are fond of walking bare footed but this habit is contrary
to the Universi ty 's traditions which do not even allow a pair of
s l ippers to be worn outside hostel premises. ( i i i ) Punjabi students
are good consumers of liquor which is not appreciated by
predominantly Muslim Students Community of A.M.U. Quite a good
number of students from Hindu belts may not be habitual of taking
beef and mutton while these are the staple food in the University
canteen and other food stal ls around the campus. Such students may
feel frustrated in the hostels where beef is often prepared or
consumed by their Muslim and Christian colleagues (Odera, 1990).
The above mentioned examples of the problems faced by
students from different parts of the country that go for studies to
a University located in a different cultural zone underscore the
gravity and the variet ies of problems which foreign students have
to face and overcome to accomplish their main purpose of arr ival
in an alien country. Overseas students come from their native lands
for the sake of studies i . e . "to acquire knowledge". Apart from this
main stated purpose, there are other purposes that motivate overseas
students to come over, namely; to get better opportunities for jobs
at home, receive University degrees, improvement in status,
opportunities for friendship and social life in India, recreational
facilities in India, political instabili ty in the country of origin,
future suitable marriage, to emulate illustrious family members, last
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but by no means the least , to develop healthy personality.
To a great extent the performance and realization of the
above purposes may be greatly influenced by situational factors when
individual student functions in an alien culture with completely
unfamiliar role expectations and conflicting verbal and non-verbal
cues. Keeping xenophobic isolation aside there is more practical
consideration that is significant and real decrease in trust of foreign
students v i s -a -v is local students, general citizens, social agents and
institutions of the host country.
Many problems faced by foreign students are contingent upon
their expectations, the factors involved in making a choice of the
country and the institution where studies are to be pursued, e.g.
(1) the quality or prestigious status of a University chosen by
students may not be known. A University may be chosen due to i ts
"sweet" name or because relat ives were alumni of the same.
Moreover, embassy officials of the country students anticipate to go
to may provide inadequate informations because the officials may not
only be acquinted with a few Universities but also may not be aware
of the latest classifications or requirements of particular Universities
abroad. Therefore, the students may end up choosing/joining a low
status University whose degree may not be recognized when they go
back home, (i i) a great anxiety is instilled in the students due to
long period of waiting for relevant informations or intimation letter
needed for student v isa , (i i i) to get the visa may generate mental
agony. The officials concerned may descent to give it until some
prerequisite are fulfilled by the students. Among other things.
- 5 -
the lat ter may be required to show intimation let ter , health
certificate, affidavit of the sponsor, (iv) evidence of abil i ty to
incur expenditure on overseas studies must be proved by the
students, (v) there is always a mixture of emotional feelings of going
abroad and leaving one's folks at home regardless of the country
one intends to go to. Such feelings may disintegrate personality of
the students, (vi) one may experience jet-lag in initial stages (for
weeks perhaps months) after reaching overseas. The difference in
time between the country of origin and the host country manifests
itself. The local time of the host country s tar ts to dictate terms to
the "fresher". The students may feel disoriented, puzzled and
homesick when meals are taken at different times compared with
country of origin. Jet-lag may also cause insomnia due to difference
in time of going to bed or waking up . Finally, the problems of
adjustment to an alien culture are added to the problems of
adjustment to curriculums (Odera, 1990).
Although it was expected that the contacts between different
people would be instrumental in the establishment of positive
relations among them, the available data shows that the attitude
of a person belonging to a given culture towards a person belonging
to another culture depends upon the context of the contact. Amir
(1969) reviewed the studies of inter-group contacts and reported that
a set of factors determines the outcome of culture contacts for the
inter-group relations. These factors are : eouality of status between
members of different groups coming into contact with each other,
intimacy and rewarding nature of relations, development of common
goals and existence of favourable social climate for inter-group
- 6 -
contacts. In order to achieve harmony, the contacts must be made
under favourable conditions and not under unfavourable conditions,
which are likely to result in tension, hosti l i ty or prejudice. In
fact, contact with other cultures is not likely to bring harmony
without careful planning.
Irrespective of the contact situation being positive or
negative, the initial contact of a person arriving in a new culture
setting is described as "culture shock". The term culture shock was
initially introduced by Oberg (1960) to denote the dis t ress
experienced by the sojourner in a new culture as a result of losing
all the familiar cues of social interaction. These cues may include;
how to shake hands, what to say when certain people are met, how
to make purchases, when to accept or refuse invitations, when to
give orders , when to take statements seriously and when not to;
excessive preoccupation with cleanliness of one's drinking water,
food and surroundings, great concern over minor pains, feeling of
hopelessness, strong desire to associate with people from one's own
country and a fixed idea that people take advantage of or cheat
one. These cues may be communicated by words, gestures, facial
expressions and customs that are acquired by all people in the course
of infant socialization. If the sojourners do not understand behaviour
patterns of members of the receiving country then they may face
frustrations of various intensities.
Small degree of anxiety is always a normal reaction by
strangers to a new group or culture but victims of culture shock also
- 7 -
experience a decline in inventiveness, spontaniety and flexibility
to the extent that it interferes with their normal behaviours (Heiss
and Nash, 1967). Having experienced culture shock before does not
prevent culture shock in future, even then it provides sojourners
with some insights into why they feel as they do in a novel culture.
In the view of initial culture shock, the newly arrived
persons have to undergo the gradual period of adaptation which is
reported to assume the shape of a U-curve; an initial period of
eagerness and fascination, a middle period of self assurance and
feeling of competence to deal with the demands of the new culture.
Fumham and Bochner (1982) who reviewed the li terature on the
process of culture adaptation and the outcome of culture contact have
suggested that the extent and duration of what is described to be
culture shock depends on the following factors :
(i) Cultural differences,
(ii) Individual differences,
(i i i) Sojourn experience.
Smalley (1963) proposed four stages of culture shock
formation that appears as combination of the culture shock notion
with the U-curve of adjustment hypothesis . The four phases are
as follows :
(i) Fascination with the new culture.
(ii) Hostility and fascination with the new culture, with possible
feelings that original culture is superior,
( i i i) Improvement and adjustment to the new culture.
- 8 -
fiv) Biculturalism where the sojourner develops a full
understanding of the host cultures.
When the experience of an individual in an alien culture
was described in terms of culture shock, anxiety and maladjustment,
it was natural for psychologists to adopt distinct clinical flavour
in their professional advice to sojourners and the organizations giving
foreign assignment. One of the major research efforts came about
due to problems encountered by the Peace Corps movement in the
1960s. Quite a number of young American volunteer workers went
abroad to teach and provide medical, technical and welfare assistance
to the less fortunate peoples of other countries. The volunteers were
trained to adopt a life style similar to that of the native peoples
among whom they were expected to work. Many of these young
volunteers found the experience bewildering and quite a few
succumbed and had to be repatr iated. When these problems were
realized the Peace Corps asked for professional advice and many
psychologists with a clinical background became involved in research
and therapy (Guthrie, 1975; Guthrie and Zektick, 1967; Harris,
1973). This programme marked the first major attempt to prepare
people for work and study in other cultures.
Similar need arose in the private sectors with the increase
in multinational trade during the post-war reconstruction period. The
staff encountered difficulties to cope up with unfamiliar social and
business practices (Skinner, 1968; Triandis, 1967). Applied social
psychologists responded by devising various cross-cultural training
and orientation programmes of which a very good example are the
- 9 -
culture assimilators produced at the University of Illinois (Fiedler,
Mitchell and Triandis, 1971; Fao and Chemers, 1967; Triandis, 1975).
Sojourners who experience difficulties are considered to
have suffered a break down in their normal healthy psychological
functioning and require therapy and counselling. Many clinically
oriented psychologists have extended and applied traditional psycho
therapeutic models and techniques to problems connected with
adjustment to an alien culture.
However, Bochner (1981) proposed a contrary view. This
view states that the major task that faces sojourner is not to adjust
to a new culture, but to learn i ts salient character is t ics . He pointed
out that if the sojourner was to work effectively in a new setting
and lead a relatively stress free and fulfilling life the person must
acquire the social ski l ls of the host culture. The following are the
consequences due to adopting a culture learning model of the cross-
cultural sojourn:
(i) F'ailures and problems experienced by the sojourners need
not to be regarded as symptoms of some underlying
pathology but rather due to lack of the necessary cultural
ski l ls and knowledge. The remedial measures should
involve imparting appropriate knowledge and sk i l l s . This
may be attained by using standard training methods v i z . ,
modelling, role-playing, video-feedback and homework.
(ii) "Adjusting" a person to a culture has connotations of
cultural chauvinism. This implies that the new comers
-10-
should abandon the culture of origin in favour of embracing
the values and customs of the host society. On the other
hand learning a second culture has no such ethnocentric
overtones. There are numerous examples in life when it
becomes necessary to learn a practice even if one does
not approve of it and then later abandon the custom when
circumstances have changed. For instance, Americans will
find that they have to stand much closer to an Arab during
interaction in the Middle East than they would with fellow
Americans at home. An English gentleman in Japan will learn
to push and shove his way onto the Tokyo subway, but
resumes his normal queuing practice after returning home.
The act a t t racts notice only when the appropriate ski l l
is not available or is used in an inappropriate
circumstances.
However, when sojourners lack certain vital ski l l s and
knowledge, they may be thought as selectively ignorant and in need
of education and training, particularly in relation to everyday social
encounters with members of the host culture, at homes, in market
places, factories, offices and playing fields of the receiving society.
The contemporary social ski l l s model was developed and
used primarily in connection with the problem of intracultural social
inadequacy. The model accounts for the social incompetence of the
cross-cultural sojourner. The model was developed at Oxford
University for work within English society. It includes
cross-cultural social inadequacy. Argyle and Kendon (1967) pointed
- 1 1 -
out that interpersonal difficulties occur when organised and skilled
performance break down, falters or cannot be successfully initiated
in the first place. The model has implicit in it several reasons for,
and explanations of, unsatisfactory interpersonal encounters, for
instance:
(i) The individual 's goal may be inappropriate or unattainable
in the given situation.
(ii) The individual may fail to perceive or attend to some of
the messages and behaviours being emitted by the other
person.
(i i l) Some of the other person's behaviour and messages may
be misinterpreted or given the wrong attribution (Jones,
1976).
(iv) The individual m^y not know how to respond adequately
or make responses which in the circumstances are judged
as Inappropriate or inadequate by the other person.
Socially inadequate persons are people who have failed
to learn a wide range of interpersonal ski l ls due to poor child-parent
and poor group relationships and because of other forms of social
and physical deprivations. Such people are incompetent in certain
verbal signals; they are not masters of the social conventions of
the society at large and may also be unaware of many of the rules
of social behaviour pertaining to their own particular subgroups.
They are just like strangers in their own land and culture. Some
-12-
of the specific behaviours which the socially incompetent persons
perform unsatisfactorily are : expressing at t i tudes, feelings and
emotions; adopting the appropriate postures; understanding the gaze
patterns of the people they interact with; carrying out ritualized
routines such as greetings, leave taking, self-disclosure, making or
refusing requests and asserting themselves. Ordinary everyday happe
nings such as attending par t ies , making contact with a member of
opposite sex, ordering meals, travelling, shopping, using bathroom
which hi therto presented no problems suddenly become major hurdles
to them.
The social ski l l s model has clear implications for the
imderstanding and management of cross-cultural incompetence. It is
essential to identify specific social situations which trouble
particular sojourner, thereafter the specific training in those ski l ls
that are lacking may be given. (Argyle, 1979) gave seven social
ski l ls which are capable of being developed in socially incompetent
individuals. They are as follows :
(i) Perceptive sk i l l s : co-ordinating verbal and non-verbal
behaviour, encouraging the speaker and giving appropriate
feedback.
(ii) Expressive sk i l l s : speaking loudly and clearly with the
appropriate emotional tone in the voice.
( i i i ) Conversation sk i l l s : appropriate time, speaker exchanges,
topics and self-disclosure.
-13-
(iv) Assertiveness : Standing up for one's own rights without
aggression or undue pass ivi ty .
(v) Emotional expression : the expression of a full range of
appropriate emotions in various situations.
(vi) Anxiety management : coping with social anxiety during
moments of s t ress , such as in decision-making.
(vii) Aff i l lat ive sk i l l s : being able to express feelings of
warmth, affection and sexuality where appropriate .
Like other sojourners, foreign students too face difficulties
in the area of social life in host countries. The social difficulties
are considered as some of the essential variables that influence
the students ' adjustment to their new culture. Obviously, quite a
number of studies have been conducted by educationists, psychologists
and sociologists to show a direct consequence of an alien culture
on foreign students in Western Europe, America and a few Asian
countries. Most of these studies have revealed that there exists
definite negative interpersonal relationships between the students and
nationals of the host countries. The students become conscious
about selves as well as about numerous discrepancies between the
country of origin and the receiving country when they reach overseas
for thei r studies. Consequently, such consciousness may inflict a
sense of frustration-inferiority complex or superiority complex
depending on the country of origin and general social attitudes of
the people of the host country.
-14-
By and large, successful social adjustment to an alien
culture involves social insight which may be defined as an
individual 's abili ty to see things through the eyes of others and
to see oneself as others do. Successful adjustment to a socially
accepted manner in an alien culture will depend solely on the ski l ls
provided during training besides one's insight. ' These are very
important components, especially to foreign students who come to
India for further studies.
The tension and emotional strains which foreign students
are subjected to in India may be so great for some students that
they may produce serious personality distortions. It has been noted
that foreign students become anxious regarding problems of courtship,
marriage, religions, family affairs at home, curriculum and teaching
programmes, socio-psychological relations, health and physical
developments, vocational futures, financial and climatical conditions,
finally, communication sk i l l s . Seriousness of these social problems
to some students will depend upon how strongly the derive is and
how drastically the conditions interfere with satisfaction of the
students' aspirations, needs and goals. Such social difficulties make
the principle of adjustment to become a vague term as a solution
to the students' problems. Therefore, psychological approach to
identify specific problems faced by foreign students in a social set
up like India is the most appropriate step to be taken to eliminate
if not to solve the students ' difficulties.
Psychological approach provides social ski l l s model through
organized orientation course, training or counselling that may prove
-15-
to be vital to the guest students who lack skil ls to improve
relationships with people from different cultural backgrounds.
Culture establishes boundaries, protect people from their enemies,
keep others out and sometimes keep others in. Therefore,
counsellors and advisers to foreign students should acquaint
themselves with specific and general knowledge about foreign
students and the host society before orientation programme is given.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the present study is to device an instrument
to measure difficulties faced by foreign students in India. Such an
instrument is needed for conducting a comprehensive study of the
factors involved in the outcome of interaction between alien students
and the host nationals.
The sorted out factors would enable qualified persons in
guidance and counselling to develop social sk i l l s model ideal for
constructive and nonstressful interaction between foreign students and
members of the host country. Further more, the model should be
aimed at providing both general and specific training sk i l l s . The
general ski l ls programme may induce self-awareness of the students '
own prejudices and basic values which would help them to develop
greater understanding and empathy to interact effectively with the
natives, but it does not imply that students high in self-awareness
will interact with members of the receiving culture more effectively
than those low in self-awareness.
-16-
The specific training would be used to provide knowledge
in relation to specific problems most likely to be encountered by
foreign students in India. Moreover, identification of reasonable
training goals subjected to study may be modified or eliminated if
necessary.
Although measures of difficulties experienced by foreign
students in Western countries are available, the measures of
difficulties experienced by foreign students in India is to be devised
because the difficulties are specific to the level of socio-economic
development, cultural, social, and the living conditions specific to
the host country.
-17 -
CHAPTER 2
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Events of the twentieth century have made the world to
appear very small due to vast interaction among peoples from
different cultural backgrounds, societies, nations and socio-economic
status. The movement of sojourners in the contemporary world is
motivated by varieties of coexisting and sometimes competing national
Institutional incentives and individual goals. Though travelling
abroad has been facilitated by the availabili ty of facilities of
modem international communication, many problems st i l l face
prospective sojourners in the receiving society. The difference in
motivation for moving out, inclusion of new nations and intermixture
of old cultures have combined to create entirely unique and new
situations for sojourners particularly foreign students.
The entire interchange activity is constituted of
inter-instltutlonal exchanges of professors, research workers and
foreign students often arranged on departmental or institutional bas is .
Various programmes such as individual scholarships offered by
international organizations, government agencies, educational
institutions and private foundations are some of the forces behind
international educational interchange and the beginning of massive
multinational and inter-cultural movements that exist today.
Theoretical Framework of the Problem
It is natural that sojourners get disoriented in a new
culture. At every stage of stay, sojourners try to integrate their
-18-
experience in a manner which minimizes conflicts and facilitates
adjustment to their new surroundings. However, adjustment always
involves interaction of an individual with the existing effective
forces in the new environment. From this point of view, personality
development may be conceived as a continuous process of adjustment
to a changing world. A well-adjusted person sizes up the whole
situation and evaluates i t s component relations and integration so
that he will be able to react to the situation after due consideration
of all relevant facts and circumstances.
Bochner (1986) focused on the importance of culture
learning. He reported that coping with unfamiliar cultures has been
regarded as a matter of adjusting the "culture t ravel lers" to their
new cultures. He rejected the adjustment model on the ground that
exposure to a second culture is essentially a learning process. It
is suggested that culture learning formulation: (i) avoids implications
of relat ive culture superiori ty, assimilation and culture erosion
inherent in the concept of adjustment, (ii) has specific implications
for the design, implementation and evaluation of culture training
programmes. The distinction between adjustment and culture learning
has theoretical, socio-political and practical consequences for the
development of multicultural societies.
A number of cross-cultural training programmes have been
deviced and carried out to help people to live happily in an alien
culture. A comprehensive review of cross-cultural training methods
has recently been given by Brislin and Pedersen (1976). The model
-19-
explicit ly considers both specific and general ski l l s imparted through
orientation programmes to those who opt to leave their country of
origin for a new country or those who find themselves in an alien
culture. Cross-cultural orientation programmes explain five major
areas of competency:
(i) It provides issues in cross-cultural orientation and
adjustment. Besides, it provides familiarity with questions
asked by persons to be involved within another culture.
(ii) It provides description of the target audiences which gains
from increased cross-cultural orientation, demonstrating that
cross-cultural training is appropriate for a wider range
of population.
( i i i) It provides a review of models to prepare and orient
sojourners for cross-cultural involvement.
(iv) It provides knowledge of how to evaluate programmes of
cross-cultural orientation to determine whether sojourners
will accomplish their stated goals or not.
(v) It provides a series of suggestions how to design and
implement a programme of cross-cultural orientation
appropriate to one's particular needs.
Spector (1969) gave a list of goals of special programme
for the Troop-Community Relations Programme in Korea. The military
has more access to resources for research training goals than most
other sectors of the American society. It provides guidelines for
-20-
training programmes related to sojourners in general. These are
as follows :
(i) To develop positive attitude towards the host nationals.
(ii) To develop an understanding of the fundamental similarit ies
among human beings.
( i i i) To develop habi ts of how to deal with each host national
on individual basis rather than a stereotyped level.
(iv) To provide the sojourners with a way of observing,
analyzing and integrating cross-cultural phenomena which
permit one to deal independently and realist ically with
the situations and problems that may be encountered while
staying in the receiving society.
(v) To prepare sojourners to stand culture shock.
(vl) To develop the responsibili ty in each person for the
improvement of relationships with host nationals.
(vii) To reinforce training through group facilitation and support
so as to develop within each individual a sense of group
involvement.
(vi i i j To impart specific information about host-nationals'
att i tudes, customs and the l ike .
Many workers (Guthrie, 1975; Eachus, 1968; Wedge et a l . ,
1988; Bass, 1969; Triandis, 1975) gave a substantial set of goals
- 2 1 -
which are desirable for cross-cultural trailning programmes :
(i) To improve awareness of customs and interpersonal sk i l l s .
(ii) To aid the students in developing basic communication ski l ls
by teaching key phrases in foreign languages and techniques
for speaking through interpreters .
( i i i) To impart knowledge about foreign culture complete with
ski l ls and know-how needed to get along satisfactorily in
the culture.
(iv) To impart sensitivity to others, reducing prejudice and
inducing respect , even towards those foreign cultural values
and practices that make l i t t le sense to the person.
(v) To induce enthusiasm for the job among those individuals
coming from different cultures.
(vi) To provide opportunities to maintain ski l l s during periods
of absence from other cultures.
(vii) Above all to emphasize honesty in relations with others.
It is apparent from the foregoing points that the
techniques and social ski l ls acquired by sojourners during training
must be deviced to transfer the favourable behaviours learned to
real world. This brings us to what has been referred to as "Lena
Horne-Harry Belefonte" problem. People sometimes interact with
out-group members as handsome as the entertainers on stage and
-22-
develop liking towards them. But there is no transfer from these
handsome people to average out-group members. On the contrary
a person who intends to go abroad or to any other society should
transfer the learned behaviours to the new society.
The outlines of the training goals given above lead to
precise operational specification of the experiences of a sojourner
in the host society. The labels such as culture shock, culture
fatique, culture strain, role shock or future shock (Oberg, 1960;
Guthrie, 1966; Byrnes, 1966) have been borrowed to describe less
dramatic and perhaps more commonly experienced s t r e s s . Each term
describes the accommodation of an individual to a new and unfamiliar
value system. The terms are loose and tend to refer to hypothetical
intrapsychic events which are not independent and open to objective
verification and yet are often used as explanatory principles
(Bochner, Lin and Mcleod 1980).
Kunkel (1983) identified social problems and suggested
reasons why attempts that have been made to solve or ameliorate
them have failed. These are as follows :
(i) Academic division of labour e .g. between sociologists and
psychologists.
(ii) Multifaceted social problems facilitate basic disagreements
among discipl ines.
( i i i) Most proportions about social problems are ex post facto.
-23-
(iv) Partial or ex post facto theories do not provide a firm
basis for preventing future problems or removing defici ts .
(v) Some social problems have no solutions because they are
aspects of urban-industrial society.
It is urged that the best way out of this situation Is to
recognize the fact that social problems are the problematic act ivi t ies
and deficits of individuals-delinquents, alcoholics, perpetrators and
targets of discrimination. Analysis of social problems should focus
on the behavioural of these global phenomena.
Variables Involved in Contact Situations
The outcome of any contact situations is not determined by
one factor, neither are the factors involved affect independently.
There is an interplay of the factors involved in contact situations.
Variables such as sojourner's contact, social network, phases,
attitude towards the host country and duration of stay may determine
the outcome of contact situations. Let us consider these variables
in deta i l .
The Sojourner's Contact, Social Network, Phases, Attitudes Towards
the Host Country and Duration of Stay
Richardson (1974) asserted that there was difference in the
relationship patterns of satisfied as opposed to dissatisfied British
immigrants in Australia, the dissatisfied migrants were found to be
- 2 4 -
having more compatriot and fewer host national friends. Sulltiz and
Cook (1962) found that sojourners who reported that they had at
least one close friend who was a member of the host country
experienced fewer problems than sojourners with no host culture
friends. Studies have revealed that sojourners found personal,
informal orientation much more effective than institutionally sponsored
assistance in relation to cross-cultural interaction.
Bochner and Orr (1979) reported that sojourning overseas
students tend to belong to three social networks:
(i) A primary, monocultural network consisting of close
friendships with other sojourning compatriots. This
network's main function is to enable sojourners to rehearse
and express their culture of origin.
(ii) A secondary, bicultural network consisting of bonds between
sojourners and significant host nationals such as academics,
landladies, student advisers and government employees.
Its main function is to facilitate the academic and vocational
aspirations of sojourners.
( i i i) A third network is the foreign student 's multicultural circle
of friends and acquaintances. Its main function is to
provide companionship for recreational, non-cultural and
non-task oriented act iv i t ies .
Adelman (1988) described the importance of social support
during cultural adaptation. Overview of social support given by
-25-
close ties (e .g. family and friends) and weak ties (secondary
contacts not linked to the primary network) during pre-departure
and initial entry phases of cross-cultural adjustment is provided.
The importance of social support in non-intimate relations (e .g .
customer-shopkeeper) is stressed and dysfunctional effects of
restrain of support are noted particularly when recipients and
providers are facing similar threatening and uncertain situation.
Conway (1969) postulated a model that depicts a universal
view of foreign students changing levels of self-satisfaction in a
U-curve which extends into a W-curve hypothesis , (Lysgaard, 1955;
Sewel and Davidson, 1961). The hypothesis has been of great
importance in describing cross-cultural adjustment. The hypothesis
was tested on foreign students in America.
The hypothesis is given as follows : when foreign students
arr ive in America there is a novelty effect and the promise of
significant benefit from their education experience that can provide
a high level of satisfaction. They are satisfied to function in the
role of an observer and are often perceived as something of an
interesting novelty by the generally receptive academic community.
These and other factors contribute to a halo or honeymoon effect
during the earlier part of the experience.
As the novelty wears off, areas of conflict appear that place
demands for accommodation on foreign students and they experience
the culture shock of their foreigner role. It is during this second
phase that serious problems ar ise .
-2( i
The process of adjustment begins to alleviate culture shock
in the third phase with more successful adjustment, resulting in
rewards of Increased satisfaction as students begin to realize some
of the earl ier goals of their expectations. Their fluency in English
and familiarity with social roles have increased to facilitate coping
with their stranger/foreigner role .
By about the time students are ready to return home their
level of satisfaction may have been restored. Restored levels of
satisfaction depends on their being successful in attaining their
academic goals. The prospects of being reunited with family and
friends and novelty effect of returning likewise contribute to their
high level of satisfaction. The first four phases are described as
the U-curve of adjustment.
In phase five the students are faced with difficulties of
readjustment and acceptance in their new roles . This phase is all
the more difficult for students who do not expect problems of
adjustment to their home culture and who fail to recognize the ways
in which they have been changed by their foreign experience.
Numerous practical problems of readjustment ar ise just as they did
when they arrived in America. This condition may be described
as the re-entry cr i s i s and it has not only been experienced by
foreign students returning to their home lands but also by Peace
Corps returnees to their home country (Brislin and Van Buren,1974).
If students are able to adjust satisfactori ly, the sixth
phase will provide opportunity for establishing themselves in a
-27-
satisfactory role, provided that such a role is available, making
use of their newly learned ski l l s and enjoying some increased
prest ige.
The seventh phase provides for re-establishing permanent
rewards of acceptance resulting in a high level of satisfaction. Those
who are unable to obtain this level of satisfaction frequently
emigrate permanently to America or some other culture, resulting
in a phenomena of a brain drain from the less developed to the more
developed countries.
Fischman (1986) asserted that the following factors are
involved in immigrant adjustment to life in the US; rural or urban
background, education or ski l l level , communication with family
living in the native land, conditions that spurred relocation, current
socio-economic status and number of children in the US. Adjustment
stages include the delayed realization of being cut off from families
and former way of l i fe . It was established that Immigrants
preferred to use family/social support networks rather than
professional mental health resources for adjustment to an alien
society.
Hertz (1988) studied patterns of migration and focused on
(i) the process of positive adjustment, (il) the nature of nostalgia
and ( i i i ) r isk factors and maladaptation. Three stages of positive
adjustment to migration are identified; pre-immigration, coping and
settlement. It is suggested that the move to a new environment can
be considered a cr i s i s situation because the consequences of such
- 2 8 -
a change are experienced as a localized time related and focused
life event. It was reported that the s t ress following migration can
affect coping mechanisms which then become maladaptive.
Penalosa (1986) reported that the central American
immigrants to the US faced problems related to heal th, employment,
welfare, housing, Interethnlc relations e tc . The most frequent
psychological problem among immigrants involved a sense of loss
and separation that is manifested in depression, anxiety and
confusion. There may be an adverse effect of the contact on young
ones. Children may suffer posttraumatic s t ress disorder (PTSD)
syndrome from having suppressed so much emotion in the struggle
to survive.
Attitude towards the host country bears significant relation
to duration of stay of the sojourner in the receiving society. The
general trend is a U-shaped curve with att i tude being relatively
favourable in 1st and 3rd or 4th years . Ganguly and his doctoral
student (1965) conducted a study on foreign students who were in
fourth year at Aligarh and Delhi Universities^ The findings showed that
all students except Thais had favourable atti tude towards India.
Thai students were the most anti-Indian of the entire foreign students
in the s tudy. All students except one were studying In honours
courses or in other specialized courses, not in the pass or general
courses. It was concluded that the duration of stay and course of
study may be responsible for the favourable attitudes foreign
students developed towards Indians in the 4th year of their s tay .
-29-
In regard to duration of stay and the image of the host
society, It is observed that in the beginning of one's stay in a
foreign country all images are ra ther mixed up and relatively
undifferentiated and determined mostly by overall feeling tone the
perceiver has for the new country. The accummulated problems of
living in a new culture modify these' images, especially in the first
year. They are made more differentiated, more discriminating and
less homogeneous or holist ic in character . Subsequently, when the
problems are solved successfully, there is tendency of the image
of the host country to be modified in a favourable manner. In other
words, the individual 's stereotype is determined by three factors:
(i) the overtone of friendliness, (11) the type of learning, ( i i l)
living problem faced in the new culture and success of the
individual 's coping effort.
Singh (1963) interviewed over 300 Indian students in Britain.
The students were asked about their friends, relations with the
opposite sex, leisure time activi t ies and adjustment. The findings
revealed that nearly half of the sample experienced difficulties that
they had not anticipated. The difficulties are related mainly to
loneliness, homesickness, lack of training in looking after
themselves, food difficulties, and worries about domestic problems
back at home. Nearly half of the students had academic problems
mainly due to language problems more so in expression, the high
standard of British Universities and difficulties in teacher-student
relationships. Academic difficulties were significantly negatively
correlated with adjustment. Adjustment was related to place of
-30-
residence (students had more difficulty at Oxford than provincial
Universit ies), social class (Upper class students were better adjusted
than middle class students), duration of stay (a U-shaped curve
of up to 3 years with high adjustment in the initial and last phases
and comparatively low adjustment in the middle) and social sk i l l s
(there was a positive correlation between social ski l l and
adjustment).
Finally, Singh reported that it may be misleading to
consider Indian students as an undifferentiated group. Their
problems of adjustment to different spheres of life-social, personal
and academic depended on various factors such as social class, age,
personality t ra i t s , level of study, type of University and duration
of stay in Britain. He asserted that it is important to emphasize
this point since most of the previous studies of foreign students
have over looked the differences between them.
Individual Differences : Basic Skills , Personality Traits and
ComiDunicatlon Network
Persons differ in their basic sk i l l s , personality outlook
and communication network. These var iables , among others, affect
sojourners differently in a novel culture.
Eide (1970) gave assumptions about the intrinsic social
value of transferring knowledge across cultural boundaries:
(i) more knowledge will create imaginations in people,
- 3 1 -
subsequently tolerance of other cultures will increase.
( i i) diffusion of knowledge about other cultures will lead to
a more homogeneous world.
( i i i) demonstration of how people from various cultures are
interdependent on one another might create peace.
(iv) learning about others may clarify knowledge of oneself and
may facilitate understanding which is necessary for a plural
society.
(v) the meeting of cultures and of minds is hoped to enhance
the development of all participants in some sort of
progress.
The role of similarity of situations encountered at home
and the country of vis i t was emphasized by Triandis (1971) who called
attention to the Skaggs-Robinson hypothesis and the Osgood transfer
surface which suggest that any new situation that involves the same
stimulus and the same response pattern is least difficult. For
instance, if one knew how to dr ive a car in the country of origin
then i t might be expected that such individual might experience
l i t t le difficulty driving another car in a different country. However,
when both situations and the required response are different then
the individual might be confronted with a simple situation of learning
without having to "un-leam" any previous response. When one is
prompted to behave in a foreign country according to back home
cues then many problems might a r i se . On the other hand, individual
- 3 2 -
In an alien land may be confronted with a much more difficult
situation when the same stimulus as in one's own country of origin
requires different response.
Koot and Venema (1985) evaluated the measurement of ethnic
identity with children from Surinam and Netherlands. The identity
in relation to self image and self concept were noticed in them
The study suggested that more attention should be given to the
subjective dimension such as ethnic identification and the image of
one's own group versus another group. It is further recommended
that ethnic identity may be investigated through observational
methods with special attention to process of group formation, group
dynamics, symbols that express ethnic identity and the factors that
influence identity, e .g . attitudes of peers, teachers, family, inter
alios.
Amir and Ben-Ari (1985) evaluated a cognitive intervention
aimed at improving relations between ethnic groups in general and
between Israelis and Egyptians in particular. One of the two groups
of Israelis was exposed to a booklet about Egypt and the other was
not, later both groups toured Egypt. The findings revealed changes
as a result of the tour itself and additional changes related to the
booklet hence the previous research which indicates that contact
per se as a tool to improve intergroup relations must be strongly
qualified by individual and situational factors was highly
supported.
-33-
Bar-Yosef (1968) referred to disturbance of the immigrant's
role system and the undoing of his socialized adjustment pat terns.
It was reported that as resocialization takes place in the course
of coping with an alien culture some old social learning is shed.
New responses are adopted in situations that would previously have
evoked different ones.
Baker (1988) highlighted the problems of refugees in the
US. He found that the two most significant factors in assimilation
were employment and English language sk i l l . A study in which 28
in-depth interviews were conducted with refugee families from Poland
and Czechoslovakia revealed that cultural similarity was helpful in
assimilation. The most prominent negative factor in assimilation
was unrealistic expectations about the strength of the US economy.
There is a considerable evidence that culture shapes
personality. People differ in their abil i t ies to endure frustration,
conflict and in the type of adjustment mechanism they employ in
an alien environment. The predisposing sources of adjustment are
not independent but interact in complex ways. Thus personality
varies quantitatively in proportion to the various intensities of
s tress and also qualitatively with respect to the particular area
of adjustment. Individuals who have social insight to see things
through the eyes of others and to see one's self as others do face
less problems than those who see things without insight in an alien
culture. Self insight as well as social insight are essential elements
a well adjusted person should possess.
- 3 4 -
Seipel (1988) administered an internal locus of control
(LOG) scale to 77 Korean immigrants to US. Results indicated that
LOG score was positively correlated with status consistency, life
satisfaction and economic satisfaction. Highly internal subjects (Ss)
depicted tendency to improve their environments and were more
likely to evaluate their positions more posi t ively. Ss indicated
ambivalence about public officials' abil i ty to meet immigrants' needs
but a high degree of civic mindedness.
Brein and David (1971) confirmed the importance of emotional
aspects for intercultural adjustment. Persons who experience more
difficulties in an alien culture and fail to cope with the new setting
also tend to be less flexible in their personality character is t ics .
Such individuals tend to depend on intellectual insights of a
rationally ordered existence in defining their a t t i tudes.
Taba (1953) conducted a psychological study on intercultural
adjustment of American University students overseas. Results
revealed that students with rigid personality t ra i t s and definite
preconceptions about culture of their home land are most l ikely to
form atti tudes through emotional reactions rather than intellectual
analysis.
Triandis, Bontempo, Asai et a l . (1988) conducted a study
to explore individualism and collective constructs. The first study
explored the meaning of these constructs within American culture.
The individual differences var iable , idiocentrism versus allocentrism
that corresponds to the constructs were identified. The result
- 35 -
suggested that US individualism is reflected in (i) Self-Reliance with
Competition, (ii) Low concern for In-group, ( i i i ) Distance from
In-group. Further analysis suggests that subordination of In-group
goals to Personal goals may be the most important aspect of the US
individualism. The second study revealed that responses depend
en in-group, the context and the kind of social behaviour. The
third study indicated that allocentric persons perceive that they
receive more and a better quality of social support than do
idiocentric persons. Idiocentric persons reported that they were
lonely than allocentric persons.
Heaven et a l . (1985) interviewed 106 South African Whites
regarding their attitudes towards South Africa (SA) and towards Blacks.
Authoritarian personality and confirmity were measured. 101 South
African Asian Indians also completed the same measures except that
their att i tudes towards Whites ra ther than Blacks were assessed.
Results asserted that attitudes towards South Africa show only a
slight relationship with racism among both samples. This suggests
that the theory underlying ethnocentrism concept of W.G. Summer
(1906) and T.W. Adomo (1950) ( i . e . that thinking well of one's
own group entails looking down on members of other groups) is
essentially false.
Daniel (1985) studied cultural influences on moving or
staying of sojourners and asserted that the way people arrange their
priori t ies influences their decisions to stay in or to move from their
region of origin. In another study, Woon (1986) conducted an
-36-
interview on 20 Vietnamese and 30 Sino-Vietnamese families living
in North America. The data indicated that the individual 's
background and cultural heritage affect one's willingness and abili ty
to adjust to settlement. This cultural baggage along with the
conditions and opportunity structure of Canada produced mind set
and emotional state that affected the Individual 's interaction with
other family members and kin.
Thomas (1986) reviewed the Black experience in the US.
He asserted that members of ethnic minority groups experience
uncontroUability more than members of the majority culture and
therefore exhibit the deficits associated with learned helplessness.
It is further suggested that building on the strengths of an ethnic
minority by using their indigenous l i terature to reduce the
motivational and cognitive deficits associated with learned
helplessness can make difference.
O'DriscoU and Feather (1985) carried out a study on role
of communication in creating positive attitudes towards members of
out-group. 68 Australian undergraduates were given written
communications that evaluated Aborigines and White Australians either
favourably or unfavourably. Results confirmed the existence of
positive prejudice in responses and also indicated that Ss' reactions
to the communications were influenced by predispositional variable
of ethnocent rism. Analysis of delayed recall of the specific
descriptions from the written communications and of the agreement
with an independent ethnic attitudes questionnaire suggested that
positive prejudice did not generalize beyond short-term
-37-
' inconsequential reactions.
Annes and Ward (1989) Investigated the relationship in
regard to cross-cultural traditions and sojourners' adjustment in
Singapore. 61 English speaking sojourners in Singapore were
interviewed. Findings show that knowledge, att i tudes and personality
variables related differentially to various aspects of adjustment
process. Hypothetlcally, knowledge alone was found to be unlikely
to ensure psychological adjustment. Besides, personality disposition
of a sojourner was found not to affect adjustment in a straight foward
manner.
Bama (1972) cited five bar r ie rs to accurate communications
across cultures :
(I) The barr ier of language differences.
(II) Postures and other metamessages on which sojourners depend
on for communication.
( i l l ) The preconceptions and stereotypes tendencies.
(Iv) The habit of evaluating, approving or disapproving the
content of communication received from others .
(v) The typically anxiety that shrouds cross-cultural
communications when one deals with unfamiliar experiences.
It is to be noted that in addition to language differences
Barna stressed the importance of non-verbal
communication.
-38-
OUTCOMES OF CONTACT
Attitudinal Changes, Stereotypes, Maladjustment and Situations of
Contact
The outcomes of contact depend upon: nature of contact and
communication; similarity-difference in cultures; individual differences
e.g. personality and basic skills-language; social support, social
networks and pictures people form in their minds about o thers .
Attitudes towards other people and groups are linked to the way
in which the targeted persons are perceived. Attitudes and
perceptions are very much interrelated and the two influence each
other in mutually reacting sp i ra l .
Ganguly (1965) conducted research on foreign students at
Aligarh and Delhi Universities to find out the students ' expectations,
images and attitudes towards India. The sample was constituted
by 85 foreign students. They were tested on 28 items distributed
along the following attitudinal areas; living conditions in India (5
items), India 's internal policy and economic conditions (5 i tems),
educational system in India (6 i tems), international policy of India
(5 items) and social life and social practices in India (7 i tems).
The total score of the above study was based on overall
attitude of favourableness-unfavourableness towards India. The results
were presented with reference to students ' ethnic backgrounds, the
nature of the course studied and the length of stay in India. The
overall results are given below :
-39-
(i) Satisfaction towards living conditions in India: Students
of Indian Origin (S.I .O.) and the Arab groups were most
satisfied with conditions in India. The Thai group was
most dissat isf ied. The African group came in between.
The ' t ' tests showed that the Thai ' s and S.I.O. differ
significantly.
( l i) Satisfaction with India 's internal policy and economic
conditions: The Thai students had the most adverse attitude
towards India ' s internal policy and economic conditions.
The African students held the most favourable at t i tude.
The Arabs and S.I.O. were in between. None of the means
was significant.
( i i i ) Satisfaction with educational system in India: The Thai
students were found to be the most satisfied group with
the educational system in India. The S.I.O. were least
satisfied. The African and Arab students were in between.
The Thais ' favourable attitude may be due to the fact that
educational system is something concrete and prejudice is
not so operative as in the case of vague and general
policies. On the other hand the S.I.O. might have had
higher expectations regarding the Indian educational system,
an expectancy due to part ly emotionally attached to India
and satisfaction therefore was poorer.
(iv) Satisfaction towards India 's international policy: The Thai
students were the most dissat isf ied. The other three
- 4 0 -
groups held more favourable and similar attitude towards
India 's international policy. None of the differences
between means was significant.
(v) Satisfaction with social life and social practices in India:
S.I.O. were found to be having the most favourable attitude
towards various social practices existing in India. African
students had the most unfavourable a t t i tude . Arab and
Thai students were in between these two extremes. None
of the differences between means was significant.
The findings show that Thai students are most dissatisfied
and S.I.O. most satisfied with India. The African and Arab students
occupy middle position. There is effect of location. Thais in
Aligarh are more favourable to India than Thais in Delhi, whereas
it is the reverse for the African students. The S.I.O. and Arab
have similar and favourable atti tude towards India i rrespect ive of
whether they are in Delhi or Aligarh.
The term stereotype is related to perception. It refers
to the images or pictures which persons have of each other
(Klineberg,. 1966). Some psychologists maintain that the very
existence of stereotypes must mean that they have a "Kernel of
truth" and a well deserved reputation (Zawadski, 1948). Others are
of the view that the stereotypes can develop without any basis in
reality and are often completely false (Katz and Braly, 1933; LaPiere
1936). According to the lat ter group the out-group provides a
- 4 1 -
"living Inkblot" onto which the beholders project their neurotic
motives and concerns. Neverthless, the real issue is not whether
the content of stereotypes is true or false but the casual
misinterpretations that accompany them.
There is no doubt that stereotypes are shaped by social,
economic, political and historical antecedents. They are used in
order to justify the subjugation, exploitation and even elimination
of o thers . They then serve as rationalizations of the status quo.
Wallase Lambert and his colleagues at McGill University (1960)
Canada, conducted study on students to test their ability to judge
character, intelligence and other qualities from the sound of the
voice. The result showed that those who spoke in French
(Canadian) were judged to be inferior to those who spoke in
English, although unknown to the judges it was the same bilingual
speakers. It occurred even when the judges were themselves French
Canadians and the inferiority disappeared when French accent was
Parisan rather than Canadian. Stereotype arose probably because
of the inferior economic and social position of the Franco-phones
in Canadian communities. But s t i l l the fact remains that the images
of the English and French groups affected the perceptions and
judgement presumably attitude and actions related to inter-group
contact.
In many cases people seem to make inferences about other
people 's behaviour on the basis of indirect information. Ihe
classical studies on stereotypes refer very often to national or
-42-
cultural groups who have never, or rare ly been in contact with each
other (e .g . Katz and Bra ly , 1933). However, the genesis of these
stereotypes must be considered as dif ferent from stereotypes which
might emerge through cross-cultural interact ion. Moreover, i t seems
more l i ke l y that the lat ter kind of stereotypes and the at t r ibut ional
processes that imply are more basic in the sense that no one ever
enters into cross-cultural interaction without any preconceptions about
other cultures. For th is reason (LeVine and Campbell, 1972)
considered stereotypes between autonomous, independent groups as
dist inct from stereotypes held by ethnic groups which are integrated
within a single po l i t i ca l and economic order. In the f i r s t si tuat ion,
when l i t t l e or no actual opportunity for mutual observation ex is ts ,
the groups are more ambiguous st imul i for each other and allow more
autist ic perception.
Bond (1986) explored the structure of mutual stereotypes
held by 130 Chinese and 27 American undergraduates in Hong Kong.
The structural stereotypes held towards in-group (autostereotype)
and out-group (heterostereotype) members of the two societies were
brought out. The differences between autostereotype and
heterostereotype were great and comprehensive. Chinese were
perceived to be more emotionally controlled but less open to others.
They were less extraverted than the Americans. The Chinese
believed to be misperceived by the Americans.
Studies have revealed that most sojourners face vast
problems to adjust to a new culture. The indiv iduals who are
-43-
maladjusted are also inadequate and lack social ski l l s to enable
them to cope with a new culture. They may resort to a great
variety of subterfuges and t r icks to conceal their failures,
shortcomings, dissatisfaction or to evade reality of their receiving
culture. Such sojourners retreat from the ugly facts of life Into
i l lusory, subjective nirvana. Maladjusted individuals are not only
unable to cope with the new environment but also lack the capacity
for shaping i t effectively. Basic human social processes like
dialogue, bargaining, status awareness, emotional control and sense
of obligation are essential elements without which an individual may
fail to cope with the receiving society.
Many writers have -reported that there are five main
situations that involve cultural adaptation : Sojourning, settling,
sub-cultural mobility, segregation and changes in society. The first
two imply geographical locomotion but the last three do not. Examples
of non-locomotive changes that reouire coping with new cultures have
been dealt with on adult socialization, resocialization and
reculturation which refer to such situations as the treatment of
social deviants, adjustment to retirement and induction into a
profession (Riley et a l . ,1969; Coulter and Taft, 1973).
There are studies of adjustment of set t lers who have
immigrated from one community to another with the intension of
participating as a member of the new society (Taft, 1966).
Immigration represents a classical situation where a newcomer is
required to cope with an unfamiliar culture. An immigrant needs
- 4 4 -
to be concerned with his relationship to the new society while a
temporary sojourner or traveller e .g . a tourist does not necessarily
have to do so.
Interaction between different groups was studied in work
situations. The findings In these areas have not supported the
assumption that there are absolute changes in members of the
majority group towards members of the minority group. Saenger
and Gilbert (1950) conducted a study in the US and found that
customers might treat Negro personnel in business interaction as
equals but s t i l l maintain their overall anti-Negro at t i tude. It was
found that equal status work contact produced willingness to work
with Negroes on an equal basis but had no significant change in
willingness to accept other relationships with the Negroes.
The pilot study and interviews conducted on foreign
students in India by (Odera, 1991) conform to the above findings.
It was found that relationships between foreign students and the
indigenous people is quite superficial or false despite of interaction
on and off campus. There seems to be no change in mutual attitudes
of the two groups on matters pertaining to social behaviour
patterns.
Brislin (1979) gave five types of cross-cultural orientation
programmes : (i) self-awareness training, in which sojourners learn
about the cultural bases of their own behaviour, (ii) cognitive
training, in which people are given information about another culture,
(i i i) attribution training, which features the characterist ic
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explanations of social behaviour from another culture 's standpoint,
(iv) behaviour modification, (v) experimental learning exercises.
Both Williams (1947) and Allport (1954) regarded
co-operative and competitive as important factors in inter-group
contact. The same opinion has been shared by many psychologists
who have conducted studies on inter-group contact among students
in foreign countries. Schild (1962) concluded from his overseas study
tours that most effective way of inducing lasting attitude changes
is through "participation" involving joint interaction, shared
interests , common goals and active and take contact situations.
Specific inter-group contact does not necessarily have to
produce changes in inter-group relations in everyday life. This
is evident in the US public schools where compartmentalization
occurs when schools are newly desegregated. Relationships between
the White and Negro students within the schools are friendly, but
the two groups go their separate ways outside the school (Williams
and Ryan 1954).
Why is it that inter-group contact in work situations does
not bring about full attitudinal changes at all? It may be due to
casual versus intimate nature of contact. Perhaps general work
situations involve superficial interethnic contact and even when the
relationship becomes more personal it is generally confined to the
work situation only. However, better acquaintance, intimacy and
being close between members of different groups may reduce
- 4 6 -
prejudice and hos t i l i ty .
Amir (1969) reviewed the studies of inter-group contact
and reported that a set of factors determines the outcome of culture
contacts for the inter-group relations. Factors that favour conditions
which tend to reduce prejudice are :
(i) Equality of status between the members of different culture
groups coming into contact with each other ,
(ii) An intimacy other than a casual nature of contact,
( i i i ) Rewarding nature of relations,
(iv) The development of common goals,
(v) The existence of favourable social climate for inter-group
contacts,
(vi) Contact between members of a majority group and higher
status members of a minority group.
Besides, Amir (1969) reported some of the conditions which
strengthen prejudice in contact situations :
(1) Competition between groups.
( i i) Contacts which are unpleasant, involuntary and tensionladen.
(i i l) Lowering prestige of one group by the other.
(iv) Frustrations among the group members.
(v) When different groups have ethnic standards which are
not accepted by each other,
(vi) When members of the minority group are of lower status
than the members of the majority grooup.
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Some writers have described situations in which primary
resocialization has occurred under pressure (e .g . concentration camp
inmates, Bettleheim, 1943; Prisoners of war, Schein, 1956; and
returned prisoners of war, Curie,1947). In each of such cases the
change occurred due to shock effects involving heightened emotions
associated with suffering and the importance of social relationships
either between authorities and inmates.
Sanchez (1984) reviewed cognitive processes in transcultural
psychology and the validity of the natural and empirical approaches.
The study revealed that cognitive behaviour is an adaptive process
to the ecological and social environments.
Smith (1943) carried out a study on students from
Teachers' College, Columbia University, US. The students visited
homes of prominent Negro families, Negro leaders and Artists in
Harlem. There were two groups, experimental and controlled. The
attitudes towards the Negroes were tested at three occasions.
Firs t ly , before the independent variable was introduced, then after
it and finally after eleven months. It was revealed that members
of the experimental group changed their attitude favourably due to
the contact situation. The control group remained persistent even
after elapse of eleven months from the visi t to Harlem.
Dommisse (1986) reviewed social, moral and political
influences of Apartheid situation in SA. Insecurity and powerlessness
are felt by Blacks in such a system. Identification is done in terms
of racial categories handed over by the classifying authority.
- 4 8 -
Individual personality structures are affected. Organic brain
syndromes occur due to malnutrition and physical debility from
Apartheid system. Police repression and torture have direct
psychiatric Implications. Mental health services for Blacks are
inferior to those of the White population. It is suggested that the
world should be firm against Apartheid until it absolutely collapse
and the society becomes fully integrated.
In the light of the above findings (s tudy) , a note of the
fact that apartheid system is on the verge of collapsing in SA due
to the international pressure and adamant attitudes of Black leaders
against the White minority rule. Subseouently, it is anticipated
that there would be a plural society of non-racial discrimination
between Blacks and the Whites.
Hoskin (1984) examined theories that foreign workers :
(i) pose a direct threat to jobs and services , ( i i) polarize an
otherwise consensual system, ( i i i ) heighten personal insecurit ies,
(iv) exacerbate cultural differences. It is concluded that none of
the popular theories is supported by empirial evidence and that
reluctance to integrate foreign workers is not defined in terms of
triaditional political or socio-economic conflict in Germany. It is
suggested that the political leadership has both the opportunity
and the burden of lending definition to the positive or negative side
of permanent integration for foreigners.
McGregor (1986) described the phenomenon of prejudice.
He reported that i ts roots are not purely cultural. The proclivity
- 4 9 -
for prejudice appears to be deeply rooted in the human psyche.
Nevertheless, it was revealed that prejudice promotes the process
of speciation.
Bond and Hewstone (1988) carried study on inter-group
relations in Hong Kong between 256 bri t ish and Chinese students
whose age ranged from 15-16 yea r s . Findings showed no phase
effects. Extensive differences were detected between the two groups
along the commonly perceived factors of (i) identification with the
group, ( i i ) inter-group differences, ( i i i ) resistance to change, (iv)
satisfaction with status quo. Differences between the two groups
were discussed in terms of cultural dynamics, focussing on Chinese
avoidance of conflict and political logic especially Hong Kong's role
as mediator of modernization for China.
The above studies suggest that casual contact between ethnic
groups is not sufficient to change attitudes of individuals . Moreover,
high frequency of contact does not necessarily have to foster positive
ethnic relations. It may increase prejudice, hos t i l i ty , segregation,
grief, and tension as shown from the above s tudies . It may be
concluded that individuals involved in contact with the out-group
members might have not become real part of the same social group
and evaluated their own way of life as outsiders and not as fellow
members of the same group. Sharif and Sharif (1953) observed that
"contact i s l ikely to produce favourable atti tude changes between
members of socially distant groups only when the contact involves
their joint participation as members of an in-group whose norms
favour such par t ic ipa t ion . . . "
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Role Ambiguity, Conflicting Demands and Re-entry Problems
Duality s t ress and conflict of values may adversely affect
sojourners In the receiving society. Children who are born In or
brought up in an alien culture may undergo through intrapsychic
conflicts of cultural values due to influence of culture of origin and
the receiving culture. In addition, going back home from an alien
culture may further pose readjustment which may facilitate problems
to the returnees.
Ihe re Is likelihood that children of persons born overseas
or children that are bom overseas may belong to two social
networks e .g. monocultural and bicultural l i fes tyles . They may
reject the culture of origin and become absolutely assimilated since
it is practically possible to resocialize the basic values of the
young ones unlike the adults, may remain adamant and find faults
with everything In their receiving society, they may be
marginalized, finally, they may be integrated into two cultures and
become bicultyral mediating individuals.
Bochner and his students carried out two studies at New
South Wales to explore second generation migrant-host country
relat ionship. The first study was by Novakovic (1977) on children
bom in Australia of parents born in Yugoslavia. The children were
caught between the traditional culture of their parents and the
Australian culture of their contemporary school and social
environment. The two cultures differ a great deal especially in
regard to the social role of adolescent. Such children are faced
- 5 1 -
with approach - avoidance conflict, i . e . either to accept or reject
their culture of origin or to find some compromise. The peer group
was found to be second only to the family and may even outweigh
parental influence as socializing agent for growing children and
adolescence (Stone and Church, 1968).
Novakovic tested the hypothesis , whether the children
would retain the Yugoslav culture or adopt the Australian culture.
The age limits ranged from 9 to 16 years . It was predicted that
Ss with all Australian friends would have the highest rejection rate ,
Ss with Yugoslav friends would have the lowest rejection rate and
subjects who have friends from both cultures would be intermediate
between the two other groups.
The hypothesis was confirmed. The result fell precisely
into the expected pattern. The middle group children achieved
a degree of biculturality and were supported in their bicultural
stance by their bicultural peer group.
In the second study Crowley (1978) looked at the effect
of multicultural friendships on third generation Australians. A group
of children descendants from older generation were exposed to either
xenophobic tradition of their parents, alternatively they could
become part of movement towards a multicultural Australian society.
The hypothesis was the same as the one tested by Novakovic, i . e .
if peer group would affect Ss ' atti tudes towards cultural d ivers i ty .
The sample was constituted of both boys and gir ls whose age ranged
between 10-15 years .
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It was predicted that as the children got older they would
become more world-minded to the cummulative effect of multicultural
Influences from sources outside of the parental home. The
acquisition of world-mindedness would not be uniform for all children
but would depend on the ethnic composition of their peer group.
Children who had at least one close migrant friend should be more
aware and appreciative of cultural differences than children with
only Australian friends. The hypothesis was confirmed as the result
fell precisely into the expected pattern.
The above two studies asserted the importance of multi
cultural contact under intimate conditions. The peer group in
adolescence was found to be the most cohesive group and also engaged
in marital issues. The group maintains high s t r ic t conformity in
i ts members due to i ts high cohesiveness. The adolescence Is the
stage when most attitudes are formed including the attitude of
cultural mediation. Students who go abroad for studies continue
the same theme into post-adolescence showing the continuing influence
of fr iaidship network on cultural a t t i tudes.
Pereda Olarte (1982) asserted from his study of second
generation of Spanish immigrants in Holland that they showed
confusion and disaffection among those who completed their education
and began to work. The language conflict involved more than
bilingualism. The success was found to be dependent on mastery
of Dutch while emotional ties to the family encouraged the use of
Spanish. Religious and cultural ideas about the importance of
-53-
family, work and reaction posed problems. Younger persons who
were born in Holland had less or no ties to Spain as did their
parents. The young ones desired to be integrated into Dutch social
and political l i fe. Assimilation was a divisive factor and some
discriminative attitudes among Dutch employers towards immigrants
hindered the development of transcultural or bicultural feeling.
Ascher (1985) described sources of s t ress e .g. under
employment social disruption for Southeast Asian parents and children
of the US. It was found that adolescents who arrived in the US
alone and those who had undergone shifting role identities faced
difficulties. Tension resulting from the role conflicts due to lack
of ski l l for psychological adjustment was experienced by the
Southeast Asian students. It is recommended that cross-cultural
training should be given to such individuals. The above findings
support Novakovic (1977) study which revealed that adolescent
children are faced with approach - avoidance intrapsychic conflict
when caught between traditional culture of their parents and an alien
culture of their contemporary social environment.
Brim and Wheeler (1966) reported that it is impossible to
resocialize the basic values of adults, they suggested that the
only changes that can be hoped for would be in overt role
behaviour. Therefore, an adult sojourner can be pressed to conform
to role requirements but not to agree with the values underlying
i t . Sometimes a sojourner becomes, fully resocialized as a result
of group support, institutional legitimation of the new identity and
the presence of new significant others in order to form a new
-54-
identi ty.
In en attempt to study Inter-cultural adjustment Lee (1966)
described the unconscious reference to one's own cultural values
as the "Self Reference Criterion" held by people of all cultures.
We observe others from our own point of view, comparing them with
ourselves as the standard of normal. He asserted that there are
obvious dangers in being tied to our own point of view.
Padilla, Cervantes, Maldonado and Carcia (1987) examined
psychological s tressors experienced by 31 male and 31 female adults
who were immigrants to the US from Mexico and Central America.
Difficulties in obtaining employment, language barr iers and problems
with lifestyle adaptation were identified. Use of a social support
network was effective in coping with those difficulties. Few Ss
attempted to become proficient in English and many expressed
concern over US moral standards and the future of their children.
Males scored higher than females on the Depreseion subscale of SCL-
90, suggesting greater role strain associated with family
responsibi l i t ies . Self-esteem and competence were negatively
correlated with depression and anxiety in females and Mexicans.
Uehara (1986) compared 58 overseas sojourners between
19-41 years of age with 74 domestic t rave l le rs . Questionnaire
findings showed that the returnees from abroad experienced much
greater re-entry adjustment problems. Results asserted that changes
in the individual 's value structure were vital factors associated with
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re-entry adjustment.
Martin (1986) investigated the role of communication in
173 student sojourners' perceptions of positive and negative changes
in 3 types of re-entry relationships (parent, sibling and friend).
Results of a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed
that the degree of positive and negative change reported by Ss
varied with the type of relationships (e .g . relationships with
parents and siblings were perceived to have changed more positively
than negatively. This contradicts previous research characterizing
re-entry relationships as problematic. Relationships with friends
were perceived to have changed both negatively and posit ively.
The above study underscores the previous findings by
Brislin and Van Buren (1974) which postulates that returnees to their
native places are highly expected to face readjustment difficulties
due to re-entry c r i s i s .
Foreign Students in Third World Countries
The bulk of li terature on international students experiences
has been mostly oriented towards the impact of Western culture on
the guest students from the less developed countries. A few reports
do exist that have looked at how students from the Third World
Progress in a nation that is itself underdeveloped. There are some
investigations too of Western students in Third World countries.
These studies have come up with results identical to those pertaining
to Asian and African students in Western countries. However, Zaidi
- 5 6 -
(1975) in a survey of foreign Muslim students in Pakistan, reported
widespread social isolation with only a very few students having
personal relations with local families. On the other hand, Yeh
et a l . (1973), revealed that social relationships between the
American students and their hosts (Taiwan) were seen by both
groups as being superficial, limited and unsatisfactory.
The American Open Dorrs (1980) revealed that relatively
few (34%) US students study outside of Western Europe, primarily
because these students lacked the opportunity to learn the
non-traditional language before they enrol in course work abroad.
Third world countries provide few language support programmes for
foreign students in general.
In 1970, more than half of the 30,000 US students were
studying in Europe (55%), North America (16%), Latin America
(15%), the Far East (7%) the Near and Middle East (5%) and Africa
(1%). The American students abroad faced many difficulties,
therefore, predeparture cross-cultural training was organized which
turned out to be helpful (Wilder, 1965). Most American students
do not have adequate preparation in host country's language for
serious academic work, no proper prerequisi tes for the anticipated
courses, not acquainted with methods of instruction and University
system abroad.
Ganguly and his student (1965) conducted series of studies
on foreign students at Aligarh and Delhi Universities, as mentioned
ear l ier . A study conducted on 79 foreign students of Delhi
University revealed the following points:
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(i) Prejudice against an Indian was highest in the Thai group.
Most of them called Indians orthodox, religious, quarrelsome and
ta lkat ive. Some perceived Indians as shameless and mannerless,
(ii) Arab students were more open verbally and applied more
adjectives to Indians. They perceived Indians as religious and
orthodox too. Additional unfavourable t ra i t s perceived in an Indian
are hypocritical and carelessness by S.I.O. It was also noted that
one-third of the African students saw a superiority complex in
Indians. This might be tied up with some of their complaints of
being discriminated against by Indians in small things because of
their skin. The older respondents had a more favourable image
of Indian as indicated by such terms as faithful, kind and
intelligent. The older students mentioned both favourable as well
as unfavourable qualities about Indians as compared to the younger
group whose mentions were mostly unfavourable.
Odera (1990) conducted a pilot study on foreign students
at A.M.U. to gather informations regarding the i r perceptions about
the host nationals and difficulties they face in India. A group of
32 students comprised the sample. The informations were coded.
Subsequently, the findings revealed that foreign students in India
face the following problems; dilute educational system, food habi ts ,
economic/financial, transportation, extreme cllmatlcal conditions,
health, communication, cheating or unfair dealings, social,
accommodation, poli t ical , personal, religious and time taken to
render services .
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Conclusion
It is evident from the above studies that knowledge of
social sk i l l s of the host society is necessary for students to
minimize their problems in the receiving society.
It is Important to arrange Orientation Programmes before
the students leave for a foreign country and sometime after their
exposure to foreign culture following their a r r i va l . There i s also
need to provide the opportunities for Interaction between the host
nationals and guest students in pleasant situations.
Local organizations such as rotary clubs, foreign students '
committees and students ' unions should invite foreign students to
social functions where they can be able to interact spontaneously
with members of the receiving society. Such social situations
would promote friendly, co-operative and understanding atti tudes
between the two groups. Moreover, it would reduce sources of
prejudice, grief, host i l i ty , aggression, discriminatory behaviours
and xenophobic feelings between the host nationals and the guest
students.
- 5 9 -
CHAPTER 3
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The purpose of the study is to device an instrument to
evaluate specific difficulties faced by foreign students in India.
Such an instrument is required for conducting a comprehensive study
of factors (e .g . cultural differences, individual differences and
sojourn experience) Involved in the outcome of interaction of the
students in India in respect to their feelings of realization of goals,
satisfaction of wants, attitudes towards the host nationals in general.
Institutions of the host country and change in perceived dimensions
of similarities or differences between country of origin and India.
Measures of difficulties encountered by foreigners in alien
countries are available but such measures were not considered to
be useful for assessing difficulties faced by foreign students in India
due to the fact of cultural traditions of India and socio-economic
conditions peculiar to this country. One can however expect that
the basic dimension of difficulties to be the same in India as they
are elsewhere.
The attempt of construction of the device was divided into
two phases:
(1) Collection of items with the help of pilot study in which
foreign students were interviewed so as to have an
exhaustive l is t of their experiences in India.
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(ii) Making use of the informations in the first phase for the
construction of the instrument.
Items Generation
An intensive pilot investigation was conducted in order
to have a pool of i tems. A group of thir ty-two (32) foreign
students studying at A.M.U. comprised the sample. The sample
was recruited from African, Middle East, South East and South West
Asian countries. However, there were odd students from some
countries whom pilot study was not extended to.
The Ss were asked to give informations about their
particulars and difficulties experienced since arr ival in India.
Those who are/were proficient in English wrote down their
difficulties on their own, but those who have/had problems with
the language were assisted by the investigator to write down their
experiences. Ss in the study are in the age range from 18-40 years
and have been staying in India for at least three months. Both
male and female foreign students were interviewed. It was
considered imperative to have the students interviewed for a period
of one month.
The Ss mentioned a wide range "of problems v i z . ,
intellectual and academic, food habits and services offered at
places of meals, financial or economic, negative or discriminatory
behaviours of transportation agents and difficulties in travelling,
harsh climatical conditions, dirty environment and persons al ike.
- 6 1 -
feeling hesitant to express oneself, dishonesty by both members
of the host country as well as some fellow foreign students,
relationships with members opposite sex, indigenous men becoming
aggressive especially when male foreign students talk to indigenous
members of opposite sex, the way of putting on, none availabili ty
of proper accommodation, lack of freedom of expression and political
turmoils at home, nostalgic feelings, relgious faith and one's
position among those who belong to different religious groups and
too much time taken to render services in public offices.
The above collected informations from the students were
arranged under different categories of problems; educational system,
food habi t s , economic, transportation system, weather, health,
communication, cheating or unfair dealings, social or cultural,
accommodation, poli t ical , personal, religious and time.
Construction of the Questionnaire
The sample of the students included in the pilot study
gave a total of 104 informations regarding their social difficulties
in India. An additional l is t of 32 problems that were not mentioned
by the Ss was added by the researcher increasing the total number
of problems to 136. It was later thought appropriate to add 14
more social situations items from the earl ier study conducted by
Fumham and Bochner (1982) on foreign students who were studying
in England. The final total number of items was raised to 150.
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The items from Fumham and Bochner's study were intended to be
"markers" of the factors extracted from their study so as to
ascertain whether the dimension of social difficulties of foreign
students in India are the same as those of. foreign students in
England or not.
Sample
The study was conducted at the four Northern India
Universities v i z . , A.M.U., Delhi University (D.U.) , Jamie Millia
Islamia (J .M.I . ) and Panjab University (P.U.) by Odera (1991).
Foreign students from the four Universities comprised the sample
of the study. The sample was chosen because it is expected that
with their respective cultures and backgrounds the students may
have different expectations and experiences in India.
Two hundred and eighty foreign students from the four
Universities were given the questionnaire. The students were
approached by the researcher to accept the questionnaire. On the
other hand random sample was drawn from Kenyan students at P.U.
in Chandigarh because of their large number. I h e sample closely
resembles the actual proportion of the students population as given
by official s ta t is t ics from the offices of advisers to foreign students
of the four Universit ies. Moreover, not more than five Ss from
available countries at the time of research were interviewed with
exception of Kenyan students at P.U. whose number was a bit larger
by five students more than the rest of other nationals.
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The breakdown of number of the questionnaire fully
coirpleted and returned back to the researcher from the respondents
from the four Universities are as follows : A.M.U. (67
questionnaire), D.U. (42 questionnaire), J .M.I. (26 questionnaire)
and P.U. (65 questionnaire). The administration of the questionnaire
was done according to the instructions given in appendix I .
Problems in Data Collection
This section i s about the problems experienced by the
researcher at the time of interaction with respondents at the four
Universities mentioned ear l ier . The researcher encountered problem
of contacting the respondents. This problem was aggravated by means
of transportation due to i l l timings of city buses, traffic jams which
subsequently led to late arr ival to contact the students. Besides,
there was over charging of fare by transportation agents especially
the rickshaw pullers and auto-rickshaw d r ive r s . Moreover,
respondents stay in different residential flats and far apart from
each other leading to contact with only a handful of respondents
in a day. The above problems were experienced both at D.U. and
J.M.I, in Delhi which are none residential campuses. Though P.U.
is not Integrated residential University, s t i l l this problem was not
acute since it i s easier to locate residences of the students.
Further more, intra-city bus network available in Chandigarh is
better organized than in Delhi.
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Contact wi th students in A.M.U. was the easiest becaause
i t is a residential campus with a sizeable major i ty of the students
staying in hostels or wi thin v i c in i t y of the campus.
Co-operation from the entire students who were contacted
and interviewed was not forthcoming. Some students accepted the
questionraire may be to please the researcher yet others d id not
because of beinp defensive to avoid accepting the same whi le "others
were wi l l ing to co-operate. A good number of the students ended
up not attending to , misplaced or even used as rough papers the
questionnaire that was given out to them. These problems were
more prevalent in A.M.U. and D.U.
Some of the students readi ly accepted the qjuestionnaire
and promised to return the same after certain period of time but
did not do so, would later on use "having no time" as defence
mechanism to jus t i fy the i r l imi tat ions. Otherwise, some indiv iduals
who were approached to take Questionnaire straight away declined
to do so, they excused themselves for not having t ime; some were
reticent about or had phobic feelings to expose thei r problems in
India. Some declined to part ic ipate in the study on ground that
they did not wish to hurt sentiments or reveal feelings of fellow
compatriots towards India. The problems mentioned above were
experienced from the students belonging to the four Univers i t ies.
F ina l ly , some of the students gave responses that were
not so easy to c lass i fy , for example, " I do not know", some used
cross-mark ( x ) ) twice against the same item or used both cross-
mark (x) and t ick-mark ( \ / ) against the same i tem.
- 6 5 -
The details of completed questionnaire returned by the
respondents of the four Universities are as follows :
University
A.M.U.
D.U.
J.M.I.
P.U.
Questimmaire Accepted
85
90
35
70
280
Questionnaire Returned
67
42
26
65
200
Percentage Returned
78.8
46.6
74.3
92.8
71.4
The questionnaire was comprehensive, even then the
students were given opportunity to mention other problems that the
researcher might have not included in the questionnaire. The
problems mentioned by the students were found to be rephrased
versions of the problems already covered in the questionnaire.
Selection of Items
Factor analysis was used for the selection of items to
be included in the scale for measuring social difficulties of foreign
students in India. Factor analysis helps to identify dimensions
of social difficulties experienced by the students. it shows
the number of factors underlying the intercorrelations among the
responses given to the initial pool of items and thereby enabling
us to categorize items into different groups on the basis of factor
-66-
loading of the items on different factors. Factor analysis tells
us how many independent scales are to be developed so that all
the difficulties experienced by foreign students are subsumed by
the scales.
To carry out factor analysis, a matrix of inter-correlations
among 150 items was obtained using Pearson's product moment
correlation. The 150 x 150 matrix was factor analysed using
principle component method. The analysis yielded 14 factors with
more than 1 Eigen value. Out of these, 8 such factors were
retained which we are making substantial contribution to the
percentage of common variance accounted for. The rotation of axes
was done using Kessler ' s Varimax method which is the orthogonal
method that seeks to rotate factors so that the variation of squared
factor loading for a given factor is made large. The factor
analysis and rotation of axes were done with the help of computer
and SSP PACKAGE.
Factor scores for the eight retained factors were obtained
and eight pairs of high and low groups were found on the basis
of Q.l and Q.3 as the cutting points. Items analysis charts were
prepared for each of the eight factors in which the responses of
the Ss classified as high and low were tabulated. Significance
of difference between means of high and low groups for every item
was determined by using "t" test
The selection of items to be included in each of the eight
subscales was done on the basis of five cri teria :
- 6 7 -
(i) Factor loading of the items should be high.
(11) Discriminative index of the items as indicated by
significant "t" value. There should be no dispari ty in
the suitabili ty of items as indicated by the cr i ter ia i
and 11.
( i l l ) In order to remove overlapping among different factor
scales, an item which has high loading on more than one
factor shall be included in the scale for the factor on
which it has relatively higher loading.
(Iv) If a decision is to be taken to include an item which
has equally high loading on more than one factor, the
item shall be included In the factor scores where the
pool of items with high loading on the factor is smaller.
(v) If a large number of items have the four specifications
mentioned above, then only ten best items shall be
Included in a factor scale.
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CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The purpose of the study was to construct a multi
dimensional instrument for the assessment of social difficulties
encountered by foreign students in India. The present chapter
reports the findings arrived at different stages of the construction
of the instrument. Of the three strategies of the test construction
(rational-theoretical, empirical and factor analytic) factor analytic
approach was preferred because it leads to the identification of
number of independent dimensions required for comprehensive
assessment of domain.
Using items formulated in the light of informations
collected during the pilot study, the matrix of intercorrelations
of responses given to the items on a 5-point scale was factor
analysed using principle component method.
Table I presents the matrix of intercorrelations. The
matrix of eight retained rotated factors is given in Table II . The
percentages of common variance explained by eight factors are :
14.22, 23.07, 9 .11, 7.61, 11.07, 21.96, 6.92 and 6.00
respect ively.
-69-
Tiblt 1. Kalrix of InlercorreUliDns anong lUns •
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84
26 28 29 38 30 41 24 27 19 27 35 32 43 29 30 28 29 18 26 32 29 36 25 20 29 19 35 25 29 21 25 22 20 12 02 36 32 30 38 29 36 26 30 25 12 21 26 25 37 29
85
16 34 37 26 26 39 31 33 34 30 46 39 33 34 34 19 22 21 28 37 21 28 34 22 31 29
26 31 34 23 22 26 35 16 17 32 29 27 32 27 37 27 29 31 11 19 34 27 32 20
86
27 30 25 40 18 26 28 33 22 28 37 25 19 19 30 22 20 21 29 24 30 32 42 36 34 23 36 24 30 20 23 22 16 10 19 43 24 40 21 29 3B 23 26 18 11 23 24 26 27 18
87
28 41 27 40 28 28 20 30 35 30 33 22 43 31 19 29 26 18 28 24 21 36 21 33 26 34 40 17 33 26 19 25 33 15 16 45 23 51 43 32 34 27 36 26 14 04 27 23 20 18
88
30 39 24 39 28 35 I"-36 29 31 34 35 42 32 24 26 27 31 27 33 17 34 19 15 30 30 39 19 26 24 24 20 28 10 11 34 30 44 45 26 40 20 36 28 11 09 20 27 26 24
89
22 33 23 33 26 2fc 19 ?4 31 34 37 26 37 38 29 17 30 19 23 34 15 29 39 26 28 34 32 24 23 28 18 24 28 08 15 34 28 33 28 V 29 24 43 35 11 18 25 28 32 29
TO
35 35 43 39 38 4? 26 56 34 41 37 29 44 39 33 27 35 30 26 39 25 30 41 23 38 31 32 25 24 27 24
31 35 17 09 32 37 4t 36 ?9 3« 3t 38 16 19 08 37 40 26 29
-82-
lleis 91 9£ 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 10H 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 Ml 11? 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 1?0 121 1?? 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 13? 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
18 25 09 18 32 31 17 15 05 19 30 19 19 21 21 12 17
16 07 ?3 12 10 27 17 13 ?7 27 15 26 09 16 14 33 1? 19 26 27 30 26 26 14 15 26 16 01 09 29 31 26 ?5
24 ?3 38 37 38 1C 33 22 24 20 11 18 21 23 27 33 17 ?1 44 ?8 38 25 35 22 37 28 29 3? 13 44 28 27 16 09 19 28 18 14 23 41 31 20 13 06 36 26 11 23 28 ?7
33 25 29 ?7 30 37 17 3C 20 27 31 32 28 30 18 29 26 27 19
30 21 36 30 ?6 28 3? 26 16 40 15 27 29 42 ?3 32 35 39 45 38 29 32 43 44 29 16 14 43 39 17 26
40 12 39 37 43 14 39 35 35 12 15 20 17 08 24 30 23 29 35 13 14 33 38 06 37 27 36 50 23 30 29 30 12 01 15 30 21 16 20 35 30 28 00 09 55 34 12 14 20 33
42 19 38 42 41 23 29 27 38 24 27 32 32 28 19 36 21 25 37 22 34 38 35 13 32 27 43 43 40 27 22 36 27 16 15 36 21 ?1 33 36 27 34 21 27 34 26 24 ?0 30 38
24 24 29 40 21 28 24 29 32 34 19 41 23 18 23 30 27 13 43 38 23 27 26 17 25 16 34 29 39 34 24 26 17 18 20 30 29 27 34 3? 38 20 18 ?0 20 16 24 15 16 24
30 38 33 32 25 26 21 27 32 26 30 24 25 29 16 33 19 25 26 29 25 34 29 23 31 30 32 31 43 23 27 30 27 15 12 32 30 21 33 30 36 34 16 13 18 26 26 20 25 23
27 25 38 44 37 33 19 ?1 34 26 22 31 28 43 21 36 27 16 33 24 16 37 31 18 28 33 33 30 33 31 29 25 24 26 22 34 30 27 37 36 34 35 39 26 28 17 24 17 26 26
38 25 40 41 40 33 36 31 30 29 36 32 32 29 36 41 35 21 26 13 38 39 40 16 34 30 38 39 43 23 24 39 37 19 16 35 24 21 30 42 40 24 32 14 24 24 26 25 23 38
44 22 41 46 38 29 24 40 41 27 25 40 33 41 24 42 29 19 39 25 34 43 42 29 42 41 32 26 26 32 27 34 25 31 26 34 20 34 31 39 29 36 27 19 35 19 17 30 33 26
11.0)33
33 ( 39 46 47 19 32 46 39 It 25 26 23 36 32 49 32 23 30 26 47 37 49 27 42 45 54 40 35 33 34 45 30 15 22 37 20 30 30 41 31 35 20 22 36 31 16 31 41 19
39 1.0)26
46 37
26 (1.0)47
37 27 34 14 34 28 29 18 32 30 33 21 27 28 38 15 28 24 25 25 32 26 39 27 23 29 26 16 26 34 17 17 29 36 29 36 28 29 23 20 18 08 19 30 32 29 25
47 1
44 29 45 28 43 31 26 27 40 36 43 44 29 29 36 31 34 34 47 20 47 35 40 42 32 36 34 34 30 11 15 39 17 26 36 40 36 29 23 27 42 27 26 30 27 37
47 27 44
11.0)47
47 31 33 38 41 31 24 35 40 38 35 43 22 26 30 35 26 52 43 26 44 39 51 40 36 35 37 45 25 16 26 44 34 33 42 45 44 37 32 18 32 29 30 27 35 37
19 34 29 31
(1.0)16
16 1
27 33 31 30 31 30 31 32 29 45 35 26 34 25 44 39 45 17 41 43 49 40 29 36 29 46 27 11 31 31 25 26 30 46 39 37 30 18 37 24 20 30 33 34
32 14 45 33 27
:1.0)34
34 28 27 17 33 31 26 22 31 26 40 27 14 40 17 24 25 26 20 22 22 28 30 16 07 16 23 19 02 35 41 30 28 19 29 20 46 32 06 12 39 24 23 30
46 34 28 36 33 28
(1.0)30
30 '
37 26 30 29 23 17 38 35 27 22 42 36 36 30 31 25 44 35 41 47 29 41 27 25 26 01 16 30 23 17 30 42 35 19 17 16 41 33 24 25 26 35
39 28 43 41 31 27 37
11.0)44 44 32 34 40 32 31 29 33 25 25 26 27 34 33 31 19 34 29 30 33 46 31 26 33 33 23 22 31 38 36 37 35 42 40 22 19 23 22 22 32 28 18
36 29 31 31 30 17 26 32
(1.0)38
38 23 33 39 36 26 44 32 17 34 29 30 34 34 25 45 39 34 40 31 50 22 39 33 20 16 38 27 28 30 41 34 27 25 22 24 19 31 15 23 24
25 18 26 24 31 33 30 34 23
(1.0)38 38 44 37 39 29 35 34 20 27 38 25 24 30 24 30 29 31 21 25 29 22 32 34 11 22 33 29 36 28 29 39 30 25 25 11 16 32 28 25 26
26 32 27 35 30 31 29 40 33 44
(1.0)40
40 32 32 29 16 36 23 21 36 28 31 28 15 24 26 29 27 34 25 26 23 29 13 12 36 27 35 25 37 35 30 34 27 12 20 28 35 32 27
23 30 40 40 31 28 23 32 39 37 32
(1.0)38
38 42 30 32 31 15 26 35 21 23 25 14 39 31 26 26 32 24 23 19 32 22 27 24 30 30 43 31 38 26 28 29 20 18 24 31 28 21
36 33 38 38 32 22 17 31 36 39 32 42
11.0)40 40 24 34 29 28 29 34 18 40 28 14 35 32 34 29 27 30 21 27 29 21 12 35 22 32 44 34 39 34 30 40 22 15 28 20 21 28
32 21 43 35 29 31 38 29 26 29 29 30 24
(1.0)29 29 39 30 25 16 28 ZZ 36 31 24 33 41 28 27 36 31 31 19 30 22 19 36 39 32 38 32 28 32 40 29 14 09 26 40 34 22
49 27 44 43 45 26 35 33 44 35 16 32 34 39
(1.0)26
28 36 23 36 28 40 29 22 19 34 28 27 32 23 32 22 27 27 07 10 27 19 21 32 39 36 17 24 18 29 32 20 22 33 36
32
28 29 22 35 40 27 25 32 34 36 31 29 30 36
(1.0)32
32 35 32 22 33 36 39 26 38 33 48 36 40 41 27 33 26 17 20 30 26 28 33 40 36 20 21 24 34 23 34 27 30 26
23 36 29 26 26 27 DO
2'j
P 20 23 1'. 28 25 23 35
(1.0)23
23 25 35 30 19 32 21 20 32 27 26 25 26 26 24 21 23 12 31 30 23 32 25 31 19 37 20 20 21 23 22 25 26
(1.01
27 22 13 28 31 16 30 Zt 20 2'* Zi It 23 13 16 07 19
31 25 25 27 24 31 22 15 18 22 21 25 20 21 26
30 15 38 30 34 14 4̂ 26 ji
?: 2' H» ?•)
16 36 32 25 27
26 28 31 35 25 40 3t
" ,-a
(8 it
[<'^.
<4 i& 28 32 35 ?2
(1.0)36 36 35 39 34 Itj
46 32 30 3̂ It
46 •) •
41 22 15 22 29 12 23 36 47 40 31 18 14 42 35 21 23 24 31
(1.0
28 34 T. I'
Z't
Jc ;••!
Zt ;<;
;' 4' 21 19 3o 32 36 H* 33 45 27 JO
14 16 22 36 33 36 21
-83-
Ite»5 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 14« nc
101 102 103 104
105
106 107
108 109
110
111
112
113 114 115 116
117
114 119
120 121
122
123
124 125
126 1?7
128 1?9
130 131
132
133
134
135
136 137
138 139
140
141
142
143 144
145
146 147
148 149
150
47 24 34
it 44
17
36
34
30
25
28
21
18
22 40 33
30 13 35
28 11.0)
38
31 17
35 ?9 39
32
28 29 31
41 27
18 14
40
25
26 24
50
3? 31 19
11
39
28
15
30
?1 34
37
25 34
52
39
24
30
33
34
24
31
23
40 36 ?o
36
liJ
28 39 34
38
49
25 47
43
45
25
31
31 34
30
28
25
28 31 3? 39
3? 31 34
35 31
(1.0)52
27 32 20
26 17
26
?5
19
35
24
15
14
14
34 19
26
21 16 16
21 17
29
5? (1.0)25
29 45
29 36
40
31 31 31
37
30
16
16
42 34
34 3?
45
44
38
31
08
30
25
35
30 31 39
42 26 47
44
41
20
44
34
45
30
24
39
35
33 34
38
20 30 46
24
35
45
42
25 (1.0)34
42 35 46
3° ?8 33 30 37
23
08
17
41
?2 25 21
42
38 28 ?9
18
34
33 24
32 37
30
34
25 IB
20
21 21 21 17
26
16
17
31
16
19 22
26
22 15 14
12
13
17
28 17
16 20
45 39 35
39
43
22
35
29
39
29
26
31
32 41 26 33
32
25 32 16 29
29
35
25 (1.0)44
44 44
49
33 49 38
36
21
16
27
42
23 39
36
52
46 34
18 17
39
29
?9
29
28 36
54 27 40
51 49
22
41
30
34
31
29
28
34
28 27
48
37
20 30 32
39
36
46
18 44
(1.0)41
41
32
25 40 34
40
36
09
30
34
24
27 37
40
31
30
3?
32
25
25 27
32
32 33
40 23 42
40
40 28
47
33
40
21 27
26
29
27 32 36
26 29 37
24
32
40
39
20 49
32 (1.0)44
44
38 30 41
43 24
03
18
42
22
33 34
44
42
27 25
29
38
29
23
32 36 29
35 29 32
36 29
30
29
46
31
25
34
32
27
36 23 40
25
22 16
28 28
31
28
21 33
25 38
(1.0)40
40 45 38
43
25
10
11
38
28 24 29
42
33
26 14
16
56
42
29
20
?5 41
33 26 38
35 36
16
41
31
50
29
25
24
30
31 32 41
26
16 46 29 29
31
33
21 49 40 30
45
(1.0)18
18 37
33 37
28
26 27
35
31 43
31
38 32 27
28
21
17
33
22 24 24
34
16 34
37 29
07
27
26
22
22
26
23
21
31 22 27
26
23 27
23
31
31
30
21
38 34 41
38
37
(1.0)30
30
35
21
11
19
32 30
17
19
46
28
26
21 13
27
25
21
22 25 27
45 26 34
45 46
16
25
33
39
32
23
19
27 19 2 7
33
24
13 41
21 41
37
37
17
36
40 43
43
33 35
(1.0)32
32
38
OH
13
26
20 24
32
37
39
36 TO
15 34
32
20 24
19 24
30 34 30
25 27
23
26
33
33
34
29
32
29
30 27
26
21 16 22 41
27
30
23
26 21
36 24
25 37
21 38
(1.0)40
40
15 27
26
20
25 34
41
36
35 21
13
36
32
30
27
23 37
15 17 11
16 11
19
01
23
20
11
13
22
21
22 07
17
23 07
15
21 18
16
08
16 16
09 03
10
28 11 02 15
(1.0)28
28
36
24
24
30 36
37
39
34
22
18
19
24
33
43
25 26
22 17 15
26 31
02
16
23
16
22
12
27
12 19
10 20
12 19 22 19
14
16
17
17 27
30 18
11
26 19 13 27
36
(1.0)34
34
18
24
18 27
18
15 20 27
00
02
00 31
18
14 10
37 29 39
44
31
35
30
31
38
33
36
24
35
36 27
30
31
31 29
36 40
42
41
31
42 34 42
38 27
32 26
26 24
18
(1.0)26
26 23
25 31
29
31
27
16
21
17
14
23
22
23
13
20 38 17
34 25
41
23
38
27
29 27
30
22 39 19
26
30
25 12
32
25
34
22
18 23 24 22
28
35
30 20 20 24
24
23 (1.0)41
41
56 37
50
45
38 33
26 24
16
37
29
30
30
30 29 28
33 26
30
17
36
28
36
35
30
32 32 21
28
23
25 23
36
26
34
25
19
29
27 33
24
31 17 24
25 30
18
25
56
(1.0)40
40 42
25
26
30 37
18
09
12
44
25
30 29
30 36 36
42 30
28
30
37
30
28
25
43 44
38 32 33
32
27 36
29
24
32
21
22 36 37 34
29
43 19 32
34 36
27
31
37
42
(1.0)44
44
32
37
36 33
27
21
11
35
35
22
22
41
28 40
45 46
19
42
35
41
29
37
31
34
32 39
40
25 24 47
33
50
45
42
26 52
40 44
42
31 46 37
41
37
18
29
50
25
32 (1.0)40
40
46
35 30
33 34
20
35
30
30 39
31 29 38
44 39
29
35
42
34
39
35
38
39
28 36
36
31 31 40
45
32
44
38
22
46 31 42
33
38 28 39
36 39
15
31
45
26
37
46
(1.0)45
45
41
23 19
39
32
23
35
26
43
35
23 29
37 37
20
19
40
27
30
30
26
34
32 17
20
19
22 31
27
31
38
28
15 34
30 27
26
32
26 36 35 34
20
27
38
30
36 35
41
(1.0)34
34
28
29
30
34
40
37
31 29
20 20 23
32 30
46
17
22
25
25 34
28
30
40 24
21
37
15 18 30 19
31
29
14
18
32 25
14
27
21 10
21
22 27
16
33 37
33 30
23
28
(1.0)25
22
18 27
18 18
32
16
19
22
25 27
29
40 29
18 24
20
18 14
14
11
08
18
12 17
32 29
16
28 13 15
13 18
00
21
26 18
27
33
19
29
18 25 (1,0)32
18
26
15
28
25
20 27
32
03
09
32
40
26 22
36
08 42
32 37
08
41
23
24
11
12
20
22
14 29
34
20
22 42
18 39
30
34
13 39
25 38
56 21
27 34
36 19
02
17 24
09
21 34
39
30
26 03
(1.0)19
19
08
19
16
22 19
31 19 27
29 24
12
33
22
29
16
20
18
15 09
Yd
23
21
21 35 22
28
25
33
17 29
25 29
42
17 25 32 32 24
00
14
16
12
11 20
32
34
15 09
08
(1.0)41
41
14
21
09
36
16
30 26 30
20
39
24
22
31
32
28
24
26
26 20 34
23
25 21
36
15
35
24
28
29 27 23 29
33
21 20
30
33
31
23
37 44
35 35
23
40
28
32 19
14
(1.0)17
17
22
26 34
31
32 30 27
30 24
25
32
15
28
35
31
20
40 22 27
2?
20 23
33 30
30
32
17
29
32 32
20
22
22 24 27
43
18
<;2
29
25
35 30
35
37
25 W 16
21
22
(1.0)37
37
23 28
(1.0
31 27
41
2'i 27 35
33
23
26
28
23
25
32
28 ^1
34 33
iO
25
L'I
24
38
21
31
37
16
28
32 36
25
24
ib 1")
1-3 9t
14
/:. 30
iO
22 30
26
31
20
26
22
09
26
23
) 31
IS
2̂ 37
3"
34
30
35
16
24
26 27
21
26
'i? 3c.
dk
'it
26 31
21
34
39
30
20
36
33 29 41
i;4
?? 24 3'
ib
\ >:, 30 2S-
24 39
43
29
27 22
19
36
34
26
27
(1.0)27
27 (1,01
• DeciMls aniUed
-84-
Table II The rotated factor matri?-;
I terns II III IV V VI VII VIII CommunalxtiB-
1 2 7?
4
6 7 8 9
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 y.'7
-ji.j.
34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 A3 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
04 09 01 31 14 06 01 06 02 02 04 36 18 11 04 03 26 05 02 15 24 02 02 13 07 27 02 18 13 26 14 07 11 06 08 41 -T 4
21 11 1 1 10 01 ~T~T
19 00 13 Ci7 10
29
07 14 12 14 15 07 16 "TO
14 15
24 04 '?3
28 46 15 11 36 14 12 2^ 02 25 13 38 27 10 00 08 29 t=r-y
27 56
28 21 32 29 40 17 34 15 21 3 3
11 18 34 16
18 00 16 36 01 05 07 01 31 16 26 32 00 12 18 02 11 29 29 17 33 18 14 40 "T*^
21 43 49 54 34 23 25 '"?0
25 07 26 25 25 25 41 16 00 16 08 26 34 '7'7
13 09 41
02 09 04 02 25 03 04 12 10 35 30 11 16 17 05 01 12 03 11 18 08 41 11 12 36 21 22 01 15 05 25 02 14 10 19 03 03 10 17 25 37 04 11 09 23 14 21 01 17 00
'^T
41 16 32 18 12 15 34 29 23 00 17 26 06 44 05 13 22 25 03 00 23 31 04 O T
05 18 18 01 07 17 10 "7 "7
43 04 11 36 44 47 02 03 40 17 07 00 y?
16 29
18
34 28 48
50 18 27 26 19 06 15 25 38 47 31 37 IS 44 10 13 27 11 42 02 19 10 04 15 28 20 11 17 42 11 41 30 15 13 29 01 37 15 13 38 06 21 44 20
03
30 12 02 04 03 59 40 18 07 16 12 04 13 17
19 00 29 07 21 06 16 02 14 01 06 04 "T'7
04 03 12 20 17 10 06 07 00 24 06 00 07 04 30 -1̂ -7
36
21 13 26 14 07
12 16 17 18 26 01 17 13 02 06 03 10 11 13 03 34 40 17 34 59
19 O'T?
13 36 20 O T ;
01 11 14 y,y.
02 01 01 11 C'O 04 11 10 01
03 24 26 13 11 06 20 08 1 1
44 47
27
41 31 38 45 A7 42 39 47 48 36 36 38 28 49
51
28 ^ .-' 42
59 34 42 43 46
42 40 40 42 46 54
38
38
-85-
5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6 7 7 7 8 7 9 8 0 8 1 8 2 8 3 8 4 8 5 8 6
8 7 8 8 8 9 9 0 9 1 9 2 9 3 9 4 9 5 9 6 9 7 9 8 9 9
1 0 0
0 3 3 0 2 4 1 2 3 1 4 2 1 1 1 5 1 4 1 5 3 4 1 0 1 3 1 7 1 9 1 4 1 7 2 9 1 7 2 4 2 7 1 9 4 0 2 8 1 0 2 2 1 8 1 9 3 0 3 2 1 5 2 1 1 7 1 2 2 8 2 0 4 8 3 6 1 9 2 6 1 2 1 2 2 4 0 1 2 8 3 0 3 6 3 7 2 1 4 0
0 7 1 0 0 0 2 8 3 6 2 3 3 6 2 5 3 3 2 5 3 4 2 9 5 1 5 9 4 3 2 0 1 6 2 6 4 1 1 8 1 5 3 7 3 4 0 7 2 7 1 0 5 2 1 5 1 3 1 2 0 3 2 4 1 8 1 8 1 5 1 4 0 4 0 6 0 6 1 2 0 0 4 4 0 9 7 1 5 1 2 2 2 8 2 2 3 7 3 6
4 2 3 1 0 6 1 2 0 1 0 6 0 7 1 8 2 8 1 7 1 5 2 0 2 7 1 4 3 1 2 9 4 9 1 9 0 1 0 2 1 5 0 8 1 2 1 7 0 9 1 5 0 3 0 5 0 5 0 7 3 3 1 0 1 9 0 9 0 2 0 0 1 2 1 0 0 6 0 6 0 3 0 2 2 5 1 5 0 7 1 5 0 4 2 1 0 7 0 7
1 6 OO 5 9 2 3 2 5 0 2 5 4 2 6 0 8 1 7 1 8 y."^ 1 0 0 4 1 5 1 6 0 3 2 4 2 1 0 0 1 1 1 3 0 9 0 6 0 3 0 8 0 1 0 4 1 3
1 1 0 1 1 2 0 0 0 5 'P '?
4 6 1 5 1 0 3 8 2 5 3 1 1 6 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 5 2 6 1 0 1 ^
1 3
2 1 2 0 27^
2 0 1 6 1 7 0 9 1 2 0 7 2 3 0 4 5 3 2 0 2 2
0 0 0 0 1 6 3 1 1 4 4 0 1 5 2 4 0 2
0 1 2 9 0 9
3 1 1 3 2 0 1 1 1 7 0 0 3 2 3 4 2 5 2 0 2 0 0 4
3 6 0 8 0 1 0 3 1 6 0 2 j-jij-j
1 1 2 7
3 2 -TO
1 1 5 0 2 3 0 9 1 9 3 4 3 4 4 6 1 8 1 2 1 2 0 7 0 0 3 4 3 1 0 0 0 0 2 6 2 3 3 0 3 1 6 1 2 2 3 3 3 0 6 2 4 0 5 3
3 8 5 4 6 5 5 4 4 5 2 5 2 3 4 2 4 6 4 5 4 9 0 2 5 2 0 3 0 8 1 7 1 3 1 3 3 5 0 9
OS 2 9 1 9 1 1 1 4 ~T~T
0 9 2 7 1 1 0 0 0 7 0 2 0 2 0 0 1 3 0~T
1 5 3 4 0 3 1 6 2 4 0 8 0 8 0 1 0 9 0 5 1 0 1 5 0 7 0 6 1 6 0 9 C>3 2 8 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 8 2 0 0 3 1 4 0 8 1 0 -T r~^
2 4 0 6 4 3 1 2 ?sO
1 2 0 2 0 5 1 8 1 8 1 6 0 8 0 6 0 2 1 2 0 5 0 0 1 0 0 7
1 3 0 1
0 5 1 6 3 0 0 0
0 9 0 7 0 5 2 6 0 3 1 4 -lilo
0 5 2 1 0 1 0 5 \0
•':•' 1
OS 0 2 T'iT
0 6 0 1 0 2
1 '^•^
--'\ ~^.
OB ' - ' 7
3 4 1 0 1'-1
1 0
38 43 5 3 51 4 3 41 cr -• vJ i
40
43 34
crcr
43 4 6 a-?
4 0 3 7 3 0 41 3 7 4 9 50 4 7
38 48 54 49 42 45 46 42 4Q
4!^
4^ 55 48 2 0 42 52 46 51
-86-
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142
T O
46 25 34 26 18 07 42 49 37 13 44 39 46 05 36 18 15 19 17 14 19 13 23 27 42 25 06 41 O T
04 28 31 44 42 30 37 38 47 20 25 "TO
143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150
01 09 23 16 28 00
12 50 46 53 07 53 35 36 14 14 21 21 18 41 49 25 27 43 21 54 39 46 13 55 36 52 70
44 41 44 14 02 14 29 15 07 25 48 rrcr - J» -_'
24 03 11 68 51 11 16 30 46
08 07 07 06 13 09 04 11 07 12 15 13 09 14 15 15 00 20 05 03 07 10 00 10 00 12 11 09
01 35 08 18 02 19 01 09
19 10 17 16 12 19 17 05 15 24 00 04
14 T O
05 18 10 06 02 02 02 07 13 06 01 19 IB 10 00 15 11 15 06 20 46 23 14 21 15 09 04 04 14 15 24 00 06 14 06 07
13 13 11 12 05 03 25 08 33 29 15
10 02 17 25 05 07 25 04 27 21 15 01 14 09 12 19 02 01 28 26 16 24 14 31 28 07 17 06 06 43 07 09 OS 06 10 41 05 30 •J!
41 21 11 17 01 11 00 17 21 01 07
16 27 20 24 25 63 24 25 07 27
32 29 38 18 44 25 05 41 17 27 20 11 14 17 18 20 28 07 09 08 23 16 07 34 43 36 32 15 •'2
16 51 28 01 14 45 31 30 34
02 01 13 10 06 26 00 01 22 05 12 16 26 09 06 04 27 05 24 04 00 10 12 03 01 04 09 08 01 05 20 13 05 01 30 02 06 02 08 10 5)3
19 19 18 14 06 08 10 03 12
01 08 13 04 01 01 24 11 12 13 18 Ol 04 OS 09 00 07 02 15 10
•->^,
08 05 10 09 07 03 04 19 06 16 27
07 10 01 03 oo 1 A
19
09 07 22 16
10 05
43 44 51 46 52 47 40 53 33 42 40 41 41 41 48
41 35 44 39 53 26 50 41 45 56 45 46 40 42 :̂-9
4«?
36 44 45
43 29 54 4-t
* Decimals omitted
-87-
In order to understand the psychological nature of
extracted factors a factor analyst has to rely on his own
theoretical insight and common sense. Alternatively, one can
postpone an attempt of understanding the extracted factors and the
factors naming t i l l the time when enough empirical findings are
accumulated to help him to understand psychological nature of the
extracted factors. The lat ter is often recommended but not
followed. If one has to make choice of the first alternative he
has to give the variables importance in determining the meaning of
factors in proportion to the magnitude of their loading. A factor
analyst would be in a position to have a clear definition of factors
which have high loading of a number of var iables ; in the absence
of considerable loading of at least some of the items the nature
of the factors becomes ambiguous.
The naming of factors that emerged in a new study becomes
relatively easier when marker variables asterixed (*) included to
represent factors that emerged in a well planned earl ier study are
factor analysed with a new set of items and are found to have high
loading on new factors. However, when some of the items used
as markers of a factor identified earl ier are found to have high
loading not on a single factor but are scattered on different factors
then markers become source of confusion rather than c lar i ty . With
these remarks let us consider the factors that emerged in the
present study.
-88-
Factor I
Items Loading
Restriction imposed by landlords or landladies .492
Unfriendly attitudes of some female foreign students from
other countries •481
Aviiarding of marks by some teachers .470
Dealing with Indian poondas (thugs) .461
Dealing with those who are responsible for renewal of
residential permit .443
Foreign students who stay off campus are often
apprehensive of strange restrictions imposed on them by landlords
or landladies. Across-sectlon of the students reported that time
Is fixed for them to be in their respective rented rooms beyond
which gates may be locked or threats to vacate rooms are given
by the owners of houses. Entertainment of one's guests-especially
members of opposite sex no matter of the relat ionship, to relax
in balconies and to interact freely with family folks of landlords/
landladies are some of the behaviour patterns not condoned in
India.
In most cases, if not all cases, the students are expected
to pay rent at a fixed date of each month and there is no
compromise about it whether one has money or not. Moreover, there
are numerous pathetic cases whereby the guest students are ordered
to vacate their rented rooms by landlords due to simple reason
of late payment or accumulation of rent for a period of time. The
-89-
possibll i ty of one's reirittance petting delayed from sponsor is never
realized by landlords/ landladies. The African students who study
at A.M.U. in Allgarh, but stay off campus revealed that landlords
are least interested in welfare of their tenants. The rentered rooms
are not maintained, no proper security provided to the students
and their proper t ies . Some of the students reported that landladies
are more understanding and considerate than their counterparts. In
addition to the above difficulties, rents and electricity charges
are exorbitant. There is no doubt that such problems cause anxiety
to the students concerned and make them hopeless.
Some female foreign students are indifferent to some male
foreign students from other countries. The African male students
from Sub-Saharan Africa reported that female foreign students from
Afro-Arab, Arab and other Asian countries depict bizzare behaviours
towards them. This typical behaviour of majority of female
students from the above mentioned places may be due to negative
connotations that the host nationals attribute to and heterostereotype
mentalities generally female students have towards the male students
from particular countries, some female overseas students are
apprehensive of consequences from their male compatriots if they
dare to interact freely with male students from other countries,
a female student may hail from a conservative society and finally,
communication barr ier may cause such volition at t i tudes. By and
large female foreign students have a tendency of ignoring or cold-
shouldering their male counterparts. Ultimately, the male counterparts
feel embarassed, this has precipitated an unfriendly atmosphere b e t
ween male-female foreign students.
-90-
The students belonging to A.M.U., D.U., J .M.I , and P.U.
asserted that some teachers are indifferent to foreign students and
manifest discriminatory attitudes against the l a t t e r . The cardinal
point to note is that Indian teachers in general have strong belief
that foreign students are more mentally incapacitated than their
local counterparts. The African students reported that awarding
of marks by some teachers is not objective, that they do not get
marks they deserve no matter how much they become labourious
in their s tudies. Such negative qualities manifested by some
teachers have demoralized the students. Consequently, some of the
students do not work hard for their scholastic achievement because
of lack of positive reinforcements by some teachers .
On and off foreign students are under threats of goondas
(thugs). Some of them intentionally provoke the students because
they are aware that the students are he lp less . This is
psychological intimidation by the host thugs which frightens the
overseas students. One can not dare to differ with or engage into
physical conflicts lest should he be ganged up or shot at by hired
host thugs. This very behaviour by anti-social elements of the
host nationals has instilled xenophobic feelings into the students
to an extent that one hesitates to express h is opinion about the
indigenous people or against India.
The officers and their subordinate staffs who work at
Foreign Registration Offices and are responsible for the renewal
of residential permits to enable foreign students to stay in India
are often "mischievious" and bul l ies . The students may be taken
- 9 1 -
in or punished for t r ivial matters that do not deserve any penalty.
Malpractices of bribe taking and requests for foreign gifts by
officers in F.R.Os. are deep rooted and have become sing songs
to the students.
Considering the above facts it may be concluded that the
relationships between the host nationals and the students are not
friendly, intimate and genuine. Interactions between the two groups
are superficial and limited, hence it is thought appropriate that
factor I be given the t i t le "Relations with the Host Stewards".
Factor II
Items Loading
Indians' habit of "polluting" the environment .717
Violation of traffic rules by the host nationals .700
Indians' habit of spitting in streets .687
Overcharging of items by shopkeepers and
vegetable vendors .595
Absence of wholehearted co-operation from
Indian counterparts .550
Belief the native people have that foreign students
have too much money . .543
There is remarkable difference between popular culture
of the host society and cultural behaviours brought by those
students who come for the sake of studies. The students do not
appreciate much some of the habits of the indigeneous people.
The host nationals' l i festyle, customs, environmental
-92-
cleanliness, food habi t s , languages are strange to most overseas
students. The discrepancy in cultures coupled with dir ty
environmental sights of open drainage and sewage systems which expose
foul l iquids and waste organic matters, defecation that is carried
out everywhere at any time with least inhibitions are the reasons
of lack of more than casual interaction between the native people
and guest students. Those who serve in hostel messes, canteens,
hotels, food and tea stal ls are often untidy. They are habitual
of dipping their fingers into drinking water and glasses of tea.
Choice of restaurant for meals or market place for vegetables or
butchery for beef is problematic because they are not only filthy
but also not inspected for cleanliness; the natives do not comply
with health codes.
Often the hosts violate traffic rules which at times inflicts
the students. Drivers and motor-cycle r iders derive an ecstasy
of delight in following short-cuts , driving/riding at a very high
speed, disobeying traffic l ights , unnecessary hootings and using
improper traffic signs or failure to use traffic signs. Besides,
some of traffic jams are caused by dilapidated conveyers; and
carrying of excess passengers are horr ible sights in India. These
behaviour patterns of the host nationals not only i r r i ta te the
students but also make them anxious and hesitant to accept lift
offered by the native dr ivers or r i de r s . Even if such offers are
accepted by the students s t i l l they become panic s t r icken.
The host nationals have a common belief that foreign
students have too much money. This is a belief which has made
-93-
the students to fall victims of shopkeepers, vendors and
landlords. Daily used items, food stuffs, rents and fare are ever
overcharged when it comes to dealing with guest students.
Nevertheless, some teachers impose tuition on foreign students just
to get money from them. Even if it was genuine tuition initiated
by the students s t i l l they are overcharged as compared to their
local counterparts. Such situations make the students helpless and
frustrated.
Movement from one cultural zone into another presents
certain physical , mental and social challenges to alien students.
The students in India may undergo mental shock of having to adjust
to a new country which may be dramatically different from their
own. The inconsistent behaviours of the host nationals as mentioned
above demoralize the students to an extent that uncontrollable fear
is created in them. As a result the students may become
maladjusted to the receiving society. Therefore, it is suggested
that factor II be given the t i t le "Stress due to Habits and Lifestyles
of the Hosts".
Factor III ,
Items Loading
Getting food at the right time .542
Limit of certified amount for annual expenditure
by University authority .499
Lifting of properties from one's room by the host
nationals or foreign students .496
Drainage and sanitation system ,434
- 9 4 -
Provislon of Foundation courses and compulsory subjects .420
Many overseas students during pilot study at A.M.U. and
the study carried out at the four Universities v i z . , A.M.U., D.U.,
J .M.I , and P.O. by (Odera, 1991) indicated that the students
experience social difficulties that arise due to treatments given
by the native people whose attitudes are not considerate. The
students reported that they wait in queue for long before any services
are rendered. Public servants lack sense of duty. The natives
do not observe punctuality, the principle of first come first served
is not s t r ic t ly followed in the receiving society. Some students
referred to the natives as "racists" because of their preference
always to serve and be considerate to fellow Indians. Servicemen
in shops, waiters in restaurants and hotels attend to the natives
first but not the students even if the lat ter came f i rs t . Meals
are served to the guest students at inappropriate time coupled with
unpleasant state of food. Despite of such prejudice behaviours
against the students, s t i l l waiters demand tips for their poor
services . Failure to give tips implies that next time services
would be even worst.
A section of the students who were interviewed pointed
out that the host nationals look down upon them due to their poor
monetary status. This is as a result of less certified amount for
the whole academic session by the University authorities in
collaboration with respective embassies of different countries the
students come from. The act of certifying the annual expenditure
automatically influences amount to be remitted by one's sponsor.
Most of social difficulties and psychological s t ress arise due to
-95-
lack of substantial amount remitted to the students. Consequently,
one's studies may be messed up with because of lack of enough
funds for subsistance, books, captivation or development funds that
have been introduced to various Universities such as A.M.U. by
the government of India and rents , if any.
The students are apprehensive of the host nationals'
motive to steal thei r proper t ies . The guest students ' houses/rooms and
properties are mostly targeted by the hosts as well as some of
the guest students. Such anti-social activit ies are extended to the
alien students because criminals are aware that the affected students
are helpless to recover their stolen properties or even to convict
the guilty to be punished by law. Even when such cases are
reported to police, they never take action and sometimes ask for
bribe before investigation is carried out. Such attitudes make the
students to bear hardships rather than to lodge complaints against
the native people.
The provisions of Foundation courses, compulsory subjects
and local languages are of no use to foreign students when they
go back to their home lands. Retrospective reports by the students
in the pilot stage revealed that they were coerced to accept certain
subjects or to forgo their studies at particular Universities. In
such situations the students are left with no alternative but to
accept courses/subjects which they have no Interest in and which
may not be of great value to their societies. In the light of the
above arguments it is suggested that factor III be given the t i t le
"Treatment Meted Out".
-96-
Factor IV
Items Loading
Company of opposite sex and sometimes longing for a spouse - .597
Limited scope for recreational facilities - .467
* Making ordinary decisions affecting others - .380
Preparing one's meals - .370
Lending money to friends - .330
Getting remittance from sponsor - .325
Not being encouraged to develop deeper cordial relations
beyond artificial interaction with the native people - .325
Across-section of the students revealed in the phase of
pilot study that they feel lonely due to lack of interaction with
members of opposite sex . The African male students expressed
strong feeling of deprivation not only for lack of company of
opposite sex but also an earnest desire for a suitable marital
partner. This may be due to the fact that the African students
are more advanced in age than Afghan, Arab, Indonesian, Malaysian,
Sri Lankan, Thai students, inter alios. Of all the foreign students,
the African students are concerned with marital issues more than
the r e s t . Iranian students and S.1.0. were reticent about issues
of marriage because quite a good number of the former are married
while the lat ter became evasive over such issues due to the
conservative nature of their society. Female foreign students
particularly from Sub-Saharan Africa argued that they too desire
to have company of suitable men who are trustworthy and are
committed to the course of wedlock.
-97-
A section of the African male students at A.M.U. and P.U.
voiced out that complexion of their skin place them at a distance
from Indian members of opposite sex while the Arab students have
advantage of the same. Nevertheless, the two above mentioned
categories of students asserted that Indians are orthodox, hypocrites
and narrow-minded. In the pilot stage, a section of the students in
Aligarh reported that the host nationals are only occupied with
thoughts about sexual relationships whenever a foreign student talks
to or gets on intimate terms with a member of opposite sex, no
matter of the nationality of the partner .
There is scarcity of recreational facilities in India.
Hobbies workshops and well organised cultural activit ies are
lacking in the receiving society. Constructive drama, lectures,
symposiums, educative film shows are rare events, even when
organised are often conducted in local languages which are alien
to most of the students, if not a l l . As a matter of fact, there
is no enthusiasm for both individual and collective sports (e .g .
jogging, skitt ing, badminton, tennis, boxing; excursions, football,
volleyball , basketball , Rugby, sight seeing). Informal
intercollegiate, intramural or interuniversity games and organised
debates are ways to meet people, to excercise, have leisure, to
vent out emotions and above all to pause from studies .
Watching TV and listening to radio are pleasurable. These
sources of entertainment are easily available in India but
presentations of items/programmes are dominated by local events
and broadcasting is done in local languages too, so a few students,
if any, derive pleasure from such ac t iv i t ies . Exchange of ideas
-98-
between the guests students and host nationals may be a suitable
way of confidence building and reduction of psychological s t ress
caused by mental and physical fatigues. Besides, discussion may
eliminate stereotype mentalities held by each group towards the
other. The African students asserted that the Arab students and
the host counterparts become withdrawal when discussion is
init iated.
Significant majority of foreign students at A.M.U. and P.U.
contend that they feel shy and hesitant to make ordinary decisions
that may affect o the rs . This is so because they want to keep
themselves away from controversies and blame that may follow
making decisions that affect o thers . Such individuals may easily
decline to take up social tasks, lead, preside over any social
gatherings and are less vocal. They are l ikely to disintegrate if
they are compelled to take up the above mentioned t a sks .
Moreover, they can be easily manipulated by other students and
the natives who are attention seeking personali t ies.
Lending money to friends may be pleasurable especially
when one has money and equally warmhearted in helping o thers .
However, a handful of the students at the four Universities
mentioned ear l ier , revealed that most of overseas students and
indigenous people whom money is lent to never keep their promises
and are not punctual in returning back the borrowed money. Some
debtors keep money and totally ignore the lenders, some take long
before paying back the money, others assume better financial
conditions of the money lender and yet others go back to their
-99-
native places without paying back their debts to the students.
Such unbecoming behaviours cause anxiety and great dis t ress in the
students who lend out money.
Getting remittance is a remote way of interaction with
sponsors and family folks. It is a token of love and care on the
part of sponsors. Without remittance or any delay of the same
by rerspect ive sponsors creates psychological s t ress on part of
the guest students. Besides, lack of substantial financial support
in India causes unnecessary frustrations to the students. It becomes
difficult to cope with normal daily life of buying books,
subsistence, dealing with landlords and shopkeepers as mentioned
ear l ier . The pilot investigation carried out at A.M.U. indicated
that lack of substantial amount compels some students to become
psychopathic while others terminate thei r studies prematurely.
The African students studying at the four Universities
asserted that studying in India is becoming expensive day by day
yet the amount sent by most sponsors is ever constant even after
inflation and price h ikes . Substantial remittance will not only enable
the students to manage their studies in India but also would enable
them to go out for excursions to other places away from where their
Universities are si tuated, observe/learn the culture of the host nationals
and to find their own sense of identities among the hos ts .
The pilot study carried out on ^ alien students in Aligarh
revealed that they are never encouraged to develop deeper cordial
relations beyond superficial interaction with the host nationals.
-100-
To a higher extent relationships between the hosts-students are
always loaded with suspicion of each other . The students are
antipathic to the local people due to their pronounced ignorance
about the students and their countries of origin. The guest students
are not motivated to develop intimate relationships with the hosts
because the l e t t e r ' s disposition of asking childish or meaningless
questions. Interaction with members of the host society is not
friendly and candid. The host nationals befriend the students with
ulterior motive to gain from them. The native friends hesitate to
or never extend invitation to the guest students to vis i t their
homes, villages or attend social functions. The students have burning
desire to meet the local inhabitants and study the i r culture. As
a consequence, friendship between the two groups is superficial
and not cordial . Keeping in view the content of items with high
loading on the factor, IV may be named as "Pleasure-Unpleasure
of Interaction".
Factor V
Items Loading
Being perceived as an inferior by host nationals .556
Telling Indians what one feels about them .478
Indian men becoming aggressive and hostile finding a
male foreign student talking to an Indian member of
opposite sex .446
Foreign students are expected by host nationals to
adjust to local t ra i ts .441
Being called by insulting names .437
-101-
Being asked foolish/meaningless questions about
ourselves and our home lands .432
Despite the fact that foreign students have been coming
to India for studies for at least the last four decades s t i l l the
host nationals have not understood the former and vice versa . The
pap between the two groups is so enormous that they do not
acknowledge and appreciate each o the r ' s l i fes tyles . A section of
the students reported that the hosts are of the view that they come
to India because it has good Universities, condusive climatical
conditions and humble people. The students from Africa are
perceived as poor and hail from "dark continent" which lacks higher
Institutions of learning and better standard of l i fe . An ordinary
native person considers himself to be better off than African
students in all aspects of l i fe. In general foreign students are
perceived as inferior beings by the native people. As a
consequence, the host nationals' atti tudes reduce self-esteem of the
students.
The students are called names by the local people.
Derogatory remarks are ever passed to the guest students-especially
to those who hail from Africa. They are often called "khalu",
"hapsi", poor, Negroes and less intelligent people. Arab students
are treated with a bit of tolerance though they are sometimes
referred to by the host nationals as "stupid people". All these
remarks increase gulf between the students and hosts , ultimately
hosti l i ty and isolation from each other crop up .
-102-
Across-section of the students who were interviewed during
the pilot investigation in Aligarh, expressed their regrets at the
host nationals' attitudes of being inquisitive to ask nonsensical or
meaningless questions about the students and their respective native
places, th is may be because host nationals are puzzled by the way
the students generally behave or respond to unfamiliar situations
in India. African students are ever irr i tated by the conducts of
the hos t s . Their hair and other parts of their bodies are explored
by the hos ts . They ask senseless questions such as "where did
you originate from?" "Who gave you bir th?" "Do you have
Universities in your country?" "Do you live in jungles?" "Does your
country have aeroplanes?" "Why did you come to India? These
questions and the like embarass the students and demoralize them
both socially and psychologically.
The pilot study carried in Aligarh and the study conducted
on foreign students studying at the four Universities indicated that
Indian men become aggressive, hosti le and sometimes become violent
to the students whenever they are seen talking to Indian lad ies .
These unbecoming behaviours of the local people have in fact
facilitated Indian ladies to ignore even the familiar guest students
in public places. The host men's temperaments towards the students
in relation to-Jndian ladies create psychological s t ress and extreme
social anxiety to the guest students. Subsequently, interaction
between the hosts and guest students is not intimate. The
friendship between the two groups is often personalized in nature.
The natives expect much from the students. They are
expected by the native people to adjust to local t r a i t s . This is
-103-
one way traffic which may disintegrate personalities of the students.
The members of the host society should understand end accommodate
to some extent behaviours brought by the students. Absolute
dismissal of the guest students' infant socialization may affect them
adversely which may lead to future re-entry cr is is since they are
expected to behave according to home cues when they return to their
home lands. Since items with high loading on the factor refer to
negative aspects of relationships with the hos t s , the factor may
be named as "Suspiciousness of Hosts-Guests Relations".
Factor VI
Items Loading
* Meeting strangers and being introduced to new people - .651
Adjusting oneself to foreign students ' community - .626
Understanding the prescribed books - .614
Putting on some wears one does not prefer at times - .549
* Seeing a doctor - .534
Generally foreign students disl ike to meet with strangers
and being introduced to the same because of shocking narrations
about strangers passed over by alumni, unpleasant past experiences
with strangers or fear to shoulder responsibi l i ty . A significant
number of the students from A.M.U. and P.U. revealed that foreign
students studying in Bombay and Delhi are indifferent and evasive
to fellow unfamiliar guest students. It is evident that the students
are often not at ease when introduced to new people because some
of the host members and guest students alike have tendency to
befriend certain alien students due to material needs from the la t te r .
-104-
Besides, they are often apprehensive to go into a room full of
unfamiliar host nationals. This behaviour has been infused into
the minds of the students because of immature conduct of the hosts
who are fond of shouting, booing, staring and laughing at the
students without apparent reason. These tendencies restrain foreign
students from participating in recreational act ivi t ies and other kinds
of social gatherings. As a consequence, interpersonal relationship
between the host nationals and overseas students is res t r ic ted .
Most of the students find it extremely difficult to adjust
to the foreign students ' community. Quite a number of the students
manifest introversion tendencies and a few who mix freely do so
with fellow compatriots. Bodies l ike Foreign Students' Associations/
committees or sororit ies do not exist in many Universities such aas
A.M.U. and J .M.I . Such bodies are important organs to enable the
guest students to interact with each other and may enable them to
have collective approach to their problems. Despite of the efforts
and enthusiasm put by some Universities, for example, D.U. and
P.U. to have active foreign students ' bodies, s t i l l some students
are reserved. They do not show inclination to participate in such
bodies. A cause of concern is the communication barr ier among
foreign students. Afghan, Afro-Arab (Egyptians, Libyans, Moroccans,
Sudanese) Arab, Persian and Thai Students find it a bit difficult
to express themselves in English which is expected to be commonly
spoken and unifying language among foreign students. Such students
feel shy and are embarassed to express themselves before an
audience of several hundred of fellow overseas students.
-105-
Significant majority of the alien students find it a problem
to understand prescribed books. Most of such unfortunate students
are those who are handicapped in English language which is the
medium of instruction in most Universities in India. This may be
due to the fact that such students hail from none-English speaking
countries as mentioned in the above paragraph. Most of such
students have problems with their exams too as compared with
other students who have background of the language.
The students who come to India for studies find the
receiving society to be having unique culture as mentioned ear l i e r .
Significantly, it creates culture shock to the students concerned. Some
students at A.M.U. reported in pilot stage that the University
authority has prescribed ceremonial dress (Sherwani and Kurta
Pa jama) which the students do not prefer and have audacity to
wear. On the other hand, some female foreign students generally
feel uneasy to put on certain styled dresses and sk i r t s due to the
fact that the indigenous people stare at or tease them. Moreover,
such wears are not appreciated by the members of the host society.
Therefore, the students are compelled to put on some wears that
they are not habitual to. This causes considerable discomfiture
to the students.
Foreign students hesitate to go for medication from the
native doctors. This may be due to what they are told about the
negligence of doctors by alumni or colleagues. Alternatively, it
may be due to personal experiences at the hands of those who give
medication. A large section of the overseas students from the four
-106-
Universities asserted that most doctors never diagonise patients
thoroughly. The native doctors have characterist ic of tackling
ailments even when one has no expert ise in the branch of medicine
dealing with particular disease. They seldom refer patients to
other doctors. The students revealed that they are charged much
fee for medication than the native patients. Moreover, doctors
never keep secrets of their patients, this may embarasse some
international students. Of recent time there has been hues and cries
among the students about the results of sample tests being biased
against them. Taking the above points into consideration it may
be concluded that the native doctors do not comply with professional
code of e th ics . Subsequently, the students have become hesitant
to see doctors. In the light of the above discussions it is
suggested that factor VI be given the t i t le of "Reaction to
Unfamiliar People and Situations".
Markers (Items No. 80,93 and 111) included to represent
the factor "Formal Relations/Focus of Attention" and (Items No. 91
and 120) included to represent the factor "Managing Intimate
Relationships" respectively in the study conducted by Furnham and
Bochner (1982) are found to have loading of magnitude of - .532,
-.523 and - .522; and -.490 and .412 respectively on the sixth factor
of the present s tudy. It is to be noted that the markers which
were found to have loading on different factors in the earl ier study
are found to have loading on the same factor in the present s tudy.
It can be pointed out that finding oneself in an unfamiliar situation
makes a person anxious or uneasy. Keeping this implication in view
the markers selected to represent the factor. Formal Relations/
-107-
Focus of Attention are regarded to have the connotation of reaction
to unfamiliar people and situations.
Factor VII
Items Loading
Getting a room in hostel -597
General environmental cleanliness .533
Sharing a room with host counterparts .436
Going on public transport ( trains, buses, aeroplanes e tc . ) .407
Getting a private accommodation off campus .375
Getting foreign exchange when going back to one's country .349
India is a densely populated country, therefore, one
expects large crowds in most p laces . Accommodation in public
places, bus stops, University hostels , hospi ta ls , means of
transportation ( t ra ins , buses, aeroplanes, rickshaws) often become
problematic and chaotic due to unruly crowds of people coupled
with other factors. Getting a room in hostels of various
Universities poses problems to foreign students. Most problems
that affect the students ar ise because of lack of proper
accommodation. Generally they are not easily alloted to hostels ,
but those who are lucky to get hostels may have to share rooms
with other students. Sharing a room with others is quite
frustrating because there is no pr ivacy, studying in room becomes
difficult and there is no comfort in summer due to heat and presence
of roommates. Lack of accommodation for the students at some
Universities (e .g . A.M.U. and J .M.I . ) has facilitated the
authorities to pronounce the policy of "no hostel accommodation"
-108-
for foreign students. Those who study at A.M.U. and P.U.
reported that International Students' Hostels (I .S.Hs.) were
constructed in the two Universities for the students but the
authorities of these Institutions converted the I .S.Hs. into general
hostels to accommodate both foreign students and their local
counterparts.
Sharing a room with local counterparts is regarded as a
major problem by the students of the four Universities. Across-
section of the students asserted that the Indian counterparts are
not considerate, culturally sensitive and fond of indulging in
conversion with their own fellow country men. These are some
situations that create unnecessary barr iers between the guest
students and their host counterparts. The two groups of the
students do not trust each other. Their interaction is not friendly
as such. Foreign students do not believe in friendship with their
local colleagues inspite of practicing i t , this is so because majority
of the local students indulge in petty talks but avoid any
constructive discussions. They also attempt to show their
superiority over their guest counterparts. As a resul t , the guest
students may feel alienated from their local counterparts. The two
groups end up not gaining from each other and remain as strangers
to each other. Eventually the above behaviours reduce interpersonal
relationships and may be sources of the hosti l i ty between the guest
students and their host counterparts.
Most foreign students do not derive pleasure by going on
public transport due to lack of proper management. It is quite
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hectic to travel by ordinary buses and trains, which are the only
means the students can easily afford. Most buses are dilapidated
and are not maintained. Both buses and trains are ever crowded
coupled with filthiness which emanates from crowds especially
during summer. Besides, the local people drive speedly and least
comply with traffic regulations as mentioned in factor I I . The
efforts to get reservations in aeroplanes and trains are often
thwarted due to rush. These conditions create s t ress and
depression to the students especially those who had higher expectations
about the host society.
Indian banks authorities have discriminatory behaviour
to deny the students foreign exchange when they return to their
home lands. The students ' request to have foreign exchange is
often not accommodated. This demoralises those who wish to do
shopping in other countries when en route to their respective
countries of origin. It is unduly behaviour to deny the students
such facilities while they give the same to the host country during
the period of their stay in India. Taking into consideration the
above mentioned facts, factor VII may be called "Accommodation
and crowding".
Factor VIII
Items Loading
Getting very intimate with a member of opposite sex .593
Getting admission to a University one desires .402
Quality of food in University messes, canteens and
affordable restaurants .367
-110-
Nagging beggars who go to an extent of bargaining .348
Understanding English spoken by some Indians in Public
Places .347
Getting a course one desires .341
There is no doubt that foreign students who come to India
experience culture shock due to psychological feelings of
hopelessness coupled with homesickness that are part ly axacerbated
by the way host nationals generally behave towards the students.
Such feelings lead to loss of identit ies of the students, they become
maladjusted. Ultimately, academic performance and general studying
habits of the students are adversely affected. One can not lose
sight of the fact that the hosts are less flexible to understand
the guest students ' problems.
Getting very intimate with a member of opposite sex no
matter of the nationality of the partner poses problems to many
foreign students. Indian society being orthodox does not easily
permit such relat ionships. Male foreign students at A.M.U., D.U.
and P.U. reported that whenever they attempt to make advances
to Indian ladles , the lat ter have willing obedience but fear of
being treated as out-casts by the fellow nat ives . As a result
there is low level of interaction between the male students and the
native ladies . The cardinal point to take note of is that
relationships between the host males and male foreign students is
of antagonistic in nature due to simple fact that some foreign
students get so intimate with the native ladies as many relationships
end up in wedlocks. Male students from the Sub-Saharan Africa
-111-
and Europe reported that Afro-Arab and Arab students too become
aggressive and violent when other students get on intimate terms
with ladies from thei r respective countries. On the other hand
female foreign students generally revealed that Indian men are
desirable but they lack guts to approach lad ies . Moreover, they
do not know how to conduct themselves decently.
Quite a number of foreign students end up studying at the
Universities which were not of their choices. Only a handful of
the students succeeded in getting admissions to Universities that
they desired and applied to . Most of the well established and
prestigious Universities reject the students. They are left with
no alternatives but to join less prestigious institutions situated in
environments that are not congenial for s tudies . The thwarted
efforts to join a University one desires may lead to poor academic
performance, also social adjustments to such Universities become
difficult.
Getting a course of study one desires is ever increasingly
disappointing in India. Significant majority of foreign students
reported that they study courses they never opted for. The courses
were imposed on them and they were threatened that admissions
would be nullified failure to accept the given courses. Most of
the courses offered to the overseas students are quite general while
seats for professional courses are limited to them. However, there
are usually a few seats reserved for foreign students in certain
professional courses ( e .g . Master of Business Administration, Master
of Tourism Administration, Engineering, inter a l ia . ) at various
-112-
Universities. Even then the authorities make It practically
impossible for the students to get such courses.
The hosts have totally failed to recognise foreign students
food/eating hab i t s . The quality of food provided in University
messes, canteens and easily affordable restaurants are not of
international s tandards. The students are totally ignored in this
area. There is no variety of food. Indian dishes which are
dyspathetic to the students are ever provided, but the students
never enjoy such dishes because of excessive flavours, ghee, pepper
coupled with contaminated condition of food.
Begging in India is a profession. The native beggars are
not only dishonest but also choosers. They bargain and sometimes
reject amount given to them by foreign students in demand of huge
amount. These unexpected behaviours of the beggars i r r i t a te the
students who only give out meagre amount on humanitarian grounds.
Beggars often become hyster ical , they shout at and even curse the
students when they are not given any token. Across-section of the
students in A.M.U. and D.U. asserted that indigenous beggars keep
change when huge amount is given to them of which change may
be required.
The major cause of difficulties for foreign students in India
is communication barrier:. . Besides bureaucratic setting, English
spoken by the natives in public places is not so easy to
understand. There are cases whereby public servants mix up
English and local languages just to disparage the students who need
assistance. English pronounciations of most of the native people
are not dist inct . Besides, non-verbal communications such as usage
-113-
of gestures, facial expressions by the hosts often mislead the
students. Moreover, it is often reported by the host nationals that
when foreign students make genuine complaints or draw attention
to thei r difficulties and press for remedial measures, they are
attributed arrongance and feeling of superiority complex.
Consequently, the students hesitate to approach the natives even
if they have pressing problems. These behaviour patterns of the
hosts have minimized interaction between the hosts and guest
students. Therefore, it becomes difficult for the members of each
group to develop favourable attitudes towards each other. In the
light of above discussions it is suggested that factor VIII be given
the t i t le "Problems of Interaction and Freedom of Choice".
A note is to be taken of the fact that large number of
"markers" (Items No. 7,11,23,48,49,83,89,90 and 131) were not found
useful in defining the factors extracted in the present study
because; (i) They have low loading and ( i i ) markers of the same
factor are scattered in different factors in the present study.
Having extracted eight factors underlying the problems
of foreign students it was decided to have a scale for each of the
identified dimensions. The items selected to represent the eight
extracted factors in accordance with the cr i ter ia laid down in
chapter III , are indicated in appendix II .
It may be noticed that connotations of some items overlap,
but th is is inevitable as it is not easy to compartimalize social
difficulties experienced by foreign students in India.
C H A P T E R . V
-114-
Canclusion
Perhaps the contemporary transnational movements of
students and scholars bear the imprint of ancient times. People
of different cultures came in contact due to different reasons. The
interaction among people who belong to different cultures and ethnic
groups of the same nation or of different nations has been for
certain concrete pvirposrs such OB Irndo nncl conuuerco, to tcoch,
learn, conquer, convert, for amusement e tc . Whatever i ts purpose
may be, the interaction provided the opportunity to members of
one culture to know about other cultures.
However, the great movement of students and scholars
across cultural boundaries started after the end of second World
War. Even then, it is very evident that the phenomenon is not new
and so are the socio-psychological problems associated with i t .
In 1980s, to study abroad was no longer regarded as only an
individual 's scholarly pursuit, it is also an instrument of national
reconstruction in the case of developing countries; diplomacy,
accumulation of goodwill and clout in the case of technologically
and economically advanced nations.
Irrespective of the contact situation being positive or
negative, the initial contact of a person arriving in a new culture
setting is described as "culture shock". The term culture shock
was initially introduced by Oberg (1960) to denote the dis t ress
experienced by the sojourners in a new culture as a result of losing
all the familiar cues of social interaction. These cues may include:
how to shake hands, what to say when certain people are not, how
-115-
to make purchases and when to accept or refuse invitations. These
cues rosy be communicated by words, gestures, facial expressions
and customs that are acquired by all people in the course of infant
socialization. If the sojourners do not understand behaviour patterns
of members of the receiving society, then they may face frustrations
of various intensit ies.
Bochner (1981) proposed a view which states that the
major task that faces sojourner i s not to adjust to a new culture,
but to learn i ts salient features. He reported that if the sojourner
was to work effectively in an alien culture and lead a relatively
stress free and fulfilling life the person must acquire the social
skil ls of the host society. The consequences of adopting a culture
learning model of the cross-cultural sojourn are as follows : (i)
Failures and problems experienced by the sojourners need not to
be regarded as symptoms of some underlying pathology but rather
due to lack of the necessary cultural ski l ls and knowledge. The
remedial measures may be provided by application of standard
training methods v i z . , modelling, video-feedback and homework.
(11) Adjusting a person to a culture has connotations of cultural
chauvinism. This implies that the new comers should abandon the
culture of origin in favour of embracing the values and customs
of the host society. However, learning a second culture has not
such ethnocentric overtones. There are numerous cases in life when
it becomes necessary to learn a practice even if one does not
approve of it and then later abandon the custom when circumstances
have changed. For instance, An English gentleman in Japan will
-116-
learn to shove his way onto the Tokyo subway, but resumes his
norinal queing practices after returning home. The act at tracts notice
only when the appropriate ski l l is not available or is used in
an inappropriate circumstances.
The purpose of the present study was to device an
instrument to assess social difficulties faced by foreign students
in India. Such an instrument is needed for conducting a
comprehensive study of the factors involved in the outcomes of
interaction between the alien students and the host nationals.
Although measures of difficulties experienced by foreign students
in V/estem countries are available, the measures of difficulties
experienced by international students in India is to be devised
because the difficulties are specific to the level of socio-economic
development, cultural, social and the living conditions specific to
the host country.
The study was conducted in two phases . In phase I a
pilot study was conducted on a group of 32 foreign students studying
at A.M.U. in Aligarh in order to generate the pool of i tems.
The respondents were asked to write down their experiences since
their ar r ival in India. Those who are/were proficient in English
wrote down their difficulties on their own. Those who have/had
problems with the language were assisted by the investigator to
write down their experiences. The Ss are In the age range from
18-40 years . Both male and female foreign students were
interviewed.
-117-
The Ss mentioned a wide range of problems v i z . ,
intellectual and academic, food habits and services offered at places
of meals, financial or economic, negative or discriminatory
behaviour of transportation agents and difficulties in travelling,
harsh cllmatical conditions, d i r ty environment and persons al ike,
feeling hesitant to express oneself, dishonesty by both members
of the host country as well as some fellow foreign students,
relationships with members of opposite sex, indigenous men becoming
aggressive especially when male foreign students talk to indigenous
members of opposite sex, the way of putting on, none availabil i ty
of proper accommodation, lack of freedom of expression, political
turmoils at home, nostalgic feelings, religious faith and one's
position among those who belong to different religious groups and
too much time taken to render services in public offices.
The main study was conducted on the guest students
studying at the four Northern India Universities v iz . , A.M.U.,
D.U., J .M.I , and P.U. to find out their : expectations about India,
perceptions of the members of the host society and experiences
in India. 280 respondents were drawn from the four Universities
mentioned above, they were asked to give their responses on a
5-point scale to each of the 150 items. The final sample of study
was constituted of 200 Ss whose questionnaire was successfully
completed. The analysis of the content of the questionnaire that
was returned by the Ss led to the identification of categories of
difficulties : educational system, food habi t s , economic,
transportation system, weather, health, accommodation, unfair
dealings, social or cultural, communication, polit ical, personal,
religious and time (Odera, 1990).
-118-
Items were formulated to represent each category of
problems. A matrix of intercorrelatlons among 150 social items was
obtained using Pearson's product moment correlation. Factor analysis
of the matrix yellded 14 factors out of which 8 were retained and
rotated by Kessler 's Varimax method. Factor scores of 200 Ss on
each of the eight factors were obtained and using Ql and Q3 of
the factor scores high and low groups were found. The significance
of difference between means of high and low groups for every item
was determined by "t" tes t . The selection of the items in each
of the eight subscales was done on the basis of five cri teria e.g.
(i) factor loading of the items, ( i i ) discriminative index of the
items as indicated by significant "t" value, ( i i i ) removal of
overlapping by including an item in the scale for the factor on
which it has relatively higher loading, (iv) other things being
equal an item shall be included in a factor scale where the pool
of items is smaller and (v) Ten best items are to be included in
a factor scale.
The outcome of the present study has revealed that foreign
students in India face eight major problems. These are as follows:
Relations with the Host Stewards, Stress due to Habits and
Lifestyles of the Hosts, Treatment Meted Out, Pleasant-Unpleasant
of interaction. Suspiciousness of Hosts-Guests Relations, Reaction
to Unfamiliar People and Situations, Accommodation and Crowding
and Finally, Problem of Interaction and Choice. Eight factor scales
were constructed to assess the dimensions of difficulties experienced
by foreign students in India. The sets of items selected according
to the cri teria mentioned above are given in appendix II .
Amir, Y. contact 105-15.
and and
Ben-Arl, atti tude
-119-
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Triandis, H.C. (1975). Culture training, cognitive complexity and interpersonal attitudes, Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Learning (Edited by Brislin, R.W., Bochner, S. and Lonner, W.J . ) , Wiley, New York.
Triandis, H . C , Bontempo, R.V.M.J. , Asai, M. et a l . (1988). Individualism and collectivism : Cross-cultural perspectives on self-ingroup relat ionships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54(2), 323-33.
Uehara, A. (1986). The nature of American students re-entry adjustment and perceptions of sojourn experience. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10(4), 415-38.
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in Cross-cultural Psychology, Vol.
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Williams, R.M., J r . (1947). The reduction of intergroup tensions (Bull 57) New York : Social Science Research Council.
Wool, Y. (1986). Some adjustment aspects of Vietnamese and Sino-Vietnamese families in Victoria, Canada. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 17(3), 349-70.
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of the scapegoat theory of and Social Psychology, 43,
wadski, B. prejudice. 127-41.
(1948). Journal
Limitations of Abnormal
- 1 2 5 -
APPENDIX 1
Original Pool of Items
Dear f r iend,
1 am a student of Psychology from Aligarh Muslim University, and currently doing research on "A Study of Social Diff icult ies of Foreign Students in India". I therefore, would wish to take this opportunity to request you to share with me your personal experiences. I h i s can be done by reporting the level of d i f f icul ty which you have experienced in respect to each of the social situations l isted below.
Kindly read the following instructions carefully so that you may be able to give your responses in specified manner.
You are to read each item in the social situations questionnaire provided to you, and then indicate how much d i f f i cu l ty , i f any, you have experienced in those situations since arr iva l In India.
Your responses should be related to your experiences in India not your home country.
Having d i f f icu l ty is hereby defined as feeling anxious, frightened, embarassed, uncomfortable/uneasy and experience of thwarted efforts.
You are requested to give you responses on a five point scale : very low level or almost absent, slight d i f f i cu l ty , moderate d i f f i cu l ty , high d i f f icu l ty and very high d i f f i cu l ty .
Indicate your responses by inserting cross-mark (XJ in the boxes provided.
Give your responses frankly and spontaneously as I assure you that your feelings and experiences shall not be used for any other purposes other than research. Anonymity w i l l be wi thheld.
Last but by no means the least, your co-operation w i l l be highly appreciated.
Thanks in anticipation. Sincerely yours,
Peter Odera, M.Phi l . (Psychology), Deptt. ol Psychology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarti.
PRELIMINARIES
Age , Sex , Class
Present Nationality
Date of ar r iva l in India
Present University
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1. Being invi ted to social functions by Indian f r iends .
Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty
\Z2 cz: dZ] era 2. Taking par t in recreat ional a c t i v i t i e s .
Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty
cz: czn c 3 . Indigenous peop le ' s knowledge of the surroundings (Public
Oftices, Shops e t c . ) -
Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high
almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty
I—I cz: cz: cz: cz: 4. Obtaining ass is tance from police when complaint i s lodged.
Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty
zz zz zz 5. Treatment given by some t eache r s .
Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty
ZZ zz z:: 6. Getting a room in hostel.
czD zz zz zz c 7. Going on publ ic t ransport ( t r a ins , buses , aeroplanes e t c . ) .
ZZ zz 8. Talking about rel igious bel iefs to someone who belongs to a
different fa i th .
zz zz 9. Studying of local languages or any o ther international languages
other than English as compulsory sub jec t s .
ZZ zz 10. Lacking opportunity to go to discotheques or dances .
czn zz zz c: 11. Waiting in a Q (queue) .
[z: zz zz nzD zz 12. Prevalence of t radi t ion of b r ibe in most of the publ ic offices,
ZZ zz zz zz zz 13. Language b a r r i e r between one and some foreign s tudents from other
countr ies .
14. ZZ z z
Frequent e lectr ic i ty blackouts.
I I I I
L_J
1 1 czn zz
-127 -
15. Foreign s tudents are expected by the host nationals to adjust to local t r a i t s .
Very low or Slightly Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty
D rZ] Cin CIH CZD 16. Understanding English spoken by some Indians in publ ic offices.
czi CD cn ciJ 17 . Getting admission to a University one d e s i r e s .
cm czi (zii czi [zii] 18. Going to market to buy food stuffs.
u u i_j izzi c i : 19. Nagging beggars who go to an extend of bargaining.
czD czi uiD en 20. Getting/given subjects that one d e s i r e s .
cm cz: CZ3 cz: czD 2 1 . Sharing a room with one 's compatriot .
CZD CZl CU C l l C l l 22. Getting very intimate with a member of opposite s ex .
CD CD CD CD CD 23. Shopping In a large super market .
IZZl CD CD CD DD 24. "Coine tomorrow" stance in public offices.
IZZl CD CD CD L 25. Quality of food In the University messes , canteens and affordable
r e s t au ran t s .
CD CD CD 26. Studying In University l i b r a ry where there are shortages ot
faci l i t ies ( text books, bu l le t ins , c h a i r s , r ev iews , t ab les , journals , a b s t r a c t s , a i r conditioned systems e t c . ) .
CD CD CD CD CD 27. Drainage and sanitation sys tems .
CD CD CD CD CD 28. Limit of cert if ied amount for annual expendi ture by the University
au thor i ty .
cm cm cm cm 29. Getting food at the r ight t ime.
cm cz: cm czn cm 30. Missing those foreign s tudents who became good friends durinp
one 's stay In India since they left for the i r respec t ive countr ies .
cm cm cm zz cm students becoming serious only two months
cm cz: cm cm 31 . Some teachers and students becoming serious only two months or
so to exams.
-128 -
32. Sound pollution (shouts , c r a k e r s , unnecessary hooting and raving of automobiles) .
Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty
33 . Attending cultural programmes/functions which are alien to you.
34. Being asked foolish questions/meaningless about ourselves and our home l ands .
cm IZJ CI3 ZID 35. Attendance system in c l a s s .
IZ3 dJ Um UZ3 36. Dealing with police force.
37. Distance between places ( c i t i e s , Univers i t ies , s t a tes e t c . ) in India .
cm (zu cz: czj 36. Indian men becoming aggresBlve and hos t i le finding male foreign
student talking to an Indian member of opposi te s e x .
cz: czu czu z z 39. Telling Indians what one feels about them.
zz zz zz cz: izz 40. Communal tensions or r io t s in India .
z z cz: ziD czD i: 41 . Preparing one ' s meals .
cz czi zz zz zz 42. Touching of ha i r and s imi lar other attemps to probe our dis t inct
physica l features by nat ive people .
] cz: ZZ cz: ZZ 43. Getting a p r iva te accommodation off campus.
ZZ nZD CZD CZJ CZD 44. Being in a class of at least fifty s tudents .
CZ: CZ3 CZ: C Z J CZ3 45. General environmental c leanl iness .
ZZ CZ3 cz: CZJ z z 46. Being depr ived of the pleasure to Interact with members ot
opposite sex due to absence of co-educational system at undergraduate level In some inst i tut ion.
CZ: CZJ zz CZJ CZJ 47. le l l ing other nationals what one feels about them.
CZJ z z CZJ CZJ z z 48. Dealing with people staring at you.
CZJ L:Z CZJ CZJ CZJ
-129-
49. Going into a room fu l l of people.
Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty d i f f icul ty
um m cz] uu m ' 50. Ignorance of majority of officers and their subordinates about
procedures of various things/what is to be done in public offices.
[ZZl LZ2 en IZ2 d} 51. Provision of Foundation courses and compulsory subjects.
cm czn ciu cm CZJ 52. Sharing a room with foreign students from other countries.
1—! I—I r~i 1—1 53. Company of opposite sex and sometimes longing for a spouse.
iZD cm cm cm cmi 54. Expressing opinion freely about everyday happenings in th^
country ( India) .
cm cm cm cm 55. Becoming tense due to the tendency of Indian ladies/men cold
shouldering you.
cm cm cm cm cm 56. House rent.
cm cm czi] cm cm 57. Getting entertainment the way one desires.
cm cm cm cm cm 58. Management of railway transportation system.
cm cm cm cm cm 59. Social security in India.
\Z3 cm cm cm cm 60. Telling friends (compatriots) what one feels about them.
cm cm mD cm cm 61. Waiting for remittance.
mj cm m: cm cm 62. Not being encouraged to develop deeper cordial relations beyond
ar t i f i c ia l interactions with the native people.
cm cm cm c 63. An unhygenic behaviour of service men at canteens, tea and food
stal ls .
cm m : cm cm 64. Over charging of items by shopkeepers and vegetable vendors.
cm cm cm cm en 65. Cheating in exams by the local counterparts.
m : cm uzi cm cm 66. Travelling with indigenous people on/by same conveyance.
cm cm cm cm cm
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67. Lifting of properties from one's room by the host nationals or foreign students.
Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty
z~sj czj CZ2 : z : 68. Getting foreign exchange when going back to one's country.
iZ2 czj C::J i-2 69. Communicating to non English speaking people.
r~i c:z] cz: czj uz: 70. Having strong feelings of home sickness.
izz cz: Lz: czn LZ] 71. When threatened of physical assault by indigenous people.
i—! czi r~~\ rz: L:Z 72. De9ling with auto-drivers and rickshaw wallahs when i t comes
to paying fare,
zz -z: zz zz czj 73. Being discriminated against by employees in public oftices
administrative block, proctor's off ice, foreigners registration office e tc . ) .
cz: zz cz: zia L_Z 74. Understanding the prescribed books.
ZZ LZj Lz: zz rz3 75. Being perceived as an inferior being by host nationals,
ZZ z z z z L~2 ZZ 76. Size of my or our room.
ZZ zz cz: czj LZJ 77. Behaviours of Indian ladies/men are stuck up.
LZ2 czD cz: cz: cz: 78. Adjusting oneself to foreign students' community.
cz: cz: cz: cz: cz: 79. Guidance at a i rpor ts .
ZZ zz cz: Zz cz: 80. Dealing with people of higher status than you.
cz: cz: cz: ccz cz: 81. Cheating in exams by some foreign students from other countries.
cz: czj cz: cz: cz: 82. Talking about pol i t ical and religious matters to others.
cz: cz: cz: cz: cz: 83. Meeting strangers and being introduced to new people.
CZJ zz cz: cz: cz: 84. Putting on some wears one does not prefer at times.
cz: cz: zz cz: cz:
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85. Coping with curr iculuir .
Very low or Slight Moderate High Very liiwti almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty
CZl LID CO Z-JD C:n 86. Initiating and maintaining re la t ionship with a member of opposi te
s e x .
B7. Unfriendly a t t i tudes of some female foreign s tudents from other countr ies .
88. Unfriendly a t t i tudes of some male foreign s tudents from other countr ies .
c:zi czi CZ3 cz: 89. Making ordinary decisions affecting o t h e r s .
czi cm CZD rzD cz: 90. Going into res taurants or cafes.
cm cm cm cm cm y i . Understanding jokes , humour and sarcams.
cm cm CZ3 c::3 92. Dealing with people of a closed or conservat ive soc ie ty .
cm cm cm cm cm 93 . Seeing a doc to r .
cm cm cm cm 94. Indians ' hab i t of "polluting" the environment.
cm cm cm cm cm 95. Being sold substandard and expired i tems .
cm cm cm cm c 96. Being unaware of reservat ion of sea ts for ladies in a bus.
cm cm cm cm c: 97. Getting a course one d e s i r e s .
im: cm cm cm cm 98. Sharing a room with host counterpar ts .
cm cm cm cm cm 99. Teaching and examination sys tems .
cm cm cm cm cm 100. Being accompanied by Indian friends who do not behave in a
proper manner.
cm cm cm cm czi] 101. Eve-teasing behaviours of Indian boys towards gir ls /women.
cm cm cm cm 102. Getting remittance from sponsor .
cm czD cm cm cm
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103. Examination system in which some students cheat.
Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty d i f f icu l ty d i f f icul ty
CZn CIZ! IZ3 CZl CIJ 104. Failure to be comforted and sympathised with when in problem
by Indians.
105. Increment in price of daily used commodities.
106. Expressing oneself in English.
107. Great difference in habits and cultural approaches.
CZ3 c m cz : c m cm 108. The manner in which police men behave.
cm c m cm cm cm 109. Restrictions imposed by landlords or landladies.
cm :m cm cm n o . Being discouraged to go to place of prayer/worship due to
distance, size of church, mosoue and temple coupled with other reasons.
cm cizi cm c m cm 111. Appearing in front of an audience.
cm c m CZ3 cm cm 112. Dealing with those who are responsible for renewal of residential
permits.
cm cm cm cm 113. Some teachers keeping away from (ignoring) foreign students.
cm cm m: cm cm 114. Dealing with Indian goondas (thugs).
cm cm cm cm cm 115. Cold weather conditions (winter) .
cm cm cm cm cm 116. Being cheated and misinformed by those who work in public
offices.
cm cm cm cm cm 117. Rationing of water.
cm cm cm cm cz: 118. Amount being received from the sponsor.
m: cz: czn cm cm 119. Explaination of certain points in local languages by some teachers
cm czi czD zz cz:
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120. Taking the Initiative in keeping the conversation going. Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent difficulty difficulty difficulty difficulty
121. Belief the native people have that foreign students have too much money.
122. Lack of discussion about academic work with classmates.
123. Limited scope of recreational facilities.
124. Friendship proposals from members ol opposite sex most of which seem to be just for the sake of having a lover.
dj mi c::3 cm c~3 125. Absence of wholehearted co-operation from Indian counterparts.
c::: cizi cza CZD 126. Waiting for one's cheoue, M.O. or draft to be cleared by bank.
127. No seriousness in approaches taken by the native people.
dj czn czj cz: en 128. Violation of traffic rules by the host nationals.
cn fizi cz: cu CD 129. Selecting a course of study one desires.
130. Being called by insulting names.
IZZI 113 \ZD tZ3 dl 131. Using public and private toilet facilities.
cz: cu nn d3 izn 132. studies being more or less theoretical than practical.
IZZ d CZ\ CD dl 133. Getting informations regarding admissions etc.
dl dl d2 dl d3 134. Transportation charges (fare).
dl d2 dl dl dl 135. Chances of buying all texts prescribed in the syllabi.
dl dl dl dl dl 136. Unfriendly attitudes of Indian women and girls.
d2 dl dl CZl dl 137. Talking about war going on in one's country.
mz cz: czj cz:
-134-
138. Unfriendly attitudes of some foreign students (g i r l s ) .
Very low or Slight Moderate High Very high almost absent d l f l l cu l ty di f f icul ty d i f f icul ty d i f f icu l ty
139. Awarding of marks by some teachers.
140. Host nationals are not ready to adjust to or appreciate foreign habits brought by foreign students,
LID cm cz'2 cu rJD 141. Proper guidance regarding what to study/how to study not belnp
Imparted,
CU CI2 ZZ2 142. Medical care for foreign students in India.
(ZU dj IZ3 143. Coping with roommate(s),
cz: czi czi 144. Cheating in exams by students from one's country
czn cz : izzi 145. Indians' habit of spitting In streets.
izzi (zzi c z : 146. Hot weather conditions (summer).
im CZ] CZ3 147. Meeting with one's teachers.
ZZI ZZI CZ3 148. Lending money to fr iends,
cz: c:z c:z cz: cz: 149. Dealing with those who are short tempered, cross and aggresslvu
cz: cz: cz: cz: cz: 150. Classes being run/conducted too much l ike high school,
cz: cz: cz: cz: cz: Please mention any other di f f icul t ies that you may have
experienced that are not l isted above, and also indicate intensity as you have done for the di f f icul t ies stated above. Use page 135,
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-136-
APPENDIX II
List of Items Selected for Factor Scales
S.No. in S.No. in Items Loading the final the initial Questio- pool nnaire
70
11
46
21
68
139
114
112
134
135
Scale I 58* 109 Restrictions imposed by landlords .492
or landladies
34 087 Unfriendly attitudes of some female
foreign students from other countries .481
Awarding of marks by some teachers .470
Dealing with Indian goondas (thugs) .461 Dealing with those who are responsible for renewal of residential permits .443
Transportation charges (fare) .441
Chances of buying all texts prescribed in syl labi .426
29 126 Waiting for one's cheque, M.O. or draft to be cleared by bank .424
62 036 Dealing with police force .412
75 129 Selecting a course of study one desires .410
Scale II
48 094 Indians' habit of "polluting" the environment .717
57 128 Violation of traffic rules by host nationals .700
27 145 Indians' habit of spitting in streets .687
78 064 Overcharging of items by shopkeepers and vegetable vendors .595
55 125 Absence of whole hearted co-operation from Indian counterparts .550
-137-
31 121 Belief the native people have that foreign students have too much money
59
33
56
23
027
051
040
050
.543
26 105 Increament in price of daily used commodities .536
25 032 Sound pollution (crackers , hooting etc.) .534
07 101 Eve-teasing behaviours of Indian boys/men towards girls/women .532
74 107 Great difference in habi ts and cultural approaches .530
Scale III
15 029 Getting food at the right time .542
10 028 Limit of certified amount for annual expenditure by University authority .499
67 067 Lifting of properties from one's room by the host nationals or foreign students .496
Drainage and sanitation systems .434
Provision of foundation courses
and compulsory subjects .420
Communal tensions or r iots in India .413
Ignorance of majority of officers and their subordinates about procedures of various things/what Is to be done in public offices .410
76 024 Come tomorrow stance in public offices .409
14 004 Obtaining assistance from police when complaint is lodged .360
12 131 Using public and private toilet facilities .354
Scaale IV
50 053 Company of opposite sex and sometimes longing for a spouse -.597
39 123 Limited scope for recreational facilities -.467
06
36
24
52
041
010
148
062
-138-
63 089 Makaing ordinary decisions affecting others - -380
Preparing one's meals - .370
Lacking opportunity to go to discotheques or dances - .355
Lending money to friends - .330
Not being encouraged to develop deeper cordial relations beyond artificial interaction with the native people - .325
54 102 Getting remittance from sponsor - .325
49 091 Understanding jokes, humour and
sarcasm - .317
41 Oil Waiting in a Q (queue) - .309
Scale V 71 075 Being perceived as an inferior being
by host nationals .556 35 039 Telling Indians what one feels about
them .478
64 038 Indian men becoming aggressive and hostile finding a male foreign student talking to an Indian member of opposite sex .446
37 015 Foreign students are expected by host nationals to adjust to local t ra i t s .441
30 130 Being called by insulting names .437
53 034 Being asked foolish/meaningless questions about ourselves and our home lands .432
03 140 Host nationals are not ready to adjust to or appreciate foreign habits brought by foreign students .418
51 136 Unfriendly attitudes of Indian women/girls .415
17 002 Taking part in recreational activit ies .413
-139-
42 071 When threatened of physical assault by indigeneous people .407
Scale VI
28 083 Meeting strangers and being introduced to new people - . 651
79 078 Adjusting oneself to foreign students ' community - .626
Understanding the prescribed books - .614
Putting on some wears one does not prefer at times - .549
Seeing a doctor - .523
Coping with roommate(s) - .514
Treatment given by some teachers - .509
Expressing opinion freely about everyday happenings in the country (India) - .505
43 003 Indigenous people 's knowledge of the surroundings (Public Offices,
60
02
08
66
77
13
074
084
093
143
005
054
20
01
22
69
65
73
38
09
04
014
006
045
098
007
043
044
068
056
Shops e t c . )
Frequent e l e c t r i c i t y b lackouts
Scale VII
Getting a room in hos t e l
General environmental c leanl iness
Sharing a room with hos t counterp a r t s
Going on pub l ic t r a n s p o r t ( t r a i n s , buse s , ae rop lanes e t c . )
Getting a p r i v a t e accommodation off campus
Being in a c l a s s of at l e a s t fifty s tudents
Getting foreign exchange when going back to one ' s country
House ren t
- . 4 8 6
- . 4 7 2
.597
.533
.436
.407
.375
.366
.349
.333
-140-
44 042 Touching of hair and similar other attempts to probe our distinct physical features by the native people .306
16 001 Being invited to social functions by Indian friends .300
Scale VIU
05 022 Getting very intimate with a member of opposite sex .593
18 017 Getting admission to a University one desires .402
45 025 Quality of food in University messes, canteens and affordable restaurants .367
19 019 Nagging beggars who go to an extend of bargaining ' .348
40 016 Understanding English spoken by some Indians in public offices .347
61 097 Getting a course one desires .341
80 100 Being accompanied by Indian Friends who do not behave in a proper manner .339
72 031 Some teachers and students becoming serious only two months or so to exams .337
47 099 Teaching and examination systems .314
32 070 Having strong feelings of home sickness .301
* Serial numbers are assigned by draw of lot .
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